118 Functions

10. As we move from left to right, the graph falls from (0, 3) to (4, −3). This means f is decreasing
on the interval [0, 4]. (Remember, the answer here is an interval on the x-axis.)

11. The function has its only local maximum at (0, 3).

12. There are no local minimums. Why don’t (−4, −3) and (4, −3) count? Let’s consider the
point (−4, −3) for a moment. Recall that, in the definition of local minimum, there needs to
be an open interval I which contains x = −4 such that f (−4) < f (x) for all x in I different
from −4. But if we put an open interval around x = −4 a portion of that interval will lie
outside of the domain of f . Because we are unable to fulfill the requirements of the definition
for a local minimum, we cannot claim that f has one at (−4, −3). The point (4, −3) fails for
the same reason – no open interval around x = 4 stays within the domain of f .

13. The maximum value of f is the largest y-coordinate which is 3.

14. The minimum value of f is the smallest y-coordinate which is −3.

15. The graph appears to be symmetric about the y-axis. This suggests13 that f is even.

With few exceptions, we will not develop techniques in College Algebra which allow us to
determine the intervals on which a function is increasing, decreasing or constant or to find the local
maximums and local minimums analytically; this is the business of Calculus.14 When we have need
to find such beasts, we will resort to the calculator. Most graphing calculators have ‘Minimum’
and ‘Maximum’ features which can be used to approximate these values, as demonstrated below.
15x
Example 2.4.5. Let f (x) = . Use a graphing calculator to approximate the intervals on
+3 x2
which f is increasing and those on which it is decreasing. Approximate all extrema.
Solution. Entering this function into the calculator gives

Using the Minimum and Maximum features, we get

13
but does not prove
14
Although, truth be told, there is only one step of Calculus involved, followed by several pages of algebra.
2.4 Graphs of Functions 119

To two decimal places, f appears to have its only local minimum at (−1.73, −4.33) and its only
local maximum at (1, 73, 4.33). Given the symmetry about the origin suggested by the graph, the
relation between these points shouldn’t be too surprising. The function appears to be increasing on
[−1.73, 1.73] and decreasing on (−∞, −1.73]∪[1.73, ∞). This makes −4.33 the (absolute) minimum
and 4.33 the (absolute) maximum.
Example 2.4.6. Find the points on the graph of y = (x−3)2 which are closest to the origin. Round
your answers to two decimal places.
Solution. Suppose a point (x, y) is on the graph of y = (x − 3)2 . Its distance to the origin, (0, 0),
is given by

p
d = (x − 0)2 + (y − 0)2

p
= x2 + y 2
q
= x2 + [(x − 3)2 ]2 Since y = (x − 3)2

p
= x2 + (x − 3)4
p
Given a value for x, the formula d = x2 + (x − 3)4 is the distance from (0, 0) to the point
(x, y) on the curve y = (x − 3)2 . What we have defined, then, is a function d(x) which we wish
to minimize over all values of x. To accomplish this task analytically would require Calculus so as
we’ve mentioned before, we can use a graphing calculator to find an approximate solution. Using
the calculator, we enter the function d(x) as shown below and graph.
120 Functions

Using the Minimum feature, we see above on the right that the (absolute) minimum occurs near
x = 2. Rounding to two decimal places, we get that the minimum distance occurs when x = 2.00.
To find the y value on the parabola associated with x = 2.00, we substitute 2.00 into the equation
to get y = (x − 3)2 = (2.00 − 3)2 = 1.00. So, our final answer is (2.00, 1.00).15 (What does the y
value listed on the calculator screen mean in this problem?)

2.4.2 Exercises
1. Sketch the graphs of the following functions. State the domain of the function, identify any
intercepts and test for symmetry.
x−2 √ √ 1
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = 5−x (c) f (x) = 3
x (d) f (x) =
3 x2 +1

2. Analytically determine if the following functions are even, odd or neither.

(a) f (x) = 7x (d) f (x) = 4 (h) f (x) = x4 +x3 +x2 +x+1

(b) f (x) = 7x + 2 (e) f (x) = 0 √
(i) f (x) = 5 − x
(f) f (x) = x6 − x4 + x2 + 9
1
(c) f (x) = (g) f (x) = −x5 − x3 + x (j) f (x) = x2 − x − 6
x3

3. Given the graph of y = f (x) below, answer all of the following questions.

y
5
4
3
2
1

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5

15
It seems silly to list a final answer as (2.00, 1.00). Indeed, Calculus confirms that the exact answer to this
problem is, in fact, (2, 1). As you are well aware by now, the author is a pedant, and as such, uses the decimal places
to remind the reader that any result garnered from a calculator in this fashion is an approximation, and should be
treated as such.
2.4 Graphs of Functions 121

(a) Find the domain of f . (i) List the intervals where f is increasing.
(b) Find the range of f . (j) List the intervals where f is decreasing.
(c) Determine f (−2).
(k) List the local maximums, if any exist.
(d) List the x-intercepts, if any exist.
(e) List the y-intercepts, if any exist. (l) List the local minimums, if any exist.
(f) Find the zeros of f . (m) Find the maximum, if it exists.
(g) Solve f (x) ≥ 0.
(n) Find the minimum, if it exists.
(h) Determine the number of solutions to the
equation f (x) = 2. (o) Is f even, odd, or neither?

4. Use your graphing calculator to approximate the local and absolute extrema of the following
functions. Approximate the intervals on which the function is increasing and those on which
it is decreasing. Round your answers to two decimal places.
√
(a) f (x) = x4 − 3x3 − 24x2 + 28x + 48 (c) f (x) = 9 − x2
√
(b) f (x) = x2/3 (x − 4) (d) f (x) = x 9 − x2

5. Sketch the graphs of the following piecewise-defined functions.

 
 −2x − 4 if x < 0 x2 if x ≤ −2
 


(a) f (x) = 


 3x if x ≥ 0 (c) f (x) = 3 − x if −2 < x < 2




4 if x ≥ 2


 1

 if −6 < x < −1
 x



 √x + 4 if −4 ≤ x < 5
 (d) f (x) = x if −1 < x < 1
(b) f (x) =


 √x − 1 if x ≥ 5  √x if 1 < x < 9


 

6. Let f (x) = bxc, the greatest integer function defined in Exercise 12 in Section 2.2.

(a) Graph y = f (x). Be careful to correctly describe the behavior of the graph near the
integers.
(b) Is f even, odd, or neither? Explain.
(c) Discuss with your classmates which points on the graph are local minimums, local max-
imums or both. Is f ever increasing? Decreasing? Constant?

7. Use your graphing calculator to show that the following functions do not have any extrema,
neither local nor absolute.
122 Functions

(a) f (x) = x3 + x − 12 (b) f (x) = −5x + 2

8. In Exercise 11 in Section 2.2, we saw that the population of Sasquatch in Portage County
150t
could be modeled by the function P (t) = , where t = 0 represents the year 1803. Use
t + 15
your graphing calculator to analyze the general function behavior of P . Will there ever be a
time when 200 Sasquatch roam Portage County?

9. One of the most important aspects of the Cartesian Coordinate Plane is its ability to put
Algebra into geometric terms and Geometry into algebraic terms. We’ve spent most of this
chapter looking at this very phenomenon and now you should spend some time with your
classmates reviewing what we’ve done. What major results do we have that tie Algebra and
Geometry together? What concepts from Geometry have we not yet described algebraically?
What topics from Intermediate Algebra have we not yet discussed geometrically?

10. It’s now time to “thoroughly vet the pathologies induced” by the precise definitions of local
maximum and local minimum. We’ll do this by providing you and your classmates a series
of exercises to discuss. You will need to refer back to Definition 2.5 (Increasing, Decreasing
and Constant) and Definition 2.6 (Maximum and Minimum) during the discussion.

(a) Consider the graph of the function f given below.

y
3
2
1

−2 −1 1 2 x
−1
−2
−3

i. Show that f has a local maximum but not a local minimum at the point (−1, 1).
ii. Show that f has a local minimum but not a local maximum at the point (1, 1).
iii. Show that f has a local maximum AND a local minimum at the point (0, 1).
iv. Show that f is constant on the interval [−1, 1] and thus has both a local maximum
AND a local minimum at every point (x, f (x)) where −1 < x < 1.
(b) Using Example 2.4.4 as a guide, show that the function g whose graph is given below
does not have a local maximum at (−3, 5) nor does it have a local minimum at (3, −3).
Find its extrema, both local and absolute. What’s unique about the point (0, −4) on
this graph? Also find the intervals on which g is increasing and those on which g is
decreasing.
2.4 Graphs of Functions 123

y
5
4
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
−2
−3
−4

(c) We said earlier in the section that it is not good enough to say local extrema exist
where a function changes from increasing to decreasing or vice versa. As a previous
exercise showed, we could have local extrema when a function is constant so now we
need to examine some functions whose graphs do indeed change direction. Consider the
functions graphed below. Notice that all four of them change direction at an open circle
on the graph. Examine each for local extrema. What is the effect of placing the “dot”
on the y-axis above or below the open circle? What could you say if no function value
was assigned to x = 0?
y y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−2 −1 1 2 x −2 −1 1 2 x
−1 −1

i. Function I iii. Function III

y
4 5 y
3 4
2 3
1 2
1
−2 −1 1 2 x
−1
−2 −1 1 2 x
ii. Function II iv. Function IV

2.4.3 Answers
124 Functions

1. (a)
2.4 Graphs of Functions 125

x−2 y
f (x) =
3 1

Domain: (−∞, ∞)
−1 1 2 3 4 x
x-intercept: (2, 0) −1

y-intercept: 0, − 23

No symmetry
√ y
(b) f (x) = 5 − x
3
Domain: (−∞, 5]
2
x-intercept: (5, 0)
√ 1
y-intercept: (0, 5)
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
No symmetry
√ y
(c) f (x) = 3 x 2

Domain: (−∞, ∞) 1

x-intercept: (0, 0) −8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

−1

y-intercept: (0, 0) −2

Symmetry about the origin

1 y
(d) f (x) =
x2
+1 1
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
No x-intercepts −2 −1 1 2 x
y-intercept: (0, 1)
Symmetry about the y-axis

2. (a) f (x) = 7x is odd (f) f (x) = x6 − x4 + x2 + 9 is even

(b) f (x) = 7x + 2 is neither (g) f (x) = −x5 − x3 + x is odd
1
(c) f (x) = 3 is odd (h) f (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 is neither
x √
(d) f (x) = 4 is even (i) f (x) = 5 − x is neither
(e) f (x) = 0 is even and odd (j) f (x) = x2 − x − 6 is neither

3. (a) [−5, 3] (f) −4, −1, 1 (k) (−3, 4), (2, 3)

(b) [−5, 4] (g) [−4, −1], [1, 3] (l) (0, −1)
(c) f (−2) = 2 (h) 4 (m) 4
(d) (−4, 0), (−1, 0), (1, 0) (i) [−5, −3], [0, 2] (n) −5
(e) (0, −1) (j) [−3, 0], [2, 3] (o) Neither
126 Functions

4. (a) No absolute maximum (c) Absolute maximum f (0) = 3

Absolute minimum f (4.55) ≈ −175.46 Absolute minimum f (±3) = 0
Local minimum at (−2.84, −91.32) Local maximum at (0, 3)
Local maximum at (0.54, 55.73) No local minimum
Local minimum at (4.55, −175.46) Increasing on [−3, 0]
Increasing on [−2.84, 0.54], [4.55, ∞) Decreasing on [0, 3]
Decreasing on (−∞, −2.84], [0.54, 4.55]
(b) No absolute maximum (d) Absolute maximum f (2.12) ≈ 4.50
No absolute minimum Absolute minimum f (−2.12) ≈ −4.50
Local maximum at (0, 0) Local maximum (2.12, 4.50)
Local minimum at (1.60, −3.28) Local minimum (−2.12, −4.50)
Increasing on (−∞, 0], [1.60, ∞) Increasing on [−2.12, 2.12]
Decreasing on [0, 1.60] Decreasing on [−3, −2.12], [2.12, 3]

5. (a) (c)
y y
3 6

2 5

1 4

3
−2 −1 1 x
−1 2

−2 1

−3
−2 −1 1 2 3 x
−4

(b) (d)
y y
3
3
2
2 1
1
−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
−1
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x

6. (a)
2.5 Transformations 127

y ..
.
6
5
4
3
2
1

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
..
.
The graph of f (x) = bxc.

(b) Note that f (1.1) = 1, but f (−1.1) = −2, and so f is neither even nor odd.

2.5 Transformations
In this section, we study how the graphs of functions change, or transform, when certain specialized
modifications are made to their formulas. The transformations we will study fall into three broad
categories: shifts, reflections, and scalings, and we will present them in that order. Suppose the
graph below is the complete graph of f .
y
(5, 5)
5

4
(2, 3)
3
(4, 3)
2

(0, 1)

1 2 3 4 5 x

y = f (x)

The Fundamental Graphing Principle for Functions says that for a point (a, b) to be on the
graph, f (a) = b. In particular, we know f (0) = 1, f (2) = 3, f (4) = 3 and f (5) = 5. Suppose
we wanted to graph the function defined by the formula g(x) = f (x) + 2. Let’s take a minute to
remind ourselves of what g is doing. We start with an input x to the function f and we obtain the
output f (x). The function g takes the output f (x) and adds 2 to it. In order to graph g, we need
128 Functions

to graph the points (x, g(x)). How are we to find the values for g(x) without a formula for f (x)?
The answer is that we don’t need a formula for f (x), we just need the values of f (x). The values
of f (x) are the y values on the graph of y = f (x). For example, using the points indicated on the
graph of f , we can make the following table.

x (x, f (x)) f (x) g(x) = f (x) + 2 (x, g(x))

0 (0, 1) 1 3 (0, 3)

2 (2, 3) 3 5 (2, 5)

4 (4, 3) 3 5 (4, 5)

5 (5, 5) 5 7 (5, 7)

In general, if (a, b) is on the graph of y = f (x), then f (a) = b, so g(a) = f (a) + 2 = b + 2.

Hence, (a, b + 2) is on the graph of g. In other words, to obtain the graph of g, we add 2 to the
y-coordinate of each point on the graph of f . Geometrically, adding 2 to the y-coordinate of a point
moves the point 2 units above its previous location. Adding 2 to every y-coordinate on a graph
en masse is usually described as ‘shifting the graph up 2 units’. Notice that the graph retains the
same basic shape as before, it is just 2 units above its original location. In other words, we connect
the four points we moved in the same manner in which they were connected before. We have the
results side-by-side below.
y y
(5, 7)
7 7

6 6
(5, 5) (2, 5)
5 5
(4, 5)
4 4
(2, 3)
3 (0, 3)
(4, 3)
2 2

(0, 1) 1

1 2 3 4 5 x shift up 2 units 1 2 3 4 5 x
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = f (x) add 2 to each y-coordinate y = g(x) = f (x) + 2

You’ll note that the domain of f and the domain of g are the same, namely [0, 5], but that the
range of f is [1, 5] while the range of g is [3, 7]. In general, shifting a function vertically like this
will leave the domain unchanged, but could very well affect the range. You can easily imagine what
would happen if we wanted to graph the function j(x) = f (x) − 2. Instead of adding 2 to each of
the y-coordinates on the graph of f , we’d be subtracting 2. Geometrically, we would be moving
the graph down 2 units. We leave it to the reader to verify that the domain of j is the same as f ,
but the range of j is [−1, 3]. What we have discussed is generalized in the following theorem.
2.5 Transformations 129

Theorem 2.2. Vertical Shifts. Suppose f is a function and k is a positive number.

ˆ To graph y = f (x) + k, shift the graph of y = f (x) up k units by adding k to the

y-coordinates of the points on the graph of f .

ˆ To graph y = f (x) − k, shift the graph of y = f (x) down k units by subtracting k from
the y-coordinates of the points on the graph of f .

The key to understanding Theorem 2.2 and, indeed, all of the theorems in this section comes
from an understanding of the Fundamental Graphing Principle for Functions. If (a, b) is on the
graph of f , then f (a) = b. Substituting x = a into the equation y = f (x) + k gives y = f (a) + k =
b + k. Hence, (a, b + k) is on the graph of y = f (x) + k, and we have the result. In the language
of ‘inputs’ and ‘outputs’, Theorem 2.2 can be paraphrased as “Adding to, or subtracting from, the
output of a function causes the graph to shift up or down, respectively”. So what happens if we
add to or subtract from the input of the function?
Keeping with the graph of y = f (x) above, suppose we wanted to graph g(x) = f (x + 2). In
other words, we are looking to see what happens when we add 2 to the input of the function.1 Let’s
try to generate a table of values of g based on those we know for f . We quickly find that we run
into some difficulties.

x (x, f (x)) f (x) g(x) = f (x + 2) (x, g(x))

0 (0, 1) 1 f (0 + 2) = f (2) = 3 (0, 3)

2 (2, 3) 3 f (2 + 2) = f (4) = 3 (2, 3)

4 (4, 3) 3 f (4 + 2) = f (6) =?

5 (5, 5) 5 f (5 + 2) = f (7) =?

When we substitute x = 4 into the formula g(x) = f (x + 2), we are asked to find f (4 + 2) = f (6)
which doesn’t exist because the domain of f is only [0, 5]. The same thing happens when we attempt
to find g(5). What we need here is a new strategy. We know, for instance, f (0) = 1. To determine
the corresponding point on the graph of g, we need to figure out what value of x we must substitute
into g(x) = f (x + 2) so that the quantity x + 2, works out to be 0. Solving x + 2 = 0 gives x = −2,
and g(−2) = f ((−2) + 2) = f (0) = 1 so (−2, 1) on the graph of g. To use the fact f (2) = 3, we set
x + 2 = 2 to get x = 0. Substituting gives g(0) = f (0 + 2) = f (2) = 3. Continuing in this fashion,
we get
1
We have spent a lot of time in this text showing you that f (x + 2) and f (x) + 2 are, in general, wildly different
algebraic animals. We will see momentarily that the geometry is also dramatically different.
130 Functions

x x+2 g(x) = f (x + 2) (x, g(x))

−2 0 g(−2) = f (0) = 1 (−2, 1)

0 2 g(0) = f (2) = 3 (0, 3)

2 4 g(2) = f (4) = 3 (2, 3)

3 5 g(3) = f (5) = 5 (3, 5)

In summary, the points (0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 3) and (5, 5) on the graph of y = f (x) give rise to
the points (−2, 1), (0, 3), (2, 3) and (3, 5) on the graph of y = g(x), respectively. In general, if
(a, b) is on the graph of y = f (x), then f (a) = b. Solving x + 2 = a gives x = a − 2 so that
g(a − 2) = f ((a − 2) + 2) = f (a) = b. As such, (a − 2, b) is on the graph of y = g(x). The point
(a − 2, b) is exactly 2 units to the left of the point (a, b) so the graph of y = g(x) is obtained by
shifting the graph y = f (x) to the left 2 units, as pictured below.

y y
(5, 5) (3, 5)
5 5

4 4
(2, 3)
3 (0, 3)
(4, 3) (2, 3)
2 2

(0, 1) (−2, 1) 1

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
shift left 2 units
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = f (x) subtract 2 from each x-coordinate y = g(x) = f (x + 2)

Note that while the ranges of f and g are the same, the domain of g is [−2, 3] whereas the domain
of f is [0, 5]. In general, when we shift the graph horizontally, the range will remain the same, but
the domain could change. If we set out to graph j(x) = f (x − 2), we would find ourselves adding
2 to all of the x values of the points on the graph of y = f (x) to effect a shift to the right 2 units.
Generalizing, we have the following result.

Theorem 2.3. Horizontal Shifts. Suppose f is a function and h is a positive number.

ˆ To graph y = f (x + h), shift the graph of y = f (x) left h units by subtracting h from
the x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f .

ˆ To graph y = f (x − h), shift the graph of y = f (x) right h units by adding h to the
x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f .
2.5 Transformations 131

In other words, Theorem 2.3 says adding to or subtracting from the input to a function amounts
to shifting the graph left or right, respectively. Theorems 2.2 and 2.3 present a theme which will run
common throughout the section: changes to the outputs from a function affect the y-coordinates
of the graph, resulting in some kind of vertical change; changes to the inputs to a function affect
the x-coordinates of the graph, resulting in some kind of horizontal change.
Example 2.5.1.
√
1. Graph f (x) = x. Plot at least three points.
√
2. Use your graph in 1 to graph g(x) = x − 1.
√
3. Use your graph in 1 to graph j(x) = x − 1.
√
4. Use your graph in 1 to graph m(x) = x + 3 − 2.

Solution.
1. Owing to the square root, the domain of f is x ≥ 0, or [0, ∞). We choose perfect squares to
build our table and graph below. From the graph we verify the domain of f is [0, ∞) and the
range of f is also [0, ∞).

y
x f (x) (x, f (x)) (4, 2)
2
(1, 1)
0 0 (0, 0) 1
(0, 0)
1 1 (1, 1) 1 2 3 4 x
√
y = f (x) = x
4 2 (4, 2)

2. The domain of g is the same as the domain of f , since the only condition on both functions
is that x ≥ 0. If we compare the formula for g(x) with f (x), we see that g(x) = f (x) − 1.
In other words, we have subtracted 1 from the output of the function f . By Theorem 2.2,
we know that in order to graph g, we shift the graph of f down one unit by subtracting
1 from each of the y-coordinates of the points on the graph of f . Applying this to the three
points we have specified on the graph, we move (0, 0) to (0, −1), (1, 1) to (1, 0), and (4, 2) to
(4, 1). The rest of the points follow suit, and we connect them with the same basic shape as
before. We confirm the domain of g is [0, ∞) and find the range of g to be [−1, ∞).
y y
(4, 2)
2 2
(1, 1) (4, 1)
1 1
(0, 0) (1, 0)
1 2 3 4 x 1 2 3 4 x
(0, −1)
shift down 1 unit
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = f (x) = x subtract 1 from each y-coordinate y = g(x) = x−1
132 Functions

3. Solving x − 1 ≥ 0 gives x ≥ 1, so the domain of j is [1, ∞). To graph j, we note that

j(x) = f (x − 1). In other words, we are subtracting 1 from the input of f . According to
Theorem 2.3, this induces a shift to the right of the graph of f . We add 1 to the x-coordinates
of the points on the graph of f and get the result below. The graph reaffirms the domain of
j is [1, ∞) and tells us that the range is [0, ∞).

y y
(4, 2) (5, 2)
2 2
(1, 1) (2, 1)
1 1
(0, 0)
1 2 3 4 5 x shift right 1 unit (1, 0) 2 3 4 5 x
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = f (x) = x add 1 to each x-coordinate y = j(x) = x−1

4. To find the domain of m, we solve x + 3 ≥ 0 and get [−3, ∞). Comparing the formulas of
f (x) and m(x), we have m(x) = f (x + 3) − 2. We have 3 being added to an input, indicating
a horizontal shift, and 2 being subtracted from an output, indicating a vertical shift. We
leave it to the reader to verify that, in this particular case, the order in which we perform
these transformations is immaterial; we will arrive at the same graph regardless as to which
transformation we apply first.2 We follow the convention ‘inputs first’,3 and to that end we
first tackle the horizontal shift. Letting m1 (x) = f (x + 3) denote this intermediate step,
Theorem 2.3 tells us that the graph of y = m1 (x) is the graph of f shifted to the left 3 units.
Hence, we subtract 3 from each of the x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f .

y y
(4, 2) (1, 2)
2 2
(1, 1) (−2, 1)
1 1
(0, 0) (−3, 0)
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −1

−2 −2
shift left 3 units
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = f (x) = x subtract 3 from each x-coordinate y = m1 (x) = f (x + 3) = x+3

Since m(x) = f (x + 3) − 2 and f (x + 3) = m1 (x), we have m(x) = m1 (x) − 2. We can apply

Theorem 2.2 and obtain the graph of m by subtracting 2 from the y-coordinates of each of
the points on the graph of m1 (x). The graph verifies that the domain of m is [−3, ∞) and
we find the range of m is [−2, ∞).

2
We shall see in the next example that order is generally important when applying more than one transformation
to a graph.
3
We could equally have chosen the convention ‘outputs first’.
2.5 Transformations 133

y y
(1, 2)
2 2
(−2, 1)
1 1
(−3, 0) (1, 0)
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 (−2, −1) −1

−2 −2
shift down 2 units (−3, −2)
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = m1 (x) = f (x + 3) = x+3 subtract 2 from each y-coordinate y = m(x) = m1 (x) − 2 = x+3−2

Keep in mind that we can check our answer to any of these kinds of problems by showing that
any of the points we’ve moved lie on the graph of our final
p answer. For example,
√ we can check that
(−3, −2) is on the graph of m, by computing m(−3) = (−3) + 3 − 2 = 0 − 2 = −2 X

We now turn our attention to reflections. We know from Section 1.1 that to reflect a point (x, y)
across the x-axis, we replace y with −y. If (x, y) is on the graph of f , then y = f (x), so replacing y
with −y is the same as replacing f (x) with −f (x). Hence, the graph of y = −f (x) is the graph of f
reflected across the x-axis. Similarly, the graph of y = f (−x) is the graph of f reflected across the
y-axis. Returning to inputs and outputs, multiplying the output from a function by −1 reflects its
graph across the x-axis, while multiplying the input to a function by −1 reflects the graph across
the y-axis.4

Theorem 2.4. Reflections. Suppose f is a function.

ˆ To graph y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) across the x-axis by multiplying the
y-coordinates of the points on the graph of f by −1.

ˆ To graph y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) across the y-axis by multiplying the
x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f by −1.

Applying Theroem 2.4 to the graph of y = f (x) given at the beginning of the section, we can
graph y = −f (x) by reflecting the graph of f about the x-axis

4
The expressions −f (x) and f (−x) should look familiar - they are the quantities we used in Section 2.4 to test if
a function was even, odd, or neither. The interested reader is invited to explore the role of reflections and symmetry
of functions. What happens if you reflect an even function across the y-axis? What happens if you reflect an odd
function across the y-axis? What about the x-axis?
134 Functions

y y
(5, 5)
5 5

4 4
(2, 3)
3 3
(4, 3)
2 2

(0, 1) 1

1 2 3 4 5 x 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 (0, −1)
−2 −2
(4, −3)
−3 −3
(2, −3)
−4 −4

−5 −5
reflect across x-axis (5, −5)
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = f (x) multiply each y-coordinate by −1 y = −f (x)

By reflecting the graph of f across the y-axis, we obtain the graph of y = f (−x).

y y
(5, 5) (−5, 5)
5 5

4 4
(2, 3) (−2, 3)
3 3
(4, 3) (−4, 3)
2 2

(0, 1) (0, 1)

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x reflect across y-axis −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x

−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = f (x) multiply each x-coordinate by −1 y = f (−x)

With the addition of reflections, it is now more important than ever to consider the order of
transformations, as the next example illustrates.
√
Example 2.5.2. Let f (x) = x. Use the graph of f from Example 2.5.1 to graph the following
functions below. Also, state their domains and ranges.
√
1. g(x) = −x
√
2. j(x) = 3 − x
√
3. m(x) = 3 − x

Solution.
√
1. The mere sight of −x usually causes alarm, if not panic. When we discussed domains
in Section 2.2, we clearly banished negatives from the radicals of even roots. However, we
must remember that x is a variable, and as such, the quantity −x isn’t always negative. For
2.5 Transformations 135

√ p
example, if x = −4, −x = 4, thus −x = −(−4) = 2 is perfectly well-defined. To find the
domain analytically, we set −x ≥ 0 which gives x ≤ 0, so that the domain of g is (−∞, 0].
Since g(x) = f (−x), Theorem 2.4 tells us the graph of g is the reflection of the graph of f
across the y-axis. We can accomplish this by multiplying each x-coordinate on the graph
of f by −1, so that the points (0, 0), (1, 1), and (4, 2) move to (0, 0), (−1, 1), and (−4, 2),
respectively. Graphically, we see that the domain of g is (−∞, 0] and the range of g is the
same as the range of f , namely [0, ∞).

y y
(4, 2)
2 2
(1, 1) (−4, 2)
1 1
(−1, 1) (0, 0)
(0, 0)
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x reflect across y-axis −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = f (x) = x multiply each x-coordinate by −1 y = g(x) = f (−x) = −x

√
2. To determine the domain of j(x) = 3 − x, we solve 3 − x ≥ 0 and get x ≤ 3, or (−∞, 3].
To determine which transformations
√ we need to apply to the graph of f to obtain the graph
√
of j, we rewrite j(x) = −x + 3 = f (−x + 3). Comparing this formula with f (x) = x, we
see that not only are we multiplying the input x by −1, which results in a reflection across
the y-axis, but also we are adding 3, which indicates a horizontal shift to the left. Does it
matter in which order we do the transformations? If so, which order is the correct order?
Let’s consider the point (4, 2) on the graph of f . We refer to the discussion leading up to
Theorem 2.3. We know f (4) = 2 and wish to find the point on y = j(x) = f (−x + 3) which
corresponds to (4, 2). We set −x + 3 = 4 and solve. Our first step is to subtract 3 from both
sides to get −x = 1. Subtracting 3 from the x-coordinate 4 is shifting the point (4, 2) to
the left. From −x = 1, we then multiply5 both sides by −1 to get x = −1. Multiplying the
x-coordinate by −1 corresponds to reflecting the point about the y-axis. Hence, we perform
the horizontal shift first, then follow it with the reflection about the y-axis. Starting with
√
f (x) = x, we let j1 (x) be the intermediate function which shifts the graph of f 3 units to
the left, j1 (x) = f (x + 3).

y y
(4, 2) (1, 2)
2 2
(1, 1) (−2, 1)
1 1
(0, 0) (−3, 0)
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x shift left 3 units −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = f (x) = x subtract 3 from each x-coordinate y = j1 (x) = f (x + 3) = x+3

To obtain the function j, we reflect the graph of j1 about y-axis. Theorem 2.4 tells
√ us we
have j(x) = j1 (−x). Putting it all together, we have j(x) = j1 (−x) = f (−x + 3) = −x + 3,
5
Or divide - it amounts to the same thing.
136 Functions

which is what we want.6 From the graph, we confirm the domain of j is (−∞, 3] and we get
the range is [0, ∞).

y y
(1, 2)
2 2
(−2, 1) (2, 1)
1 (−1, 2)
(3, 0)
(−3, 0)
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x reflect across y-axis −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = j1 (x) = x+3 multiply each x-coordinate by −1 y = j(x) = j1 (−x) = −x + 3

√
3. The domain of m works out to be the domain of f , [0, ∞). Rewriting m(x) = − x + 3, we
see m(x) = −f (x) + 3. Since we are multiplying the output of f by −1 and then adding
3, we once again have two transformations to deal with: a reflection across the x-axis and
a vertical shift. To determine the correct order in which to apply the transformations, we
imagine trying to determine the point on the graph of m which corresponds to (4, 2) on the
graph of f . Since in the formula for m(x), the input to f is just x, we substitute to find
m(4) = −f (4) + 3 = −2 + 3 = 1. Hence, (4, 1) is the corresponding point on the graph of
m. If we closely examine the arithmetic, we see that we first multiply f (4) by −1, which
corresponds to the reflection across the x-axis, and then we add 3, which corresponds to
the vertical shift. If we define an intermediate function m1 (x) = −f (x) to take care of the
reflection, we get

y y
3 3
(4, 2)
2 2
(1, 1)
1 1
(0, 0)
1 2 3 4 x (0, 0) 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −1

−2 −2
(1, −1)
reflect across x-axis (4, −2)
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = f (x) = x multiply each y-coordinate by −1 y = m1 (x) = −f (x) = − x

To shift the graph of m1 up 3 units, we set m(x) = m1 (x) + 3. Since m1 (x) = −f (x), when
√
we put it all together, we get m(x) = m1 (x) + 3 = −f (x) + 3 = − x + 3. We see from the
graph that the range of m is (−∞, 3].

6
If we had done the reflection first, then
√ j1 (x) = f (−x). Following this by a shift left would give us j(x) =
j1 (x + 3) = f (−(x + 3)) = f (−x − 3) = −x − 3 which isn’t what we want. However, if we did the reflection first
and followed it by a shift to the right 3 units, we would have arrived at the function j(x). We leave it to the reader
to verify the details.
2.5 Transformations 137

y y
3 (0, 3)
(1, 2)
2 2
(4, 1)
1 1

(0, 0) 1 2 3 4 x 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −1

−2
(1, −1) shift up 3 units −2
(4, −2)
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
add 3 to each y-coordinate

√ √
y = m1 (x) = − x y = m(x) = m1 (x) + 3 = − x + 3

We now turn our attention to our last class of transformations, scalings. Suppose we wish to
graph the function g(x) = 2f (x) where f (x) is the function whose graph is given at the beginning
of the section. From its graph, we can build a table of values for g as before.

y
(5, 5)
5

4 x (x, f (x)) f (x) g(x) = 2f (x) (x, g(x))

(2, 3)
3
(4, 3) 0 (0, 1) 1 2 (0, 2)
2

(0, 1) 2 (2, 3) 3 6 (2, 6)

1 2 3 4 5 x 4 (4, 3) 3 6 (4, 6)
y = f (x)
5 (5, 5) 5 10 (5, 10)

In general, if (a, b) is on the graph of f , then f (a) = b so that g(a) = 2f (a) = 2b puts (a, 2b)
on the graph of g. In other words, to obtain the graph of g, we multiply all of the y-coordinates of
the points on the graph of f by 2. Multiplying all of the y-coordinates of all of the points on the
graph of f by 2 causes what is known as a ‘vertical scaling7 by a factor of 2’, and the results are

7
Also called a ‘vertical stretch’, ‘vertical expansion’ or ‘vertical dilation’ by a factor of 2.
138 Functions

given below.

y y
(5, 10)
10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7
(2, 6)
6 6
(5, 5) (4, 6)
5 5

4 4
(2, 3)
3 3
(4, 3)
2 (0, 2)
(0, 1) 1

1 2 3 4 5 x vertical scaling by a factor of 2 1 2 3 4 5 x

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = f (x) multiply each y-coordinate by 2 y = 2f (x)

If we wish to graph y = 12 f (x), we multiply the all of the y-coordinates of the points on the
graph of f by 12 . This creates a ‘vertical scaling8 by a factor of 12 ’ as seen below.

y y
(5, 5)
5 5

4 4
(2, 3) ` 5´
3 3 5, 2
(4, 3) ` 3´
2 2 2, 2
` 3´
(0, 1) ´1 4, 2
1
`
0, 2
1
1 2 3 4 5 x vertical scaling by a factor of 2
1 2 3 4 5 x
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
1 1
y = f (x) multiply each y-coordinate by 2
y= 2
f (x)

These results are generalized in the following theorem.

8
Also called ‘vertical shrink,’‘vertical compression’ or ‘vertical contraction’ by a factor of 2.
2.5 Transformations 139

Theorem 2.5. Vertical Scalings. Suppose f is a function and a > 0. To graph y = af (x),
multiply all of the y-coordinates of the points on the graph of f by a. We say the graph of
f has been vertically scaled by a factor of a.

ˆ If a > 1, we say the graph of f has undergone a vertical stretch (expansion, dilation) by
a factor of a.

ˆ If 0 < a < 1, we say the graph of f has undergone a vertical shrink (compression,
contraction) by a factor of a1 .

A few remarks about Theorem 2.5 are in order. First, a note about the verbiage. To the
authors, the words ‘stretch’, ‘expansion’, and ‘dilation’ all indicate something getting bigger. Hence,
‘stretched by a factor of 2’ makes sense if we are scaling something by multiplying it by 2. Similarly,
we believe words like ‘shrink’, ‘compression’ and ‘contraction’ all indicate something getting smaller,
so if we scale something by a factor of 12 , we would say it ‘shrinks by a factor of 2’ - not ‘shrinks by
a factor of 12 .’ This is why we have written the descriptions ‘stretch by a factor of a’ and ‘shrink by
a factor of a1 ’ in the statement of the theorem. Second, in terms of inputs and outputs, Theorem 2.5
says multiplying the outputs from a function by positive number a causes the graph to be vertically
scaled by a factor of a. It is natural to ask what would happen if we multiply the inputs of a
function by a positive number. This leads us to our last transformation of the section.
Referring to the graph of f given at the beginning of this section, suppose we want to graph
g(x) = f (2x). In other words, we are looking to see what effect multiplying the inputs to f by 2
has on its graph. If we attempt to build a table directly, we quickly run into the same problem we
had in our discussion leading up to Theorem 2.3, as seen in the table on the left below. We solve
this problem in the same way we solved this problem before. For example, if we want to determine
the point on g which corresponds to the point (2, 3) on the graph of f , we set 2x = 2 so that x = 1.
Substituting x = 1 into g(x), we obtain g(1) = f (2 · 1) = f (2) = 3, so that (1, 3) is on the graph of
g. Continuing in this fashion, we obtain the table on the lower right.

x (x, f (x)) f (x) g(x) = f (2x) (x, g(x)) x 2x g(x) = f (2x) (x, g(x))

0 (0, 1) 1 f (2 · 0) = f (0) = 1 (0, 1) 0 0 g(0) = f (0) = 1 (0, 0)

2 (2, 3) 3 f (2 · 2) = f (4) = 3 (2, 3) 1 2 g(1) = f (2) = 3 (1, 3)

4 (4, 3) 3 f (2 · 4) = f (8) =? 2 4 g(2) = f (4) = 3 (2, 3)

5
g 52 = f (5) = 5 5



5 (5, 5) 5 f (2 · 5) = f (10) =? 2 5 2, 5

a a



In general, if (a, b) is on the graph of f , then f (a) = b. Hence g 2 = f 2 · 2 = f (a) = b
so that a2 , b is on the graph of g. In other words, to graph g we divide the x-coordinates of the


140 Functions

points on the graph of f by 2. This results in a horizontal scaling9 by a factor of 12 .

y y `5 ´
(5, 5) 2
,5
5 5

4 4
(2, 3) (1, 3)
3 3
(4, 3) (2, 3)
2 2

(0, 1) (0, 1)

1
1 2 3 4 5 x horizontal scaling by a factor of 2
1 2 3 4 5 x
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
1
y = f (x) multiply each x-coordinate by 2
y = g(x) = f (2x)

If, on the other hand, we wish to graph y = f 12 x , we end up multiplying the x-coordinates

of the points on the graph of f by 2 which results in a horizontal scaling10 by a factor of 2, as

demonstrated below.

y y
(5, 5) (10, 5)
5 5

4 4
(2, 3) (4, 3)
3 3
(4, 3) (8, 3)
2 2

(0, 1) (0, 1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x horizontal scaling by a factor of 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = g(x) = f 21 x
` ´
y = f (x) multiply each x-coordinate by 2

We have the following theorem.

Theorem 2.6. Horizontal Scalings. Suppose f is a function and b > 0. To graph y = f (bx),
divide all of the x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f by b. We say the graph of f
has been horizontally scaled by a factor of 1b .

ˆ If 0 < b < 1, we say the graph of f has undergone a horizontal stretch (expansion, dilation)
by a factor of 1b .

ˆ If b > 1, we say the graph of f has undergone a horizontal shrink (compression, contrac-
tion) by a factor of b.

Theorem 2.6 tells us that if we multiply the input to a function by b, the resulting graph is
scaled horizontally by a factor of 1b since the x-values are divided by b to produce corresponding
9
Also called ‘horizontal shrink,’‘horizontal compression’ or ‘horizontal contraction’ by a factor of 2.
10
Also called ‘horizontal stretch,’‘horizontal expansion’ or ‘horizontal dilation’ by a factor of 2.
2.5 Transformations 141

points on the graph of f (bx). The next example explores how vertical and horizontal scalings
sometimes interact with each other and with the other transformations introduced in this section.
√
Example 2.5.3. Let f (x) = x. Use the graph of f from Example 2.5.1 to graph the following
functions below. Also, state their domains and ranges.
√
1. g(x) = 3 x
√
2. j(x) = 9x
q
x+3
3. m(x) = 1 − 2

Solution.

1. First we note that the domain of g is [0, ∞) for the usual reason. Next, we have g(x) = 3f (x)
so by Theorem 2.5, we obtain the graph of g by multiplying all of the y-coordinates of the
points on the graph of f by 3. The result is a vertical scaling of the graph of f by a factor of
3. We find the range of g is also [0, ∞).

y y
(4, 6)
6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3
(4, 2) (1, 3)
2 2
(1, 1)
1 1
(0, 0) (0, 0)
1 2 3 4 x vertical scale by a factor of 3 1 2 3 4 x
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
y = f (x) = x multiply each y-coordinate by 3 y = g(x) = 3f (x) = 3 x

2. To determine the domain of j, we solve 9x ≥ 0 to find x ≥ 0. Our domain is once again

[0, ∞). We recognize j(x) = f (9x) and by Theorem 2.6, we obtain the graph of j by dividing
the x-coordinates of the points on the graph of f by 9. From the graph, we see the range of
j is also [0, ∞).

y y
(4, 2)
2 2 `4 ´
9
,2
(1, 1)
1 1 `1 ´
9
,1
(0, 0) (0, 0)
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
x horizontal scale by a factor of 1 x
9
√ −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ √
1
y = f (x) = x multiply each x-coordinate by 9
y = j(x) = f (9x) = 9x
142 Functions

x+3
3. Solving 2 ≥ 0 gives x ≥ −3, so the domain of m is [−3, ∞). To take advantage of what
q
we know of transformations, we rewrite m(x) = − 12 x + 32 + 1, or m(x) = −f 12 x + 23 + 1.

Focusing on the inputs first, we note that the input to f in the formula for m(x) is 12 x + 32 .
Multiplying the x by 12 corresponds to a horizontal stretch by a factor of 2, and adding the
3 3
2 corresponds to a shift to the left by 2 . As before, we resolve which to perform first by
thinking about how we would find the point on m corresponding to a point on f , in this case,
(4, 2). To use f (4) = 2, we solve 21 x + 32 = 4. Our first step is to subtract the 32 (the horizontal
shift) to obtain 12 x = 25 . Next, we multiply by 2 (the horizontal stretch) and obtain x = 5.
We define two intermediate functions to handle first the shift, then the stretch. In accordance

q
with Theorem 2.3, m1 (x) = f x + 2 = x + 2 will shift the graph of f to the left 32 units.
3 3

y y `5 ´
(4, 2) 2
,2
2
2
(1, 1) ` 1 ´
1
−2,1
(0, 0)
−3 −2
` 3−1 ´ 1 2 3 4 5 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 −2,0
−2
−2
3 units
shift left 2

√ −−−−−−−−−−−−→ ´ q
y = m1 (x) = f x + 23 = x + 3
`
y = f (x) = x subtract 3 from each x-coordinate
2 2

q
Next, m2 (x) = m1 21 x = 12 x + 3
2 will, according to Theorem 2.6, horizontally stretch the
graph of m1 by a factor of 2.

y `5 ´ y
2
,2 (5, 2)
2 2
` 1 ´
−2,1 (−1, 1)

−3 −2
` 3−1 ´ 1 2 3 4 5 x −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−2,0 (−3, 0) −1

−2 −2

horizontal scale by a factor of 2

q
3
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ `1 ´ q1 3
y = m1 (x) = x+ 2
multiply each x-coordinate by 2 y = m2 (x) = m1 2
x = 2
x+ 2

We now examine what’s happening to the outputs. From m(x) = −f 21 x + 32 + 1, we see the

output from f is being multiplied by −1 (a reflection about the x-axis) and then a 1 is added
(a vertical shift up 1). As before, we can determine the correct order by looking at how the
point (4, 2) is moved. We have already determined that to
make use of the equation f (4) = 2,
we need to substitute x = 5. We get m(5) = −f 21 (5) + 32 + 1 = −f (4) + 1 = −2 + 1 = −1.
We see that f (4) (the output from f ) is first multiplied by −1 then the 1 is added meaning we