Boiler Tube Failure Mechanisms - Case Studies-Springer (2023)

Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering
Atanu Saha
Boiler Tube
Failure
Mechanisms
Case Studies
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Atanu Saha
Boiler Tube Failure

Mechanisms
Case Studies
Atanu Saha
Industrial Service and Research Group
CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering
Research Institute
Durgapur, West Bengal, India
ISSN 2195-9862 ISSN 2195-9870 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-99-3129-3 ISBN 978-981-99-3130-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9
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Preface
The fossil-fired boiler is the most critical component of thermal power plant, and tube
failures in the fossil-fired boiler are one of the main causes of forced outages of power
generating units. Almost every time, severe service environment in fossil-fired boilers
is largely the reason for these failures. The high-temperature failure in combination
with severe stress is very much common in critical components like superheater, re-
heater, waterwall and economizer tubes. So, one of the important tasks of the power
utilities to reduce the forced outages of the critical component is to improve plant
availability, safety and reliability. This can be achieved by investigative analysis of
the boiler tubes to ascertain the causes of failure and thereby to suggest corrective
action necessary to prevent the recurrence of similar failure in future.
This book provides an in-depth examination of boiler tube materials failure in
specific situations, a vital component in both developing and engineering new solu-
tions. It covers materials for steam boiler, design life of components, different failure/
damage mechanism of boiler tube and variety of case studies of boiler tube failure.
Different examination methodologies including true pictures and micrographs are
incorporated in each analysis of every case. It covers analysis of materials failure
in the areas of power industries, wherein the failure of a single component can
result in devastating consequences and costs. Case studies related to short-term
overheating, high-temperature creep, high-temperature failure, caustic corrosion,
hydrogen damage, dissimilar weld failure, manufacturing defects and corrosion
fatigue are elaborately depicted in this book. This book is an indispensable reference
for engineers and scientists studying the mechanisms of failure in this field.
The author thanks all the technical officials for excellent conducting of different
tests of each case study. The author is also thankful to honorable Director, CSIR-
CMERI, Durgapur, India, Dr. Naresh Chandra Murmu, for his inspiration and encour-
agement of this work. I sincerely hope that the publication of this book will help
people from industry particularly power industry and academia to get the maximum
benefits from the experience contained in the published book.
Durgapur, India Dr. Atanu Saha
v
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my profound sense of gratitude to Head of Industrial Service

and Research Group, CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute,
Durgapur-713209, India, for his encouraging guidance, valuable suggestions and
critical comments without which the present work could not have been carried out.
I express my sincere thanks to all staff members of Industrial Service and Research
Group, CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur-713209,
India, for their advice and wholehearted support throughout my work. In this regard,
I am particularly thankful to Dr. Himadri Roy, Mr. S. Chidambaram, Mr. Subrata
Ray, Mr. Sanjib De, Mr. Abhijit Modal and Mr. Nasir Hussain.
I express my gratitude to Head, Manufacturing Technology Group, CSIR-Central
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, India, for providing the
machining facility of the tensile test specimens of this work.
Furthermore, I am extremely grateful to Dr. Naresh Chandra Murmu, Director,
CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, India, for his
constant encouragement and kind permission to publish this work.
vii
Contents
Part I Overview of Failure Mechanisms

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Material for Steam Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Design Life of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Failure/Damage Mechanism of Boiler Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Short-Term Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 High Temperature Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Temperature Measurement Based on Steam Side
Oxide Scale Thickness Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Hydrogen Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Caustic Corrosion/Gouging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Part II Case Studies

3 Case 1A: Short-Term Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Examination Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.1 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.2 Dimensional Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.3 Chemical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.4 Mechanical Properties (Tensile Test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.5 Metallographic Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.6 Estimation of Peak Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2.7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.8 Conclusion for Case Study 1A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
ix
x Contents
4 Case IB: Short-Term Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study IB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5 Case IIA: High-Temperature Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.4 Metallographic Examination and Hardness
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2.5 Scale Thickness Measurement and Estimation
of Tube Metal Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.2.7 Conclusion for Case Study IIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6 Case Study IIB: High-Temperature Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study IIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7 Case Study III: High-Temperature Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Contents xi
8 Case Study IV: Erosion Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

8.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9 Case Study VA: Dissimilar Metal Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.7 Suggestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10 Case Study VB: Dissimilar Metal Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
10.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.4 Conclusion for Case Study VB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
11 Case Study VIA: Hydrogen Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
11.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12 Case Study VIB: Hydrogen Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
12.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
xii Contents

12.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
13 Case Study VIIA: Fireside Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
13.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
14 Case Study VIIB: Fireside Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
14.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
14.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
14.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15 Case Study VIII: Failure Due to Manufacturing Defect . . . . . . . . . . . 123
15.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
15.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
15.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
16 Case Study IX: Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
16.1 Scope of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
16.2.5 SEM/EDX Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
16.2.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
16.2.7 Conclusion for Case Study IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
16.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
About the Author
Dr. Atanu Saha has over 25 years extensive experience in the field of residual life
assessment study of power and process plant components and failure analysis of
different engineering components. He has served numerous industries like power,
petrochemical, steel etc. He has several research articles in reputed international
SCI journals. Dr. Saha has authored and presented several technical papers relating
to residual life assessment study and failure analysis of engineering components.
He has conducted training programs on various aspects of residual life assessment
and failure analysis techniques for practicing engineers. Dr. Saha is member of
Central Boilers Board, Government of India (Ministry of Commerce and Industry)
and Boilers and Pressure Vessels Sectional Committee, Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS), Government of India.
xiii
Part I
Overview of Failure Mechanisms
About 80% of national demand of electricity is met from thermal power plants which
employ steam produced from burning fossil fuel in a boiler. The fuel employed in the
boiler for producing steam may be coal, oil or natural gas. Out of these fuels, coal is
the most abundant and hence most commonly used fuel for steam turbine plant.
Boiler tube failures are the main causes of forced outages of power generating
units. Most of the common failure occurs in water wall tubes, superheater/re-heater
tubes and economizer tubes. More than 80% of unscheduled boiler shutdown is due
to boiler tube failure [1].
Present study is aimed at identifying the cause/causes of in-service failure of boiler
tubes in different sections of various capacity boilers and thereby to suggest corrective
action necessary to prevent the recurrence of similar failure in future. Failure of boiler
tubes of different sections of boiler may be due to short-term overheating, high-
temperature creep, high-temperature failure, caustic corrosion, hydrogen damage,
dissimilar weld failure, manufacturing defects, corrosion fatigue, etc.
The study contains materials for steam boiler, design life of components, different
failure/damage mechanism of boiler tube and variety of case studies of boiler tube
failure. Different examination methodologies including true pictures and micro-
graphs are incorporated in each analysis of every case. It covers analysis of materials
failure in the areas of power industries wherein the failure of a single component can
result in devastating consequences and costs.
Reference
1. A.F. Armor, Boiler tube failure, the number one availability problems for utilities, Failure and
inspection of fossil fired boiler tube conference and workshop, EPRI, 1983
Chapter 1
Introduction
The function of a boiler is to convert water into superheated steam which is ultimately
delivered into a steam turbine. The schematic illustration of a boiler is shown in
Fig. 1.1. Coal, oil, natural gas, etc. with preheated air burned in the furnaces. The
combustion gases flow up through the furnace and evaporate the water into steam
inside the furnace water wall tubes. The mixture of water and steam is called the
working fluid. At the roof of the furnace, the upward flowing gases pass through a
bank of secondary superheater and re-heater tubes where the steam is superheated
before putting it into turbine. The gases then turn downward and pass through primary
superheater and economizer tubes. After passing the heating surfaces, the combustion
products are cooled to a relatively low temperature and ejected from the boiler through
a stack into the atmosphere.
The superheated steam produced in a boiler is supplied into a steam turbine where
its thermal energy is converted into mechanical work on the turbine shaft. The turbine
shaft is connected to an electric generator in which the mechanical energy is trans-
formed into electricity. Low-pressure steam from the turbine exit is processed into
feed water via condenser, feed water heater and deaerators. In deaerator, the conden-
sate is made to boil and is freed from oxygen and carbon dioxide that might cause
corrosion of the equipment. The feed water is then pumped into the economizer,
where it is heated and sent to furnace water wall tubes. From here, the high-pressure
steam goes through the superheater into the turbine inlet and thus completes the cycle
as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Critical components of a power boiler such as superheater/re-heater tubes, headers
and steam pipes operating in the creep range are designed for a finite life. Depending
on the actual operational and environmental conditions, these high-temperature
components degrade gradually during service due to various processes, including
creep, fatigue, corrosion, erosion and embrittlement. The severe service environ-
ment in fossil fired boilers is largely the reason for the failures as the effect of stress,
temperature, corrosion, erosion and vibration combine to produce degradation of the
tubing steel. Corrosion by oxidation, by combustion products and by impure boiler
water can significantly reduce the tube wall thickness and result in failure of a tube
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 3
A. Saha, Boiler Tube Failure Mechanisms, Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_1
4 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.1 Typical cross section of large drum-type utility boiler, showing major water and steam-
cooled tube circuits [1]
Fig. 1.2 Simplified (3 cylinder type) steam power plant cycle

1.1 Material for Steam Boilers 5
many years before the expected end of its useful service life. The majority of forced
outages of power boilers are due to premature failure of abovementioned compo-
nents [2–5]. The cost penalty is estimated to be in excess of 5 billion dollars a year
in replacement power charges and maintenance costs [3]. Contribution of total tube
failure can be grouped as furnace water wall tubing 40%, superheater tube 30%,
re-heater tube 15%, economizer tube 10% and burner tube 5% [6]. Exposure of tube
steel to elevated temperature causes microstructural changes of the steel constituents
[1, 7–9]. As for example, carbon steel will experience spheroidization in which iron
carbide particles change from plate or rod shapes to more or less spherical ones. Plain
carbon and carbon molybdenum steel will experience graphitization in which Fe3 C
particles transform into free iron and graphite molecules. Austenite stainless steel
will develop carbide precipitates intermetallic compounds. Microstructural changes
occur even at design conditions with long-term service. Their formations are accel-
erated when tube steel is operated above design conditions. Operation above design
conditions is called “overheating” and can lead to tube failure through a stress rupture
failure mechanism. Erosion and vibration caused by ash-laden flue gas can result in
boiler tube failures if operating conditions are different from design considerations.
High gas flow velocities can cause tube to vibrate at high frequencies and result in
fatigue cracking failures [6]. A large number of case studies are elaborately depicted
in this book to understand the damage mechanisms of boiler tube [9].
Determination of the correct mechanism of a boiler tube failure is important for
the prevention of future tube failures. Proper corrective measures can be undertaken
to alleviate the root cause or causes for a failure once the correct mechanism is
known. The plant’s personnel must provide the initial information on the failure and
boiler conditions prior to failure so that pertinent data may be extracted.
1.1 Material for Steam Boilers
Different sections of boiler work under different working parameters, so the designers
select the material as per requirement at that particular section. The material of critical
boiler elements like water wall tubes, drum, headers, superheater/re-heater tubes and
steam pipelines operates under critical conditions. In steady regimes, it is subjected
to stresses caused by internal pressure and the own mass of the element and to an
elevated temperature. In unsteady regimes (start up and shut down), it is subjected
to variable pressure and temperature.
Besides those, as mentioned, some critical elements at high temperature can be
acted upon by corrosive medium, flue gases, saturated and unsaturated steam, steam
water mixture, etc. which can cause corrosion of the metal.
6 1 Introduction
All boiler elements operating at elevated temperature can be divided into two
groups:
(i) Those operated at temperatures below 350–400 °C, they include the drum,
steam-generating tubes and their headers, tubes and headers of economizer and
pipelines for water.
(ii) Those operated at temperatures above 350–400 °C, they include steam super-
heaters and their headers, de-superheaters, superheated steam pipelines and
fittings.
Danger for the operation of critical boiler elements is the combined long-term
effect of the internal pressure and high temperature (above 450 °C) of superheated
steam in superheater tubes, headers and main steam pipelines. This may lead to a
special kind of plastic deformation in which the strain increases slowly and continu-
ously at a constant stress below the yield stress and the size of the element gradually
increases and as the residual plastic deformation attains a definite limit, rupture of
the metal occurs. Figure 1.3 shows creep curves of steel at various temperatures and
constant stress (σ ).
Here temperature t 1 < t 2 < t 3 . The creep curve at temperature t 1 can be divided
into three portions as oa, ab and bc. Portion oa (the portion of alternating creep)
corresponds to a short initial period I when the metal is even strengthened slightly
(primary creep). Then follows a longer period II of steady-state (secondary) creep
(portion ab) during which an element still can operate reliably without rupture. The
rate of rupture during that period is constant
θ = Δl/T = tan α. (1.1)
In the final critical period III of accelerated creep (portion bc), a high plastic
deformation occurs in an element (for instance, “inflation” of superheater header),
after which rupture takes place at point c. Reliable operation of element is only
possible within the period II of steady-state creep. At a higher temperature (t 2 or t 3 ),
Fig. 1.3 Creep curves of

steel at various temperatures
and constant stress (σ )
1.1 Material for Steam Boilers 7
the process of creep occurs in a similar manner, but more quickly the steady-state
creep increases and rupture takes place earlier. The stress at which the rate of creep
during period II does not exceed the specified value or the stress that causes the
total plastic deformation during a specified time of operation not above a safe limit
is called the creep stress or creep strength σ cr . For most steel grades, the allowable
total plastic deformation of 1% after 100,000 h of operation is allowed [10]. The
strength of the metal in operation under creep conditions can be characterized by
the long-term strength. As the metal is stressed under creep conditions, the time of
its reliable operation up to rupture depends on the stress applied. The stress which
causes rupture of the metal in creep during a specified period is called the long-term
strength. The relationship between stress (σ ) and time to rupture (T p ) at constant
temperature (t) is shown below (Figure 1.4).
Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show the experimental curves relating stress versus time to
rupture and stress versus creep rate respectively for 2.25 Cr-1 Mo steel.
Materials for fossil boiler construction can vary within the boiler depending on
duty requirements, economics and the availability of the component in the sizes
required. Materials that are mostly used for fossil fuel boiler construction are listed
below. Property requirements and materials for construction are given in Tables 1.1
and 1.2 [4].
Maximum tube metal temperatures permitted by ASME code for boiler manufac-
ture are given in Table 1.3 [11].
Fig. 1.4 Relationship

between long-term strength
and time to rupture
Fig. 1.5 Stress versus time

to rupture relationship for
2.25 Cr-1 Mo steel [4]
8 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.6 Stress versus creep rate for 2.25 Cr−1 Mo steel [4]
Table 1.1 Property requirements and materials for construction

Component Major property requirement Typical materials
Water wall tubes Corrosion resistance, tensile properties and weldability Carbon and C-Mo
steel
Drum Tensile strength, corrosion resistance, weldability, C, C-Mo and
corrosion fatigue strength C-Mn steels
Superheater/ Weldability, creep strength, oxidation resistance, low C-Mo, austenitic
re-heater tubes coefficient of thermal expansion stainless steel
Steam piping Weldability, creep strength, oxidation resistance, low C-Mo, austenitic
coefficient of thermal expansion stainless steel
Boiler tubes are seamless, extruded tubes and can vary all the way from carbon
steel in the low temperature water wall section to austenitic stainless steel in the
finishing stages of the superheater.
Selection of material depends on their creep strength and resistance to oxidation at
high temperature. The ASME, boiler and pressure vessel code of section 1, paragraph
A-150 states the criteria for determining the maximum permissible stress. Table 1.4
shows maximum tube metal temperature permitted by ASME code and other boiler
manufacturers.
Figures 1.7 and 1.8 show the graphical relationship on the effect of temperature
on ASME boiler and pressure vessel code allowable stress for different grades of
steel tubing.
1.2 Design Life of Components
Components which operate at low temperature below the creep regime are generally
designed on the basis of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and fatigue strength
by applying suitable safety factor to these values. Because deformation and fracture
Table 1.2 Material used in boiler construction as per ASME/ASTM code
Alloy Product ASME/ Grade Min Min.yield Composition
form AS Tensile strength C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo
1.2 Design Life of Components
TM No strength
(ksi) (ksi)
Carbon steels Tube SA-192 – 47 26 0.06–0.18 0.27–0.63 0.048 0.058 0.25 – – –
Low strength
Intermediate Tube SA-210 A1 60 37 0.27 0.93 0.048 0.058 0.10 – – –
strength
High strength Pipe SA-106 C 70 40 0.35 0.29–1.06 0.048 0.058 0.10 – – –
Ferritic Pipe SA-335 P12 60 30 0.15 0.30–0.60 0.045 0.045 0.50 0.80–1.25 0.440.65
alloys
1 Cr. 1 /2 Mo
21 /4 Cr.1 Mo Tube SA-213 T22 60 30 0.15 0.30–0.60 0.030 0.030 0.50 1.90–2.60 0.87–1.13
9 Cr.1 Mo Tube SA-213 T9 60 30 0.15 0.30–0.60 0.030 0.030 0.25–1.00 8.00–10.00 0.90–1.10
9
10 1 Introduction
Table 1.3 Maximum tube metal temperatures permitted by ASME code for boiler manufacture
Tube steel type ASME specification Maximum temperature (° C)
Carbon steel SA 178 C 538
Carbon steel SA 192 538
Carbon steel SA 210 A1 538
C-Mo steel SA 209 T1 538
Cr-Mo steel SA 213 T11 649
Cr-Mo steel SA 213 T22 649
Stainless steel SA 213, 321H 816
Table 1.4 Maximum tube metal temperatures permitted by ASME code and boiler manufacturers
[4]
Tube steel type ASME ASME ° F (°C) Babcock and Combustion Riley stoker
specification Wilcox ° F (° C) engineering ° F (°C)
No ° F (°C)
Carbon steel SA-178 C 1000 (538) 950 (510) 850 (454) 850 (454)
Carbon steel SA-192 1000 (538) 950 (510) 850 (454) –
Carbon steel SA-210 A1 1000 (538) 950 (510) 850 (454) 850 (454)
C-Mo steel SA-209 T1 1000 (538) – 900 (482) 900 (482)
C-Mo steel SA-209 T1a 1000 (538) 975 (524) – –
Cr–Mo steel SA-213 T11 1200 (649) 1050 (566) 1025 (552) 1025 (552)
SA-213 T22 1200 (649) 1115 (602) 1075 (580) 1075 (580)
Stainless steel SA-213 1500 (816) 1400 (760) – 1500 (816)
321H
Stainless steel SA 213 1500 (816) – 1300 (704) –
347H
Stainless steel SA-213 1500 (816) 1400 (760) 1300 (704) –
304H
are not time dependent under these conditions, there is no specific value of design
life associated with them. In principle, as long as the applied stresses do not exceed
the design stresses, these components should last indefinitely, although in practice,
various factors cause reduction in life.
In case of high-temperature components operating in the creep regime, both defor-
mation and fracture are time dependent. They are, therefore, designed with respect
to a target life usually based on a specified amount of allowable strain in 100,000 h.
A further factor of safety is applied in selecting the stress which translates into an
expected life of 30–40 years. Many metallurgical and operational factors can extend
the actual life of the component beyond the design life. Alternatively, if these factors
are adverse, actual life can be reduced. Some of the many favorable and unfavor-
able factors that hold the balance between design life and actual life are illustrated
schematically below [12].
1.2 Design Life of Components 11
Fig. 1.7 Effect of

temperature on ASME boiler
and pressure vessel code
allowable stress for several
grades of steel tubing [4]
Fig. 1.8 Use of boiler and

pressure vessel code criteria
to establish the allowable
stress for a 21 /4 Cr.-1 Mo
steel [4]
12 1 Introduction
Actual Life
• Use of minimum properties in design
• Factor of safety in design
• Conservative operation of unit
• Inaccuracies of data extrapolation
• Overestimation of oxidation effects
Design Life
• Unanticipated stresses-
e.g., residual, systems stresses
• Operation outside design limits-
e.g., excessive temperature, load cycling
of base load units
• Operation and environmental effects
• Degradation of material properties in service-
Actual Life e.g., softening, temper embrittlement etc.
• Use of minimum properties in design.

• Factor of safety in design.
• Conservative operation of unit.
• Inaccuracies of data extrapolation.
• Overestimation of oxidation effects.
• Unanticipated stresses-e.g., residual, systems stresses.
• Operation outside design limits- e.g., excessive temperature, load cycling of base
load units.
• Operation and environmental effects.
• Degradation of material properties in service- e.g., softening, temper embrittle-
ment. etc.
If the actual material of construction exceeds these expectation, the actual can
then be far exceed the design life. A number of factors can also lead to premature
failure of components. Stresses in components frequently exceed the design stresses
as a result of hidden residual stresses, system stresses and local stress concentra-
tion. Operating temperatures in boilers invariably exceed design temperature at least
over short duration reducing component life. Unanticipated start up and shut down
cycle lead to fatigue damage not originally provided in the design criteria. Unan-
ticipated environmental effects leading to corrosion pitting, stress corrosion, etc.
leading to major reduction in life. Pre-existing fabricated defect may cause crack
initiation and growth of crack during service and lead to premature failures. Last
but not least important factor adversely affecting the component life is the in-service
degradation of components due to various microstructural changes and embrittlement
phenomena.
References 13
1.3 Conclusion
In spite of the best efforts of design engineers and material scientists, engineering
components fail in service. In some cases, failure may lead to serious consequences
like huge financial loss, environmental contamination and even loss of life. The failure
of industrial boilers has been a prominent feature in fossil fuel fired power plants.
The contribution of several factors appears to be responsible for failures, culminating
in the partial or complete shutdown of the plant. There are several mechanisms of
boiler tube failure, including short term overheating, high temperature creep, high
temperature failure, caustic corrosion, hydrogen damage, dissimilar weld failure,
manufacturing defects, corrosion fatigue etc. These mechanisms can lead to various
types of tube failures, such as fish mouth type rupture, small fracture opening at the
apex of bulge, thick edged fracture, thin edged fracture, window type opening, thick-
edge split type fracture, cracks and pin hole type leaks, which can cause catastrophic
incidents.
In the event of a failure it is therefore essential to investigate the root cause of
failure in terms of design, quality of material and fabrication procedure. A failure
analyst must have an open mind and be ready to examine and evaluate the views of
other involved in operation of power plant. There are innumerable case studies have
been reported and case studies reported indicated that actual mechanism of boiler
tube failure can be identified through systematic metallurgical investigation. Based
on the mechanism of failure, sequence of events that led to failure can be drawn and
corrective actions can be suggested for preventing re-occurrence of similar failure.
Hence, it may be concluded that investigation into the cause of boiler tube failure is
very much helpful in improving the availability and reliability of boilers.
References
1. G. Bernasconi, G. Piatti (eds.), Creep of Engineering Materials and Structures (Applied Science
Publishers, London, 1979)
2. R. Viswanathan, J.R. Foulds, D.I. Roberts, Proceedings on boiler tube failures in fossil power
plants. vol. 10 (Palo Alto, CA, EPRI, 1987) pp. 3.35–53
3. R. Viswanathan, J.R. Foulds, Service experience, structural integrity, severe accidents and
erosion in nuclear and fossil plants. ASME Press Vess. Pip. 303, 187–205 (1995)
4. R. Viswanathan, in Damage Mechanisms and Life Assessment of High Temperature Compo-
nents (Metals Park (OH), ASM International, 1989)
5. M.C. Coleman, J.D. Parker, D.T. Welters, Behaviour of ferritic weldments in thick section
Cr–Mo–V pipe at elevated temperatures. Int. J. Press Vess. Pip. 18, 277–310 (1985)
6. G.A. Lamping, R.M. Arrowwood, Manual for investigation and correction of boiler tube
failures. Report CS-3945, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, April (1985)
7. F. Garofalo, Fundamentals of creep and creep rupture in metals. Mae Millan series in material
science NY (1965)
8. J. Bressers (ed.), Creep and Fatigue in High Temperature Alloys (Applied Science Publishers,
London, 1981)
14 1 Introduction
9. A. Saha, Boiler tube failures: some case studies, Chapter 3. in Handbook of Materials Failure
Analysis with Case Studies from Chemical, Concrete, and Power Industries (2016). ISBN No.
978-0-08-100116-5
10. M.I. Reznikov, Y.M. Lipov, Steam Boiler of Thermal Power Station (MIR publication, Moscow,
1985)
11. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I (1995)
12. Manual for investigation and correction of boiler tube failure EPRI, CS-3945 (1991)
Chapter 2
Failure/Damage Mechanism of Boiler
Tube
Much of work has been carried out and still going on regarding boiler tube failure
mechanisms by renowned organizations and individuals. Some of the organizations
who are in the field are Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI, USA), Central Elec-
tricty Generating Board (CEGB, UK), ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessels, USA,
Combustion Engineering, USA, etc. Failure of boiler tubes is the prime reason of
boiler outage in most of the countries. Boiler tube failures are of immense concern to
utility companies and boiler manufacturers. There are many reports regarding failure
modes and mechanisms. Damage mechanisms mostly contribute the maximum
percentage of tube failures [1–3] are:
1. Short-term overheating
2. High-temperature creep
3. Caustic corrosion and
4. Hydrogen Damage.
2.1 Short-Term Overheating
Stress and temperature influence the useful life of tubing steels operating in a boiler.
The strength of a boiler tube is dependent on the level of stress as well as temper-
ature when the tube metal temperatures are in the creep range. Since an increase
in either stress or temperature can reduce the time to rupture, attention must be
given to both factors when investigation is to be carried out regarding failure caused
by stress-rupture mechanism. Stress-rupture failure mechanisms are predominantly
experienced in steam cooled superheater and re-heater sections where the operating
temperature is in the creep range. Stress rupture can also be experienced in water
cooled tubing if abnormal heat transfer conditions exists that results in an increase
in the tubes operating temperature [4, 5]. If the thickness of the tube decreases by
corrosion, or erosion, the hoop stress will increase and hence the likelihood of failure.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_2
16 2 Failure/Damage Mechanism of Boiler Tube
The circumferential hoop stress in a tube is determined by the diameter and thickness
of the tube as stated in Eq. (2.2).
The “overheating failure” means a failure resulting from operation of a tube at
temperature higher than expected in design selection of the tube steel for a period of
time sufficient to cause a stress rupture failure. Time at temperature is an impor-
tant factor, and these types of failures are called “short-term” and “long-term”
overheating.
Causes of short-term overheating
A short-term overheating failure is one in which incident/incidents exposes the tube
steel to an excessively high temperature to the point where deformation or yielding
occurs. Overheating results from abnormal conditions [6] such as loss of coolant
flow and excessive boiler gas temperature. Such types of abnormalities are created
by:
(i) Internal blockage of the tube
(ii) Loss of coolant circulation or low water level
(iii) Loss of coolant due to an upstream tube failure and
(iv) Overfiring or uneven firing of boiler fuel burners.
The abnormalities created by serial nos. (i), (ii) and (iii) are produced due to
starvation or low coolant flow failure. A tube can be blocked by erection and repair
debris, tools, steel shots, deposits from carry over or spray water or loose pieces of
internal non-pressure part hardware such as nuts, bolts and other steel parts. In tubing
containing water, blockage will reduce coolant flow which will in film boiling and
produce local metal temperature approaching the furnace gas temperature.
Loss of coolant circulation can have several causes, such as low drum-water level
or failure in the same tube at a different location. In adequate coolant, turbulence or
circulation in a region of high heat flux can result in a deviation from the normal
nucleate type of boiling condition that is desired inside a water cooled tube. A
departure from nucleate boiling condition results when steam bubbles in the hot
tube surface begin to interface with the flow of water coolant to the tube metal
surface. The bubbles can eventually cover the inside surface and produce a film
of steam which restricts the flow of heat away from the tube. When film type of
boiling exists in a water cooled tube, the metal temperature can exceed 540 °C. Film
boiling can also be produced when overfiring or uneven firing of fuel burners results
in the region of high heat flux. In general, short-term overheating failure involves
considerable tube deformation in the form of metal elongation and reduction in
wall area or cross section. Such types of failure are often characterized as knife-
edge fracture surface. The elongation and deformation normally encountered with
short-term overheating. Wall thinning and local bulging precede the actual fracture,
because the strength of the material is very much reduced at the higher temperature.
A fish-mouth appearance with thin-edge fracture surfaces and considerable swelling
is typical for a ferritic steel tube that has failed before its temperature has exceeded
the upper critical temperature (Ac3 ). If the tube temperature was high enough to
transform the steel from ferrite to austenite, there will be no noticeable necking down
2.1 Short-Term Overheating 17
or reduction in wall thickness of the fracture edges. There will still be metal elongation
and tube swelling so that measurement of the tube diameter will show an increase.
A metallurgical analysis of the microstructure of the steel should be performed to
confirm that the tube temperature prior to failure was high enough to transform the
ferrite to austenite. Changes in tube ID and OD measurement can be the indicator
of overheating. Increase of 5% or more is indicator of short-term overheating, and
also significant changes in microstructure in carbon steel will occur when the steel
is overheated. A normalized microstructure of carbon steel boiler tubing consists of
ferrite and pearlite phases. Above the lower critical temperature (Ac1 ), the pearlite
will begin to transform to austenite. At the upper critical temperature (Ac3 ), the
conversion to austenite is complete. Upon the rapid cooling that occurs when the
tube bursts, the austenite will transform to martensite.
Figure 2.1 shows the locations where short-term overheating can occur.
Figures. 2.2 and 2.3 show the typical short-term overheating failure of boiler tube.
Preventive measure to avoid short-term overheating
In general, quality control measures should be enforced to prevent the followings:
(i) Tube blockage
(ii) Low coolant flow rates
Fig. 2.1 Boiler locations where short-term overheating can occur [2]
Fig. 2.2 Unusual short-term

overheating failure.
Excessive swelling but
thick-edged fracture surfaces
are produced when a tube’s
metal temperature exceeds
its upper critical temperature
(Ac3 ) and the iron in the
steel has been completely
transformed from ferrite to
austenite [2]
Fig. 2.3 Typical short-term

overheating failure.
Excessive swelling and
thin-edged fracture surfaces
are produced when the tube’s
metal temperature becomes
several hundred degrees
above its normal operating
temperature but below its
upper critical temperature
(Ac3 ). Most tubes fall before
reaching about 600 °F (300
°C) over operating
conditions [2]
(iii) Low drum water levels and

(iv) Excessive firing rates.
Maintenance procedures should be followed during welding of tube joints to
prevent tools, cutting debris, weld spatter from entering the tube circuit. Oper-
ating instructions should be followed to avoid low water levels, excessive firing
rates, improper-fuel-burner operation, excessive de-superheating sprays or low heat
transfer through water walls.
2.2 High Temperature Creep
Boiler tube failure can result from high-temperature creep of superheater and re-
heater tube steel. Metal degradation and permanent deformation will occur with time
depending on the actual stress level and temperature. If temperatures and stresses
2.2 High Temperature Creep 19
exceed design selection values, the tube steel will exhibit a higher creep rate and will
fail earlier than expected.
High-temperature creep failures are called “long-term” or extended overheating
failures. Such a failure results from a relatively continuous extended period of slight
overheating, a slowly increasing level of temperature or stress, or accumulation from
several periods of excessive overheating. The creep occurs along the grain boundaries
of the steel and is aligned 90° from the direction of applied tensile stress. Creep
deformation results in little or no reduction in wall thickness but produces measurable
creep elongation or increase in diameter in ferritic steel tubes. The creep cavitation
of the superheater/re-heater tube due to exposure at higher temperature and stress
was shown by earlier investigators [6–9]. Figure 2.6 shows the locations of the
boiler where high-temperature creep can occur. Figure 2.7 shows blister-type high-
temperature creep failure, and Figure 2.8 shows fish-mouth-type high-temperature
creep failure.
Causes of high-temperature creep
High-temperature creep develops from insufficient boiler-coolant circulation,
elevated boiler gas temperature and material properties that are inadequate for
actual operating conditions. These abnormal conditions are created by the following
circumstances:
(i) Internal restriction of tube coolant
(ii) Reduction of heat transfer capacity due to internal (steam side) surface oxide
scales or chemical deposits
(iii) Periodic overfiring or uneven firing of fuel burners
(iv) Blockage of boiler gas passage
(v) Operation of a tube material at a higher temperature than allowable temperature
and
(vi) Increase in stress due to wall thinning.
High-temperature creep usually results in a longitudinal fracture on the heated
side of the tube. A small fracture forms a blister-type opening, whereas a longer
fracture will exhibit a wide, fish-mouth-type appearance. The fracture surface has
thick edges or thick lips because the creep damage creates link up of individual voids
and black oxide-filled cracks. Secondary cracking adjacent to the main fracture is
extensive and is a positive indication of creep. The thickness of the tube at the fracture
edge is an indication of a very long-term creep failure.
ASME boiler and pressure vessel code allows 1% creep in 100,000 hours of oper-
ating time. If temperature and stresses are higher than the design selection temper-
ature or stress, then the tube steel will experience a higher creep rate and will fail
earlier than expected.
A commonly used parametric analysis method is called the Larson–Miller method,
where time and temperature are related by the following equation [10]
T (20 + log10 tr ) × 10−3 = P (2.1)

where
P Larson–Miller parameter
T Absolute temperature in ° R (° F + 460)
t r Rupture time in hours.
Plot of the rupture stress as a function of LMP will result in a single line which can
be used to assess the changes in expected tube steel life when operating conditions
are varied. If the operating stress, temperature and time can be determined, the LMP
parameter can be used to calculate the remaining time to rupture for tube material as
shown in Figs. 2.4 and 2.5 for 1 Cr 1 /2 Mo and 21 /4 Cr 1 Mo steel, respectively.
The time to rupture will decrease if the applied stress and/or temperature is
increased. Cyclic applications of stresses and temperature from boiler load changes
will also aggravate these effects on tube life. Wall thickness from erosion, corrosion
or radiation will increase the stresses. The stress level of tube can be estimated by
knowing the OD, ID and wall thickness. Since the wall thickness decreases with time
due to corrosion, erosion, etc., periodic measurement of the actual wall dimension is
necessary to determine the corrosion rate to estimate correct and future stress level.
Fig. 2.4 Variation of

Larson–Miller rupture
parameter with stress for
wrought 11 /4 Cr−1 /2 Mo-Si
steel [11]
Fig. 2.5 Variation of

Larson–Miller rupture
parameter with stress for
annealed 21 /4 Cr−1 Mo steel
[11]
An estimation of the hoop stress can be obtained from the mean diameter formula
σH = PDM /2W (2.2)
where
σH Estimated hoop stress
P Internal stress pressure
DM Mean tube diameter
W Tube wall thickness.
Figure 2.6 shows the locations of the boiler where high-temperature creep can
occur.
Figure 2.7 shows blister-type high-temperature creep failure.
Figure 2.8 shows the fish-mouth-type high-temperature creep failure.
Preventive measure to avoid high-temperature creep
Prevention of high-temperature creep failure involves keeping the tube metal stress
and temperature within the capabilities of tube material. Overheating and/or over-
stressing the tube material beyond its design limit as established by ASME or the
boiler manufacturer accelerates creep deformation and results in premature tube
failure.
Fig. 2.6 Boiler locations where high-temperature creep can occur [2]
Corrective action for control of high-temperature creep failure depends on the

specific cause for overheating or overstressing [12].
• Failure from overheating caused by internal flow restrictions or tube heat transfer
reductions can be avoided by removal of scale, debris or deposits that have accu-
mulated inside the tube. High-pressure fluid flushing or chemical cleaning may be
necessary to restore the design coolant flow or tube heat transfer characteristics.
Fig. 2.7 Blister-type

high-temperature creep
failure. Typical features of a
long-term, local overheating,
creep rupture failure include
small fracture opening at the
apex of a bulge, creep
elongation only in blister
area, and little or no wall
reduction in non-blistered
area [2]
Fig. 2.8 Fish-mouth-type

failure. Typical features of a
long-term, general
overheating, creep rupture
failure include an
open-mouthed longitudinal
split and thick-edged fracture
surface. Oxide scale on the
external and internal surfaces
also indicates a
failure [2]
• Failure from overstressing caused by wall thinning can be controlled and assessed
well in advance by applying ultrasonic wall thickness measurements with residual
life estimates.
• Failure from creep damages caused by periods of operation at metal temperatures
above the design limit can be controlled by restoring boiler design conditions or
by upgrading tube material. Measurements of actual tube metal temperature can
show where design limits are being exceeded. When actual temperatures cannot
be reduced, the tube material should be replaced with a higher-chromium-content
ferritic steel or austenitic stainless steel. Residual life estimates can be performed
to determine when tube failures can be expected so that corrective action can be
taken prior to their occurrence.
2.2.1 Temperature Measurement Based on Steam Side Oxide

Scale Thickness Measurement
One of the crucial parameters in estimation of creep life is the operating mean metal
temperature. Due to load fluctuation and steam side oxide scale growth during oper-
ation, it is unlikely that a constant metal temperature is maintained during service. It
is, therefore, more convenient to established an “equivalent” or mean metal temper-
ature in service by examination of such parameters as hardness, microstructure and
thickness of the steam side oxide scale. Because the changes of these parameters are
functions of time and temperature, their values may be used to estimate an equivalent
thermal history for a given operating time.
Extensive data indicate that in relatively pure steam, the growth of oxide scale
is a function of temperature and time of exposure alone and is presumed to obey
specific rate laws. Several expressions have been proposed in literature to describe
oxide scale growth kinetics [13–15] as given in Table 2.1.
Figure 2.9 shows the empirical relationship between oxide scale thickness and
Larson–Miller parameter for 21 /4 Cr−1 Mo steel.
Table 2.1 Expressions for oxide-growth kinetics in Cr–Mo steels

No Expression (a) Steel Temperature range, °C (°F)
Units
1 Log X = −7.1438 + 2.1761 × Below FeO X in mils T in °R
10−4 T (20 + Log t)1 − 3% Cr formation
2 Y 2 = kt T in K
For 1 Cr-1 /2 Mo:
Log k = (−7380/T ) + 2.23 [T ≤ 585 585 (1085)
°C (1085 °F)] 1 Cr-1 /2 Mo
Log k = (−48,333/T ) + 49.28 [T > 585 (1085)
585 °C (1085 °F)] 1 Cr-1 /2 Mo
For 21 /4 Cr-1 Mo:
Log k = (−7380/T ) + 1.98 [T ≤ 595 595 (1103)
°C (1103 °F)] 21 /4 Cr-1 Mo
Log k = (−48,333/T ) + 49.2 [T > 595 595 (1103)
°C (1103 °F] 21 /4 Cr-1 Mo
3 Log X = −6.8398 + 2.83 × 10 −4 T 429–649 X in mils T in °R
(13.62 + Log t) 21 /4 Cr-1Mo 800–1200
(a) X is scale thickness; y is metal loss (penetration); T is temperature; t is time, in hours; all
logarithms to base 10. °R = °F + 460; K = °C + 273; 1 mm = 103 μm = 40 mils; y = 0.42x
2.3 Hydrogen Damage 25
Fig. 2.9 Empirical

relationship between oxide
scale thickness and a time
temperature parameter for
21 /4 Cr−1 Mo steel in
isothermal steam
environments [15]
2.3 Hydrogen Damage
Boiler tube failure caused by hydrogen damage resulted from liberation of atomic
hydrogen during corrosion process [16, 17]. This hydrogen is capable of diffusing
into the metal wall. It may pass through the wall into the furnace environment. If
the atomic hydrogen reacts with carbide (Fe3 C) phase of tube wall metal to form
methane (CH4 ).
4H + Fe3 C = CH4 + 3Fe, the outward diffusion ceases and methane begins
to accumulate within the tube wall. The accumulation sites for the CH4 are grain
boundaries adjacent to colonies of pearlite, the Fe3 C-containing constituent of the
microstructure. CH4 gas pressure at the grain boundaries eventually exceeds the grain
boundary strength, resulting in short, discontinuous, randomly oriented microcracks.
Interlinkages of these microcracks diminish the load carrying cross section of the
tube wall metal. Eventually, a thick-walled-ruptured tube metal occurs.
Fig. 2.10 shows the locations of the boiler where hydrogen damage can occur
(Fig. 2.11).
Causes of Hydrogen Damage
Hydrogen is generated under the following circumstances:
(i) Operation of boiler with low PH water chemistry from the ingress of acidic salts
through condenser leakage, contamination from chemical cleanings, etc.
(ii) Concentration of the corrosive contaminants within the deposits on the internal
tube wall, especially in crevices, shallow pits and under weld backing rings.
Hydrogen damage usually produces a blow out of a rectangular section of the tube
in a manner described as a “window opening”. The edges of the fracture are thick
because the tube steel has been weakened by the decarburization of the iron carbide
(cementite) and by the formation of the methane-filled microfissures. Hydrogen-
damaged tube steel will crack if tensile stress is applied because the metal fails in a
Fig. 2.10 Boiler locations where hydrogen damage can occur [2]
Fig. 2.11 Hydrogen

damage, “window opening”
and “thick-edge split”-type
failure [2]
2.4 Caustic Corrosion/Gouging 27
brittle manner. The amount of hydrogen damage is directly related to the corrosion
rate since it controls the rate of hydrogen-ion reduction and diffusion through the
metal. Where the corrosion rate is very high in localized areas, the hydrogen gener-
ation and the diffusion rates can result in hydrogen concentrations in the steel that
will initiate the hydrogen carbon reaction and result in significant decarburization
and cracking.
Corrective action to prevent hydrogen damage
Boiler water chemistry monitoring and control practices are important factors in
prevention of internal tube deposit and hydrogen damage corrosion attack. The
deposit thickness and amount as well as its constituents are important criteria in deter-
mining when chemical cleaning of the boiler is necessary. Chemical cleaning should
be immediately considered when the boiler water PH has been below 7 for more than
one hour due to ingress of saline condenser cooling water or acidic chemicals from
water treatment facility.
Successful chemical cleaning can remove the internal deposits and stop the further
generation of hydrogen. If insufficient wall thickness and material strength remain for
sustaining the operating pressure, the tube metal will yield and ductile-type fracture
will be experienced later in service.
Ultrasonic wall thickness measurement could be carried out to locate the reduced
wall thickness areas. The hydrostatic test should be carried out at 1.5 times the
operating pressure and held for several hours to observe pressure drop due to leakage.
2.4 Caustic Corrosion/Gouging
Caustic corrosion/gouging occurs when alkalinity of boiler water increases. Caustic

corrosion is also called caustic attack. Caustic corrosion develops from deposition
of feed water corrosion products in which NaOH can concentrate to high PH levels.
At high PH level, the tube steel’s protective magnetic oxide coating is solubilized,
and rapid corrosion occurs [10] as per the reaction given below:
4 NaOH + Fe3 O4 = 2 NaFeO2 + 2 H2 O
With the destruction of protective magnetic oxide layer, concentrated NaOH reacts
with the tube material and forms atomic hydrogen as per the reaction
Fe + 2 NaOH = Na2 FeO2 + 2 H
The atomic hydrogen so produced reacts with Fe3 C of pearlite constituent and
form CH4 which ultimately causes hydrogen damage discussed earlier. The tube
surface deposits accumulate at locations where flow is disrupted such as welds with
backing rings, at bends, in horizontal tube weld and at high heat input locations.
Causes of caustic corrosion

Caustic corrosion occurs through
(i) Selective deposition of feed water system or preboiler corrosion products at
locations of high heat flux.
(ii) Concentration of NaOH from boiler water chemicals or from upsets in water
chemistry.
Depositions occur when boiler water is converted into steam, and the dissolved
solids concentrate in a residual film. The solids’ concentration in this film increases
with the increase of temperature. When the deposit thickness becomes great enough
to make caustic concentrations locally corrosive, caustic corrosion can proceed to
failure in a very short time. Caustic corrosion results in irregular wall thinning or
gouging of tube’s water-side surface, and failures are the result of the corrosion metal
loss. As the thickness is reduced by corrosion, the hoop stress imposed by the water
pressure is increased and a ductile tensile failure results. Considerable wall thinning
can occur (up to 75% wall thickness) before failure. The corrosion process can be
stopped by proper water quality and by chemical cleaning to remove wall deposits.
Once corrosion is stopped, thinned tubes that can withstand the higher stress level
will not continue to fail. Since water wall tubes of drum-type boilers are not operated
in the high-temperature creep range, the higher stress level has no longer effect.
Figure 2.12 shows the locations of the boiler where caustic corrosion can occur
(Fig. 2.13).
Corrective actions to prevent Caustic Corrosion
In general, caustic corrosion occurs under conditions of relatively high boiler water
alkalinity. Such corrosion damage may be reduced by minimizing the ingress of
Fig. 2.12 Boiler locations

where caustic corrosion can
occur [18]
References 29
Fig. 2.13 Caustic corrosion gouging. Severe localized gouging on the heat absorption side of
this SA-210 water wall tube was caused by caustic corrosion beneath a deposit. Once the caustic
concentration within a deposit becomes great enough to cause corrosion, the reaction becomes
self-perpetuating and causes a through-wall leak within a very short time [2]
deposit-forming materials and by performing periodic removal of water-side deposits

by chemical cleaning.
Rigorous monitoring and control of the boiler water chemistry are necessary to
prevent high caustic level.
Elimination of welds with backing rings and other irregularities of welded joint
can be beneficial.
References
1. Manual for investigation and correction of boiler tube failure EPRI, CS-3945 (1991)
2. G.A. Lamping, R.M. Arrowwood, Manual for investigation and correction of boiler tube
failures. Report CS-3945, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, April (1985)
3. A. Saha, Boiler tube failures: some case studies, Chapter 3. in Handbook of Materials Failure
Analysis with case studies from Chemical, Concrete, and Power Industries (2016). ISBN No.
978-0-08-100116-5
4. R.B. Dooley, D. Briske, (Ed.) Boiler tube failures in fossil fuel power plant project no. CS
5500, SR, EPRI (1988)
5. R. Viswanathan, R.B. Dooley, Creep life assessment technique for fossil power plant boiler
pressure parts. in Proceedings of International Conference on Creep ASTM-ASME, Tokyo,
(1986)
6. G. Joseph, Singer (Ed.), in Combustion in Fossil Power System, 3rd edn (Windsor, Combustion
Engineering Inc., 1981)
7. A. Saha, H. Roy, A.K Shukla, Failure of a pendent reheater tube in a 110 MW thermal power
plant. J. High Temp. Mater Process 33(4), 299–304 (2014)
8. A. Saha, A.K. Shukla, Failure of a secondary superheater tube in a 140 MW thermal power
plant. J. Fail. Anal. Prev. 14, 10–12 (2014)
9. A. Saha, H. Roy, A.K. Shukla, Failure of a final superheater tube in a 140 MW thermal power
10. F. R Larson, J. Miller, A time-temperature relationship for rupturing and creep stresses
Transactions of ASME (1952)
11. R. Viswanathan, Damage mechanisms and life assessment of high temperature components.
(Metals Park (OH), ASM International, 1989)
12. O.I. Roberts, Magnetic oxide thickness, time-temperature model for 21 /4 Cr-1Mo operating at
high pressure steam, G.A. Technologies, San Diego (1986)
13. S.R. Paterson, T.W. Ratting, Remaining life estimation of boiler pressure parts-21 /4 Cr-1 Mo
superheater and reheater tubes, Project No. RP 2253–5, EPRI, Palo, Atlo, CA (1987)
14. M. Dewitte, J. Stubbe, Personal Communication to D.A. Roberts of G.A. Technologies, San
Diego, Laboratories Co., Belgium (1986).
15. H.A. Grabowski, H.A. Klein, Corrosion and Hydrogen Damage in High Pressure Boilers
(National association for corrosion engineers, USA, 1964)
16. Hydrogen damage Symposium, ASME IEEE National Power Conference, (Combustion, USA
,1963)
17. R. D. Port, Identification of corrosion damage in fossil fuel utility boiler. in Boiler Tube Failure
in Fossil Fuel Power Plant, Conference Proceeding, EPRI (1988)
18. A.F. Armor, Boiler tube failure, the number one availability problems for utilities, Failure and
inspection of fossil fired boiler tube conference and workshop, EPRI (1983)
Part II
Case Studies
All possible types of boiler tube failure mechanisms have been discussed in detail
in section 4.0. Investigation into the probable causes of failure requires gath-
ering of physical evidence or data through a systematic problem analysis. The
important parameters that may require determination by calculation, observation
or measurement are as follows:
• Tube metal temperature
• Tube metal stress
• Tube metal thickness
• Tube metal diameter
• Tube metal material properties
• Tube metal microstructure
• Boiler water quality
• Boiler water ﬂow
• Fuel constituents
• Fuel gas temperature
• Tube deposit constituents and
• Steam side scale thickness
Online monitoring periodic sampling laboratory testing is some of the three ways
to quantify these three critical parameters.
Chapter 3
Case 1A: Short-Term Overheating
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a secondary superheater tube by

the way of wide open burst over a localized area and referred the problem to probe
into the metallurgical cause/causes of such failure through systematic diagnostic
approach.
Technical data relating to the problem are as follows:
(i) Date of commissioning/capacity: September, 1966/140 MW
(ii) Load at the time of failure: 61 MW
(iii) Location of failure: Secondary superheater (inlet tube) front side
(iv) Feed water inlet temperature: 150 °C
(v) Secondary superheater steam at the time of failure:
Designed pressure 136.5 Kg/cm2

Actual pressure 101 Kg/cm2
Designed temperature 540 °C
Actual temperature 402 °C
(vi) Material specification: BS 3059-Part 2-S2-ST-622.50 Cat 2–1968

(vii) Dimension of original tube: 11 /4 inch OD X 0.372 inch thickness
3.1 Scope of Work
(i) Visual inspection

(ii) Dimensional measurement
(iii) Chemical analysis of the tube material
(iv) Evaluation of mechanical properties
(a) Hardness measurement

(b) Tensile strength at room temperature
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_3
34 3 Case 1A: Short-Term Overheating
Fig. 3.1 General view of the

burst and typical cracking of
scale
(v) Metallographic examination to analyze microstructural features of the tube

material
(vi) Analysis of findings and identification of probable causes of failure.
3.2 Examination Details
3.2.1 Visual Inspection
(i) The tube sample was visually inspected, and following physical evidences were
noted.
(ii) The tube failed by longitudinal cracking, and the failed zone was accompanied
by noticeable swelling of the tube circumstances. The general view of failed
tube sample is shown (Fig. 3.1).
(iii) There was a thick and tightly adherent scale on the outside surface over the
length of the failed tube and which had cracked along the tube axis in a typical
manner (Fig. 3.1)
(iv) A thick and tightly adherent scale on internal surface over the length of the
failed tube was also observed, and the scale had cracked in an identical manner
(Fig. 3.2).
3.2.2 Dimensional Measurement
Outside diameter (OD) of the failed tube was measured at selected locations and is
shown in following Table 3.1.
3.2 Examination Details 35
Fig. 3.2 General view of internal surface of ruptured tube and longitudinal cracking of scale
Table 3.1 Outside diameter of the failed tube sample

Locations OD along the line of rupture with OD with scale transverse to the line of rupture
scale (mm) (mm)
1 46.15 47.40
2 47.50 47.00
3 52.10 50.50
4 56.50 59.80
5 61.00 59.50
6 56.00 57.00
7 58.50 59.50
8 59.50 58.80
Fig. 3.3 Dimensional measurement of the ruptured tube
3.2.3 Chemical Analysis
The materials of the failed tube as well as the fresh tube have been chemically
analyzed, and analytical results in percentage weight of the major constituent
elements are incorporated in Table 3.2. For the sake of comparison, the chemical
Table 3.2 Chemical

Constituent elements Failed Fresh BS: 3059-Pt.
composition
in % Wt tube tube II-S2-St 622/50
C 0.15 0.13 0.08–0.15
Si 0.32 0.28 0.50 max
Mn 0.37 0.44 0.40–0.70
Cr 2.40 2.10 2.00–2.50
Mo 0.97 1.05 0.90–1.20
composition of the recommended material under specification BS: 3059-Pt. II-S2-ST

622/50 [1] is also inserted in this table.
3.2.4 Mechanical Properties (Tensile Test)
Standard tensile test pieces were prepared from the ruptured tube as well fresh tube.
The test pieces were subjected to tensile test to evaluate yield strength, tensile strength
and percentage elongation of the tube material, and test results are tabulated in Table
3.3. The tensile properties of the recommended tube material are also inserted in this
table for reference.
3.2.5 Metallographic Examination
Samples from different locations of the failed tube as well as the fresh tube have been
sectioned and subsequently prepared for metallographic examination. The signifi-
cant structural features associated with the investigation are illustrated through the
following micrographs.
Micrograph in Fig. 3.4 reveals the presence of double-layer appearance of the
tightly adherent porous scale about 1.10 mm thick on the external surface of the
ruptured tube. Oxide-filled crack propagating transverse to the tube axis through the
scale is also reflected from the figure.
Similarly, double-layer appearance of tightly adherent and relatively less porous
scale of about 1.00 mm thick on the internal surface of the rupture tube was observed
and is illustrated through Figs. 3.5 and 3.6. Oxide-filled cracks propagating transverse
to the tube axis through the scale are also evident in these figures.
Oxide-filled cracks propagating transverse to the tube axis through the tube wall
beyond the internal scale thickness have been detected in the ruptured zone and are
represented by Fig. 3.7.
Microstructural features through cross section in the vicinity of rupture revealed
a mixture of ferrite (light) and bainite (dark) in association with isolated creep cracks
Table 3.3 Tensile properties of the tube samples

Identification of Yield Mean ± Standard Ultimate tensile strength Mean ± Standard % Elongation Mean ± Standard
sample strength deviation (MPa) deviation deviation
(MPa)
Ruptured tube 264 270 ± 6 404 392 ± 11 22 25 ± 4
271 387 29
276 384 24
Fresh tube 435 428 ± 10 574 569 ± 7 20 23 ± 3
417 561 25
432 572 24
37
Fig. 3.4 Unetched
Fig. 3.5 Unetched
Fig. 3.6 Unetched

Fig. 3.7 Unetched
as well as interlinkage of creep cracks. These microstructural evidences are reported

in Figs. 3.8 and 3.9.
Microstructural features at adjacent area along the line of rupture are depicted
in Fig. 3.10, indicating mixture structure of ferrite (light) and bainite (dark). On
the other hand, microstructural features at the area diametrically opposite to rupture
exhibit ferrite grain (light) and intense coalescence of fine alloy carbides along the
grain boundaries (Fig. 3.11).
Microstructural characteristic away from the rupture consists of ferrite (light)
grains and agglomeration of fine alloy carbides at the grain boundaries in association
with isolated creep voids. These evidences can be seen in Fig. 3.12 illustrating a
sharp change in microstructure of the burst tube in service condition from the normal
structure of the fresh tube metal consisting of ferrite (light) and pearlite colonies
(dark) in Fig. 3.13.
Fig. 3.8 Etched in Nital


3.2.6 Estimation of Peak Temperature
An attempt has also been made to estimate the temperature at the time of failure based
on oxide scale thickness at the internal surface at the location of rupture using the
data developed by Rehn et al. correlating the scale thickness with the Larson–Miller
(L-M) parameter [2].
Log X = 0.00022 P−7.25.
where X = Oxide scale thickness in mils,

P = L−M parameter,
P = T (20 + Log t).

where T = Absolute temperature in ° R.

t = Exposure time (hours) in service condition.
In this case, X = 40 mils.
t = 2, 08,780 hours
(Calculating from the data of commissioning including shut-down periods).
Hence,
log 40 + 7.25
P= = 40, 237.
0.00022
40, 237 ◦ ◦
T = = 1590 ◦ R = 1130 F = 610 C.
20 + 5.3197
Hence, estimated exposure temperature of the tube based on steam side oxide
scale thickness was in the order of 610 °C which is much higher than the design
working temperature (520 °C).
3.2.7 Discussion
Physical observations on the ruptured tube sample revealed that the tube had failed by
a typical narrow open burst accompanied by noticeable plastic deformation. Internal
and external adherent scale had cracked in a typical manner in view of its non-ductile
nature. These evidences generally reflect that the tube had failed by stress rupture.
Thick and tightly adherent scale on fire-side surface of the failed tube was due to
oxidation by gas metal reaction. High-temperature or other corrosive species in the
flue gas generally lead to an oxidation, metal wastage and eventual failure. Steam side
adherent scale had resulted from steam-iron reaction which generally takes place in
the temperature range from 450 to 700 °C. The oxides usually grow both inward and
outward from the surface to the tube to form a double-layer structure. The oxidation
can occur either by inward diffusion of oxygen of the steam or by outward diffusion
of iron.
Chemical composition of both failed and fresh tubes generally conform to recom-
mend specification BS: 3059, Pt-II-S2, steel 622/50 (Standard specification for steel
boilers and superheater tubes).
Microscopic examination revealed that the microstructural features in the vicinity
of rupture were composed of bainite (dark) and ferrite (light). From the relative
amounts of ferrite (light) and bainite (dark), the tube metal temperature at the time
of failure, presumably was above its A1 (730 °C) temperature. From this two-phase
austenite and ferrite temperature region, the tube metal was cooled rapidly by on-
rushing steam, transforming the austenite to bainite.
Microstructural features at the areas diametrically opposite to rupture as well
as away from the rupture exhibited intense agglomeration of fine alloy carbides at
the ferrite grain boundaries in association with creep voids. These evidences prove
References 43
beyond doubt that the tube metal had been exposed to a temperature above its safe
working limit but below A1 temperature for a prolonged period.
Penetration of oxide through the tube wall beyond internal scale at the zone of
rupture forming intergranular fissures is also a positive evidence of stress-rupture
failure.
From the results of the tensile test, it is apparent that the tensile strength of
the ruptured tube is below the recommended value, while the tensile strength, yield
strength and percentage elongation of the fresh tube are within the limiting respective
value as per BS: 3059, Pt-II- S2, steel 622/50. The appreciable drop in tensile strength
of the ruptured tube is attributed to structural changes of the material due to long
exposure at elevated temperature below A1.
3.2.8 Conclusion for Case Study 1A
Reviewing the technical data on the tube failure and assimilating them with physical
evidences as well as laboratory experimental results, it is concluded that the tube
had failed due to stress rupture. The tube metal had been exposed to a temperature
above the safe operating limit for long duration. As a result, the tube metal had lost
its strength, suffered plastic deformation and failed to cope with the working stress
resulting in final rupture.
The adherent scale, particularly on internal surface, had acted as an insulating
blanket in view of its much lower thermal conductivity than that of tube metal. The
progressive build-up of scale had greatly affected heat transfer and raised the tube
metal temperature above A1 for a short duration before bursting of the tube.
The overheating in this case may be due to poor circulation of boiler over the
localized area. From this investigation study, it is apparent that the healthiness of
the ruptured tube over the supplied length had been significantly deteriorated. The
tubes should be degraded and replaced. The healthiness of the remaining portion of
the subject tube over its length should be thoroughly inspected to ensure its service
worthiness.
References
1. BS-3059 Part 2–78, Steel boiler and superheater tubes, Carbon alloy and Austenitic stainless
steel tubes with specified elevated temperature properties
2. F.R. Larson, J. Miller, A time-temperature relationship for rupture and creep stresses,
Transactions ASME, July (1952)
Chapter 4
Case IB: Short-Term Overheating
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a water wall tube by the way
of wide open burst rupture over a localized area and referred the problem to probe
into the metallurgical cause/causes of such failure through systematic diagnostic
approach.
(i) Working temperature: 398 °C
(ii) Working pressure: 214 kg/cm2
(iii) Working temperature : 398 °C
(iv) Working pressure : 214 kg/cm2
4.1 Scope of Work
(i) Visual inspection.

(ii) Dimensional measurement (OD and wall thickness measurement).
(iii) Chemical analysis of the tube material.
(iv) Metallographic examination and hardness measurement.
(i) The failure region consists of wide open burst rupture (Fig. 4.1).
(ii) Noticeable bulging/swelling in and around the failure zone of the tube
circumference.
(iii) Deformation of the tube along the failure side (Fig. 4.2).
(iv) Noticeable wall thinning in and around the failed zone.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_4
46 4 Case IB: Short-Term Overheating
Fig. 4.1 Failed water wall

tube
Fig. 4.2 Cross section of the

tube showing deformation
Wall thickness measurements using ultrasonic thickness meter (Type: DM-3,

Krautkramer, Germany) and outside diameter measurements using vernier caliper
were carried out on supplied tube. The results are self-explanatory and shown in
Fig. 4.3.
Fig. 4.3 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement of water wall tube sample (mm)
Table 4.1 Observed

Sample No. C Si Mn
chemical composition (Wt%)
Failed water wall tube 0.112 0.367 0.720
Chemical analysis of the tube sample to estimate the weight percentage of the
constituent elements was carried out using Spectrograph (Model: Q4 TASMAN,
Bruker, Germany). The chemical compositions are detailed in Table 4.1.
Metallographic specimens from the supplied tube sample were prepared as per the
standard ASTM E-3, 2003 and ASTM E 407–2003. All the specimens were examined
under optical microscope for evaluating microstructural characteristics. The hardness
measurements of the metallographic specimens were also carried out in Vickers
hardness tester under 20 Kgf load. The microstructural characteristics and hardness
values are detailed in Table 4.2.
4.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the failed water wall tube revealed that the failure is wide
open burst associated with considerable bulging/swelling in and around the
failure zone.
(ii) Dimensional measurement revealed reduction of wall thickness and increase
in diameter in and around the failure zone. Considerable deformation along the
failure side is also noticed.
Table 4.2 Details of microstructural characteristics and mean hardness values

Sample Location Microstructural Hardness
No. characteristics range in
Hv
Water (A) Adjacent to failure Ferrite and low carbon martensite 231
wall zone (Fig. 4.4)
tube Crack originated from outside diameter side
of the tube sample
(Fig. 4.5)
(B) Diametrically opposite Ferrite and pearlite 153
to failure zone (Fig. 4.6)
(C) Away from failure zone Ferrite and pearlite 148
(Fig. 4.7)
(iii) The chemical composition of the tube sample supplied confirms to the desired
specification (i.e., SA 210 Gr.C).
(iv) Microstructural examination at the adjacent to failure location of the tube
material of the tube revealed ferrite and low carbon martensite along with
crack originated from outside diameter side of the tube. This indicates that the
temperature at the time of failure was above the upper critical temperature,
whereas the microstructures at the opposite to failure and away from failure
locations revealed normal ferrite and pearlite. A comparison of the microstruc-
tures presented above indicates that the overheating was limited to a localized
section of the tube.
4.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study IB
Based on technical information provided and the findings of laboratory study, it is

concluded that the tube had failed due to localized short-term overheating. Over-
heating results from abnormal conditions such as loss of coolant flow and excessive
boiler gas temperature.

Chapter 5
Case IIA: High-Temperature Creep
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a platen superheater tube by the
way of wide open burst over a localized area and referred the problem to probe into the
metallurgical cause/causes of such failure through systematic diagnostic approach.
(i) Material specification: BS 3059/ 622–50 S2
(ii) Dimension of original tube: 38 mm OD X 5.9 mm thickness
(iii) Working temperature: 480 °C
(iv) Working pressure: 158.2 kg/cm2
(v) Running hours: 63,177
5.1 Scope of Work
(i)Visual inspection
(ii)Dimensional measurement
(iii)Chemical analysis of the tube material
(iv) Metallographic examination to analyze microstructural features of the tube
material
(v) Hardness measurement
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_5
52 5 Case IIA: High-Temperature Creep
Fig. 5.1 General view of burst of platen superheater tube
The tube sample was visually inspected, and following physical evidences were
noted.
(i) The failure is open burst rupture. The general view of failed tube sample is
shown (Fig. 5.1).
(ii) Appreciable bulging/swelling at and adjacent to failure area.
(iii) Reduction in wall thickness at the vicinity of rupture.
(iv) Presence of thick black scale on the inner surface of the tube.
(v) No significant evidence of corrosion on the outer surface of the tube.
(vi) Presence of adherent black scale on the outer surface of the tube.
Wall thickness measurement using thickness meter (type: DM-3, Krautkramer,

Germany) and outside diameter measurements using vernier caliper were carried
out on the tube sample. The locations of wall thickness and outside diameter
measurement are shown in Fig. 5.2, and the measured values are shown in Table
5.1.
Fig. 5.2 Locations of wall thickness and outside diameter measurement of the tube sample
Table 5.1 Measured values of wall thickness and outside diameter of the failed tube sample
Tube identification Location (Fig. 5.2) Measured wall thickness (mm) Measured
outside
diameter
(mm)
On flue gas side On diametrically ‘XX’ ‘YY’
opposite to flue gas
side
Platen superheater A 5.2 6.1 39.62 41.1
tube B 2.7 – 54.4 48.6
C 2.3 – – –
D 3.9 5.9 40.9 40.5
E 5.5 6.3 39.5 40.0
F 5.6 5.8 – –
Table 5.2 Chemical composition

Tube identification Weight percentage
C Cr Mo Ni Si Mn
Platen superheater tube 0.09 2.10 0.90 – – –
The material of the failed tube has been chemically analyzed, and analytical results
in percentage weight of the major constituent elements are incorporated in Table 5.2.

Measurement
Metallographic specimens from the failed tube sample were selected, sectioned,
polished and etched as and when required as per the standard ASTM E-3, 1995 and
ASTM E- 407, 1993. All the specimens were examined under optical microscope
for evaluating microstructural characteristics. The hardness measurements of the
metallographic specimens were also carried out. The microstructural characteristics
and hardness values are incorporated in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Microstructural characteristics and mean hardness values

Sample Location of Microstructural characteristics Mean
examination hardness
value,
HV
Platen Adjacent to failure Elongated grains of ferrite and coalescence 136
superheater tube of alloy carbide at ferrite grain boundaries
(Fig. 5.3)
Diametrically Dispersed alloy carbide in ferrite matrix and 128
opposite to failure coalescence of alloy carbide at ferrite grain
boundaries along with isolated creep cavities
(Fig. 5.4)
Away from failure Ferrite, alloy carbide mostly at grain 127
boundaries along with isolated creep cavities
at the grain boundaries (Fig. 5.5)
5.2.5 Scale Thickness Measurement and Estimation of Tube

Metal Temperature
Inside diameter scale thickness measurement was carried out on three specimens
from failed platen superheater tube. Tube metal temperature of the tube was estimated
based on maximum measured oxide scale thickness on ID surface for 21 /4 Cr. 1 Mo
steel. The observed maximum scale thickness and estimated tube metal temperatures
are given in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Observed ID scale thickness and mean tube metal temperature of the failed platen
superheater tube
Location of scale thickness Maximum measured ID Estimated mean tube metal Figure
measurement scale thickness (mm) temperature (°C) No
(a) Adjacent to rupture of 0.60 603 Fig. 5.6
the failed tube
(b) Diametrically opposite 0.50 594 Fig. 5.7
to rupture
(c) Away from rupture 0.50 594 Fig. 5.8
Fig. 5.6 Unetched
Fig. 5.7 Unetched
5.2.6 Discussion
Visual examination revealed that the failure was open burst-type rupture. Thick
adherent scale (black in colour) was noticed on the inner surface of the tube sample.
Dimensional measurement showed appreciable bulging/ swelling and reduction
in wall thickness at and adjacent to location of failure.
The chemical composition of the tube material conforms to BS-3059/622–50-S2.
Estimated average metal temperature of the tube sample based on maximum ID
scale thickness was 603 °C which is much higher than the expected metal temperature
(520 °C) of the tube under design conditions.
Fig. 5.8 Unetched
Microstructure revealed material degradation in the way of dispersed alloy carbide

in ferrite matrix and coalescence of alloy carbides at the ferrite grain boundaries along
with isolated creep cavities. Elongated grains reveal that the material experienced
high-temperature deformation at the location of rupture.
5.2.7 Conclusion for Case Study IIA

concluded that the tube had failed due to severe creep damage caused by high metal
temperature during service. The probable causes of high metal temperature may be
in sufficient flow of steam due to partial blockage, presence of thick oxide scale on
ID surface, high flue gas temperature, etc.
Chapter 6
Case Study IIB: High-Temperature
Creep
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a bend of secondary superheater

pendent tube by the way of through-thickness longitudinal fracture and referred
the problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of such failure through
systematic diagnostic approach.
(i) Material specification: TP347 H
(ii) Dimension of original tube: 53.97 mm ODX 6.01 mm thickness
(iv) Working pressure: 135 kg/cm2
(v) Running hours: 3,00,000
6.1 Scope of Work

(ii) Dimensional measurement (Outside diameter and wall thickness measure-
ment).
(iii) Chemical analysis of the tubes material.
(i) The failure region consists of through-thickness longitudinal fracture of length

bout 52 mm on the tube sample (Fig. 6.1).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_6
60 6 Case Study IIB: High-Temperature Creep
Fig. 6.1 Secondary

superheater pendent tube
showing through-thickness
longitudinal fracture
(ii) Slight bulging/swelling in and around the failure zone of the tube circumfer-
ence.
(iii) Absence of loose scale on the inner surface of the failed tube.
(iv) No noticeable wall thinning was noted at the tube sample.

were carried out on tube. The results are self-explanatory and shown in Fig. 6.2.
Chemical analysis of the tube sample to estimate the weight percentage of the
constituent elements was carried out using Spectrograph (Model: Q4 TASMAN,
Metallographic specimens from the supplied tube sample were prepared as per the
standard ASTM E-3, 2003 and ASTM E 407–2003. All the specimens were examined
under optical microscope for evaluating microstructural characteristics. The hardness
measurements of the metallographic specimens were also carried out in Vickers
Fig. 6.2 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement in mm. of secondary superheater pendent
tube
Table 6.1 Observed chemical composition (Wt %)

Sample identification C Si Mn Cr Mo Ni
Bend of secondary superheater pendent tube 0.055 0.402 1.656 17.460 – 10.160

Sample Location Microstructural Hardness
identification characteristics in H v
Bend of (A) Adjacent (i) OD oxide-filled intergranular nature of cracks 185–192
secondary to failure zone in the vicinity of crack tip
superheater (Figs. 6.3 and 6.4)
pendent tube (ii) Presence of slip lines, twinning along with
carbide precipitation and micro cracks along the
austenite grain boundaries
(Figs. 6.5 and 6.6)
(iii) Slip bands along with twin boundaries in 203–205
Diametrically austenitic stainless steel
opposite to (Fig. 6.7)
failure zone
(iv) Away Slip bands along with twin boundaries in 194–207
from failure austenitic stainless steel
zone (Fig. 6.8)
hardness tester under 20 Kgf load. The microstructural characteristics and hardness
values are detailed in Table 6.2.
Fig. 6.3 Unetched
Fig. 6.4 Etched in ferric

chloride
6.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the failed secondary superheater pendent tube revealed
through-thickness longitudinal fracture of length about 52 mm on the tube
sample.
(ii) The chemical composition of the tube sample confirms to the desired
specification (i.e., TP347 H).
(iii) Measurement of tube wall thickness revealed no reduction in wall thickness
at failed area of the secondary superheater pendent tube but slight localized
swelling of the tube, as revealed from the increase in diameter was noticed.

chloride

chloride
(iv) Microstructure of the tube sample of secondary superheater pendent tube

revealed a multitude of deep oxide-filled cracks on the OD and carbide precip-
itation along with microcracks along the austenite grain boundaries. The pres-
ence of oxide-filled cracks and appreciable amount of carbide precipitation
along the austenite grain boundaries suggests that the tube metal temperature
was well above the design temperature prior to failure of the tube.

chloride

chloride
Microstructure of the tube sample also revealed presence of slip bands and twin
boundaries. Presence of slip lines and twinning reflects that the material experienced
high-temperature deformation at the location of failure.
6.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study IIB
Secondary superheater pendent tube of had failed due to high-temperature creep or

stress rupture. Void formation by grain boundary sliding may be observed in the
vicinity of the crack tip. The conclusion is that this tube alone was partially blocked,
for reasons unknown, and had been operating at higher than design temperatures for
several months or a few years.
Chapter 7
Case Study III: High-Temperature
Failure
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a low-temperature superheater

(LTSH) hanger tube by the way of wide-open ductile-type burst (fish mouth type),
and the burst was on the centerline of the tube at the highest heat input zone. The
problem was referred to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of failure through
(i) Material specification: SA-210 Gr. C
(ii) Dimension of original tube: 51 mm ODX 11 mm thick thickness
(iv) Working pressure: 207.3 kg/cm2
(v) Running hours: 5500
7.1 Scope of Work

(ii) Dimensional measurement (outside diameter and wall thickness measurement).
(v) Preparation and submission of test report based on technical data generated
through laboratory tests/examinations.
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68 7 Case Study III: High-Temperature Failure
(i) A wide-open ductile-type burst (fish mouth type) (Fig. 7.1). The burst was on
the centerline of the tube at the highest heat input zone.
(ii) Thick and tightly adherent scale on the outside surface over the length of the
failed tube which had cracked along the tube axis.
(iii) Thick and tightly adherent scale on the internal surface of the tube.
(iv) Noticeable bulging/swelling at failure location (Fig. 7.1).
(v) Wall thinning was noted at the failed side of the tube (Fig. 7.2).
Fig. 7.1 LTSH hanger tube showing wide open fish mouth rupture
Fig. 7.2 Wall thickness and outside diameter measurement in mm. of LTSH hanger tube
Table 7.1 Observed chemical composition (Wt%)

LTSH hanger tube 0.275 0.359 0.853 0.136 0.015 0.009

Fig. 7.2.
Chemical analysis of the tube samples to estimate the weight percentage of the
constituent elements was carried out using atomic emission spectrometer. The
chemical compositions are detailed in Table 7.1.
Metallographic specimens from the supplied tube samples were prepared as per
the standard ASTM E-3, 2011 and ASTM E 407–2007. All the specimens were
examined under optical microscope for evaluating microstructural characteristics.
The hardness measurements of the metallographic specimens were also carried out
in Vickers hardness tester under 20 Kgf load. The microstructural characteristics and
hardness values are detailed in Table 7.2.
7.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the failed LTSH hanger tube revealed wide-open ductile-
type rupture (fish mouth type). The rupture was on the centerline of the tube
at the highest heat input zone. Thick and tightly adherent scale on the outside
surface over the length of the failed tube which had cracked along the tube axis
was also observed.

Sample identification Location Microstructural Avg. hardness in H v
characteristics
LTSH hanger tube Adjacent to failure zone Elongated grains of 137
ferrite and
complete spheroidized
carbides
along with some
subgrains
within the grains
(Figs. 7.3 and 7.4)
Diametrically opposite Ferrite and dispersed of 137
to failure zone spheroidized carbides
(Fig. 7.5)
Away from failure zone Ferrite and dispersed of 154
spheroidized carbides
(Fig. 7.6)
(iii) Measurement of tube wall thickness revealed localized reduction in wall thick-
ness at failed and bulged area of the LTSH hanger tube. In addition, consider-
able localized swelling of LTSH Hanger tube as revealed from the increase in
diameter was noticed.
(iv) Microstructure at the adjacent to failure location of the tube sample revealed
material degradation in the way of elongated grains of ferrite and complete
spheroidized carbides indicating prolonged exposure to relatively high metal
temperature. It is also noted that elongated grains and some subgrains within
the grains indicate rapid high-temperature deformation. The microstructures at
the opposite to failure and away from failure locations also revealed complete
spheroidized carbides. Hardness values at the adjacent to failure and diamet-

rically opposite to failure location of the tube sample are reduced due to
spheroidization of the steel structure.
7.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study III

concluded that the tube had failed due to prolonged exposure to high metal tempera-
ture. Evidence of complete spheroidization of the steel structure indicates prolonged
exposure to high metal temperature. The tube metal temperature rose rapidly until
the strength of the tube was inadequate to retain the steam pressure, and the tube
ruptured. As the tube metal rose, the tube began to bulge when the yield point was
reached, the wall thickness decreased, and the stress increased until rupture occurred
as a wide-open ductile burst. Exposure to high-temperature results from abnormal
conditions such as loss of coolant flow and excessive boiler gas temperature.
Chapter 8
Case Study IV: Erosion Failure
Power plant authority had experienced failure of two wall re-heater tubes by the way
of thin-lip rupture/pin hole puncture on the flue gas side of the tubes and referred the
problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of failure through systematic
diagnostic approach.
1. Location of the failure: Wall re-heater
2. Material: 12Cr1MoVG
3. Working temperature: 400 °C
4. Working pressure: 41 kg/cm2
5. Dimension: 50 mm ODX 4.0 mm thickness
6. Running hours: 65,250 h (approx.).
8.1 Scope of Work
(i) Visual examination.

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74 8 Case Study IV: Erosion Failure
Table 8.1 Details of visual examination

Sample Tube Observations
No. identification
1 Wall re-heater (i) Thin-lip rupture on the flue gas side of the tube (Figs. 8.1 and 8.3)
tube (Tube A) (ii) The tube was exposed to the high-velocity steam erupting from the
point of failure
(iii) Presence of steam wash mark close to rupture region of the tube
(Figs. 8.1 and 8.3)
(iv) No significant evidence of corrosion and scaling on the outer and
inner surface of the tube
(v) Noticeable reduction in wall thickness at the vicinity of rupture
and entire steam wash portion of the tube (Figs. 8.1, 8.5 and 8.8)
2 Wall re-heater (i) Pin hole puncture on the flue gas side of the tube (Fig. 8.6)
tube (Tube B) (ii) The tube was exposed to the high-velocity steam erupting from the
point of failure
(iii) Presence of steam wash mark at the flue gas side of the tube
(Figs. 8.2 and 8.7)
(iv) No significant evidence of corrosion and scaling on the outer and
inner surface of the tube
(v)Noticeable reduction in wall thickness at the steam wash portion of
the tube (Figs. 8.2, 8.5, 8.7 and 8.9)
Fig. 8.1 As received wall

re-heater tube sample (Tube
A)

Krautkramer, Germany) and outside diameter measurements using Vernier caliper
were carried out on supplied tubes. The results are self-explanatory and shown in
Figs. 8.8 and 8.9.
Fig. 8.2 As received wall

re-heater tube sample (Tube
B)
Fig. 8.3 Failed wall

re-heater tube (Tube A)
Fig. 8.4 Failed wall

re-heater tube (Tube A)
Fig. 8.5 Cross section of the

wall re-heater tubes showing
wall thinning along with
deformation
Fig. 8.6 Wall re-heater tube

(Tube B) showing pin hole
puncture 6
Fig. 8.7 Failed wall re-heater tube (Tube B)
Fig. 8.8 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement in mm. of wall re-heater tube (Tube A)
the standard ASTM E-3, 2003 and ASTM E 407-2003. All the specimens were
Fig. 8.9 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement in mm. of wall re-heater tube (Tube B)
Table 8.2 Observed chemical composition (Wt%)

Sample No. C Si Mn S P Cr Mo V
Wall re-heater tube (Tube A) 0.10 0.23 0.58 0.016 0.017 1.02 0.27 0.18
Wall re-heater tube (Tube B) 0.11 0.22 0.55 0.018 0.019 1.05 0.27 0.19

Sample Location Microstructural characteristics Hardness
No. values in Hv
Wall (A) Adjacent to failure zone (i) There is no grain flow at and 143
re-heater adjacent to fracture tip (Fig. 8.10)
tube (Tube (ii) Ferrite, pearlite and spheroidized
A) carbide (Fig. 8.11)
(B) Diametrically opposite to Ferrite, pearlite and sheroidized 142
failure zone carbide (Fig. 8.12)
(C) Away from failure zone Ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 8.13) 149
Wall (A) Adjacent to failure zone (i) Oxide scale growth inside the 162
re-heater tube of 49.03 µm (Fig. 8.14)
tube (Tube (ii) Ferrite and partially
B) spheroidized pearlite (Fig. 8.15)
(B) Diametrically Opposite to Ferrite and partially spheroidized 170
failure zone pearlite (Fig. 8.16)
(C) Away from failure zone Ferrite and partially spheroidized 165
pearlite (Fig. 8.17)
8.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation reveals the presence of seam wash marks on both the tubes. It
shows the effects of steam-washed tubes caused by adjacent tube ruptures. The
severity of the erosion is observed in both the tubes. The tubes were exposed
to the high-velocity steam erupting from the point of failure.
(ii) Dimensional measurement of the tubes reveals considerably lower outer diam-
eter in XX' direction of the tubes. Ultrasonic wall thickness measurement indi-
cates significantly lower wall thickness to varying degree along its length. In
addition, cross section of the tubes shows flattened outer surface of the tubes.
All these observations together suggest that the tubes suffered loss of material
from outer surface due to erosion caused by high-velocity steam erupting from
the point of failure.
(iii) The chemical composition of the tube material confirms to the specification.
(iv) Microstructural examination of the tubes material of the tubes revealed ferrite
and spheroidized pearlite.
8.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study IV
Tubes in the vicinity of a rupture are often exposed to the high-velocity steam erupting
from the point of failure. The high-velocity steam eroded the tubes surface, and the
tubes had been thinned down to the point at which the tubes metal could not cope
with the working stress in the tubes resulting in eventual failure.

Chapter 9
Case Study VA: Dissimilar Metal Weld
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a secondary superheater element

being attachment welded of tubes by the way of puncture over a localized area and
referred the problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of such failure
through systematic diagnostic approach.
(i) Material specification: TP347 H
(iv) Working pressure: 135 kg/cm2
(v) Running hours: 300,000.
9.1 Scope of Work

(i) The failure consists of puncture at the attachment weld (Fig. 9.1).
(ii) Severe dent mark on the tube surface adjacent to the attachment weld joint.
(iii) No sign of bulging/swelling adjacent to failure area.
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84 9 Case Study VA: Dissimilar Metal Weld
Fig. 9.1 Secondary

superheater element showing
puncture at the attachment
weld
(iv) Presence of scale on the inner side of the tubes.

(v) No sign of reduction in wall thickness of the tube sample.

Krautkramer, Germany) and outside diameter measurements using Vernier caliper
Fig. 9.2.
constituent elements was carried out using spectrograph (Model: Q4 TASMAN,
Fig. 9.2 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement in mm. of secondary superheater element

Secondary superheater element 0.055 0.459 1.473 17.550 – 10.620
9.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the failed secondary superheater element revealed punc-
ture along with severe dent mark adjacent to the attachment weld. Oxide scale
on the inner side of the element was also noticed.
(ii) The chemical composition of the tubes material confirms to the desired
specification (i.e., TP 347 H).
(iii) Dimensional measurement did not show any increase in outside diameter and
reduction in wall thickness of the element tubes.
(iv) Microstructural examination of the element adjacent to failure location revealed
intergranular cracking at the austenite grain boundaries and presence of brittle

Sample Location Microstructural characteristics Hardness in
identification Hv
Secondary (A) Adjacent (i) A thin layer of metal carbide along the weld 193–199
superheater to failure zone interface and intergranular cracking at the
element austenite grain boundaries (Figs. 9.3 and 9.4)
(ii) Oxide wedge on OD surface at the interface
between base metal and weld deposit (Fig. 9.5)
(iii) Dark band in the stainless steel indicative of
carbon diffusion (Fig. 9.6)
(B) Equiaxed grains of austenite and precipitation of 188–191
Diametrically carbides at the austenite grain boundaries
opposite to (Fig. 9.7)
failure zone
(C) Away Precipitation of carbides surrounding the 164–170
from failure austenite grains, giving the appearance of a string
zone of pearls (Fig. 9.8)
Fig. 9.3 Unetched
metal carbide layer along the weld interface. Microstructure at the opposite
to failure and away from failure location revealed precipitation of carbides
surrounding the austenite grains.
9.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VA

concluded that secondary superheater element welded between tubes had failed due
to migration of carbon and formation of brittle carbide layer along the weld interface
at elevated temperature.

chloride

chloride
9.2.7 Suggestion
Since welded joints of the elements between austenitic grade stainless steel tubes
become susceptible to brittle failure after long service at elevated temperature due to
metallurgical reasons, all the similar welded joints, which are in service for a long
time, may be checked by dye penetrant/magnetic particle method to ensure their
suitability for further service.
Fig. 9.6 Unetched

chloride

chloride
Chapter 10
Case Study VB: Dissimilar Metal Weld
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a secondary superheater tube

welded between low alloyed ferritic steel and austenitic stainless steel by the way of
circumferential continuous crack in heat-affected zone, very close to fusion boundary
in stainless steel side.
Dissimilar metal joints between low alloy ferritic and austenitic stainless steels
are used widely in steam generators of power station. In fossil fuel-fired plants, the
primary boiler and heat exchanger tubes made of chromium–molybdenum steels,
especially 2.25Cr–1Mo steel, are sometimes welded to austenitic stainless steel tubes
used in the high-temperature sections such as superheaters and re-heaters. In this case,
failure has occurred in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of ferritic steel through the prop-
agation of circumferential cracks very close to the fusion boundary (Fig. 10.1). Due
to differential thermal expansion between the ferritic and austenitic tubes, failures
occur in the ferritic steel heat-affected zone (HAZ). The following facts have been
established regarding dissimilar metal weld failures: (a) use of Inconel filler metals
results in more weld live than use with other filler metals; (b) failures are brittle, with
little evidence of wall thinning, necking, or other deformation; (c) the fracture front
occurs at a location one to two grains away from the fusion line in the heat-affected
zone of ferritic steel tube and (d) the fracture front is intergranular with austenitic
and ferritic filler metals but follows a continuous interface of carbides in the case of
Inconel filler metals [1–3]. The problem was referred to probe into the metallurgical
cause/causes of failure through systematic diagnostic approach.
(i) Material specification: SA 213 T11 (2.25Cr–1Mo ferritic steel) and SA213 Gr.
TP347H (austenitic stainless steel)
(ii) Working temperature: 540 °C
(iii) Working pressure: 137 kg/cm2
(iv) Welding process: Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
(v) Running hours: 223,050
(vi) Capacity of the boiler: 140 MW
(vii) Location of failure: Secondary superheater outlet side.
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92 10 Case Study VB: Dissimilar Metal Weld
Fig. 10.1 Failed superheater

tubes A, B and C denote the
areas from specimens which
have been taken for
microstructural analysis
10.1 Scope of Work
(i)Visual inspection.
(ii)Dimensional measurement.
(iii)Chemical analysis of the tube material.
material.
(v) Analysis of findings and identification of probable causes of failure.
Visual examination of the failed secondary superheater tube was done on the entire
welded joint of the tube. It was carried out by the unaided eye and also with a
portable magnifying lens. The outside diameter of the failed tube was measured
at failure location and also in the unfailed zone. The base metals on both sides of
the welded tube were analyzed using spectrograph (Model: Q4TASMAN, Bruker,
Germany), and the results are presented in Tables 10.1 and 10.2.
In order to study the metallographic examination, three small specimens (marked
as A, B and C) from promising areas of the tube were removed and mounted for
suitable edge retention. The various locations are shown in Fig. 10.1.
Table 10.1 Chemical composition of low alloy ferritic steel side (wt%)
Sample identification C Cr Mo
Low alloy ferritic steel side of secondary superheater tube 0.13 2.07 0.88
Table 10.2 Chemical composition of stainless steel side (wt%)

Sample identification C Cr Mo
Stainless steel side of secondary superheater tube 0.05 17.40 11.30
10.4 Conclusion for Case Study VB 93
All the mounted specimens were polished with successive grades of emery papers
up to 1000 grit size followed by cloth polishing with 1-lm diamond paste. Two spec-
imens (marked as A and B) were etched by ferric chloride, and one specimen (C)
was etched by Nital. The microstructures of all the materials were examined using a
metallurgical optical microscope (WIDEFIELD METALLOGRAPH, REICHERT-
Jung, MeF3, Austria). Hardness was also measured using Vickers hardness equip-
ment under 20 kg load. Three sets of indentations were taken on specimens A, B and
C, and the average values are being reported.
10.3 Discussion
A circumferential continuous crack in the HAZ of the weld joint of the tube in the
stainless steel side was found during visual examination (Fig. 10.1). The crack was
very close to the fusion boundary. Dimensional measurement revealed no reduction
in wall thickness or swelling of the tube. The chemical composition of the dissimilar
welded tube conformed to the material specifications BS: 3059/622/50 and TP 347H.
Metallographic analysis adjacent to failure location (stainless steel side) revealed
the microstructure as given in Fig. 10.2a. The microstructure contains intergranular
cracking at the austenite grain boundaries and a thin layer of metal carbide along
the weld interface. The microstructure away from the failure location (stainless steel
side) of the welded tube is shown in Fig. 10.2b. It reveals equiaxed austenite grains.
Considerable amount of carbide precipitation has been seen at the austenite grain
boundaries.
The microstructure away from failure location (low alloy steel side) as shown in
Fig. 10.2c exhibits ferrite and alloy carbides at the grain boundaries.
Similar observation has been found by earlier investigator [4, 5]. Average hardness
values of specimens A, B, and C are found to be 180, 184, and 148 HV, respectively,
which are as per recommended values. The microstructural degradation suggests that
the welded joint between low alloy (2.25Cr–1Mo) and stainless steels failed due to
migration of carbon and formation of brittle carbide layer along the weld interface
due to long exposure at elevated temperature.
10.4 Conclusion for Case Study VB
1. Welded joint between low alloy (2.25Cr–1Mo) and stainless steels failed due to
migration of carbon and formation of brittle carbide layer along the weld interface
during long exposure at elevated temperature.
94 10 Case Study VB: Dissimilar Metal Weld
Fig. 10.2 Microstructure of a failure location adjacent to stainless steel side showing intergranular
nature of cracks, b base metal of stainless steel, c base metal of low alloy (2.25Cr–1Mo) steel
2. As welded joints between stainless steel and 2.25Cr–1Mo steel become prone
to brittle failure after long service at elevated temperature, all the welded
joints, which are in service for a long time, may be checked by dye-penetrant/
radiographic method to ensure their suitability for further service.
References
1. A. Saha, A.K. Shukla, Failure of a secondary superheater tube in a 140 MW thermal power
2. Dissimilar Welds in Fossil-Fired Boilers, Report CS 3623 (Electric Power Research Institute,
Palo Alto, CA, 1985)
3. Dissimilar Weld Failure Analysis and Development Program, Report CS 4252, vol. 1–9 (Electric
Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, 1985)
4. D. French, Metallurgical Failure in Fossil Fired Boilers (Wiley, New York, 1982)
5. S. Ghosh, V. Kain, A. Roy, H. Sivaprasad, S. Tarafdar, K.K. Ray, Deterioration in fracture
toughness of 304LN austenitic stainless steel due to sensitization. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 40A,
2938–2949 (2009)
Chapter 11
Case Study VIA: Hydrogen Damage
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a furnace wall tube by the way
of wide-open burst over a localized area and referred the problem to probe into the
metallurgical cause/causes of such failure through systematic diagnostic approach.
11.1 Scope of Work

(ii) Chemical analysis of the tube material.
(iii) Metallographic examination to analyze microstructural features of the tube
material.
(vii) Hardness measurement.
(iv) Analysis of findings and identification of probable causes of failure.
(i) The failure is thick lip wide-open burst (Fig. 11.1).

(ii) The maximum width of the failure is about 32 mm, and the length of failure is
about 200 mm.
(iii) Noticeable bulging/swelling around the failure zone was observed.
(iv) No appreciable wall thickness reduction around the failure zone.
(v) No adherent deposits on inner side of the tube.
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96 11 Case Study VIA: Hydrogen Damage
Fig. 11.1 Failed furnace wall tube
Fig. 11.2 Locations of wall thickness and outside diameter measurement of the tube sample
Wall thickness measurement using thickness meter (type: DM-3, Krautkramer,

Germany) and outside diameter measurements using Vernier caliper were carried
out on the tube sample. The results are self-explanatory and shown in Fig. 11.2.
Drilled chips from tube sample were carefully collected and chemically analyzed
to estimate the weight percentage of the constituent elements. The chemical
compositions are shown in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Chemical

Tube identification Weight percentage
composition
C Si Mn
Furnace wall tube 0.15 0.12 0.47

Measurement
Metallographic specimens from the failed tube sample were selected, sectioned,
polished and chemically etched as and when required as per the standard ASTM
E-3, 1995 and ASTM E- 407, 1993. All the specimens were examined under optical
microscope for evaluating microstructural characteristics. The hardness measure-
ments of the metallographic specimens were also carried out. The microstructural
characteristics and hardness values are incorporated in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2 Microstructural characteristics and mean hardness values

Tube identification Microstructural features Mean
hardness,
Hv
Adjacent to failure zone (i) Discontinuous cracking (Fig. 11.3) 121.5
(ii) Discontinuous grain boundary cracking initiated
from ID surface and presence of decarburization zone
(Fig. 11.4)
Slightly away from the Ferrite, complete breakdown of pearlite in association –
failure zone with intergranular grain boundary cracking and
decarburized zone (Fig. 11.5)
Diametrically opposite Ferrite and partial breakdown of pearlite (Fig. 11.6) 126
to failure
Away from the failed Ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 11.7) 124.5
zone
Fig. 11.3 Unetched

98 11 Case Study VIA: Hydrogen Damage
11.2.5 Discussion
“Thick lip” wide-open burst associated with considerable bulging/swelling in and

around the failure zone was found during visual examination (Fig. 11.1). Dimen-
sional measurement revealed no reduction in wall thickness in and around the failure
zone. The percentage increase in diameter is found to be 18% around the failure zone,
which is evidence by considerable bulging/swelling. The chemical composition of the
failed tube conformed to the material specifications. Metallographic analysis adja-

cent to failure location revealed the microstructure as given in Figs. 11.3 and 11.4.
The microstructure contains ferrite, complete breakdown of pearlite in association
with discontinuous intergranular cracking and decarburized zone. The microstruc-
ture diametrically opposite to failure and away from the failure location of the tube
are shown in Figs. 11.6 and 11.7, respectively. It exhibits normal ferrite and pearlite.
The microstructure at the failure location as depicted was probably due to hydrogen
embrittlement. The carbon in the material reacted with the hydrogen to form methane
(CH4 ). Methane was a large molecule, which exerted pressure and caused discontin-
uous cracking along the grain boundaries. Removal of the carbon from the sample
caused the decarburization zone. The hardness measurement revealed no abnormal
variation of hardness adjacent to the failure zone.
11.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIA
Hydrogen damage in the plain carbon steel normally occurs in high heat flux region
in the area of flow disruption such as welded joints with backing rings or protrusions,
bends or deposits. Hydrogen is caused by operation with low PH water chemistry
from ingress of acidic salts through condenser leakage, contamination from chemical
cleaning or malfunctioning of chemical control components and concentration of
corrosive contaminants within deposits on the inner tube wall. Deposits are formed
from feed water system corrosion from condenser in-leakage constituent.
Corrective action involves the restoration of boiler water chemistry to the proper
values and the consideration of boiler chemical cleaning. Chemical cleaning are
performed to remove the internal deposits and to further generation of hydrogen on
the tube surface.
Chapter 12
Case Study VIB: Hydrogen Damage
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a water wall corner panel tube
by the way of longitudinal cracking (fracture) on the OD surface of the tube over a
localized area and referred the problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes
of such failure through systematic diagnostic approach.
(i) Material specification: SA 210 Gr.C
(ii) Dimension of original tube: 51 mm ODX 5.6 mm thickness
(iii) Design temperature : 396 °C
(iv) Design pressure: 214 kg/cm2
12.1 Scope of Work

(ii) Chemical analysis of the tube material.
(iii) Metallographic examination to analyze microstructural features of the tube
material.
(iv) Hardness measurement.
(v) Analysis of findings and identification of probable causes of failure.
(i) Longitudinal cracking (fracture) on the OD surface of the tube (Fig. 12.1).
(ii) Presence of gouging mark and deposits on ID surface of the tube (Fig. 12.2).
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102 12 Case Study VIB: Hydrogen Damage
Fig. 12.1 As received failed water wall tube
Fig. 12.2 Bi-furcated water wall tube showing gouging marks
(iii) No sign of bulging/swelling of the tube.

(iv) Presence of gray scale on OD surface.
(v) Appreciable wall thinning in and around thegouged zone (Fig. 12.3).

Fig. 12.3.
Chemical analysis of the failed tube sample to estimate the weight percentage of
the constituent elements was carried out using spectrograph (Model: Q4 TASMAN,
Fig. 12.3 Outer diameter and wall thickness values (in mm) of failed water wall corner panel tube

Sample identification C Si Mn Cr Mo S P
Failed water wall corner panel tube 0.27 0.23 0.88 0.044 0.017 0.007 0.015
12.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the tube revealed shallow gouging mark on inner surface
and presence of deposit in gouged area.

Sample Location Microstructural characteristics Hardness range
No. in Hv
Failed (A) (i) Presence of numerous discontinuous micro-fissures 114–116
water Adjacent traversing from ID toward OD side at corrosion damaged
wall to location (unetched) (Figs. 12.4 and 12.5)
corner gouging (ii) Ferrite, complete breakdown of pearlite in association
panel zone with intergranular grain boundary cracking initiated from
tube ID surface (etched) (Figs. 12.6 and 12.7)
(B) Banded structure of ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 12.8) 152–154
Away
from
gouging
zone
Fig. 12.4 Unetched


(iii) Localized gouging on the inner surface resulted in reduction in wall thickness
at the gouged locations.
(iv) Microstructural examination revealed ferrite, complete breakdown of pearlite
in association with numerous discontinuous micro-fissures along the grain
boundaries.
12.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIB
Presence of localized corrosion and grain boundary micro-fissuring of the tube mate-
rial on the ID surface suggests that the tube material suffered from hydrogen damage.
Failure of the water wall tube may be attributed to localized reduction in wall thick-
ness due to corrosion. Hydrogen damage in the plain carbon steel normally occurs in
high heat flux region in the area of flow disruption such as welded joints with backing
rings or protrusions, bends or deposits. Hydrogen damage is caused by operation
with low PH water chemistry from ingress of acidic salts through condenser leakage,
contamination from chemical cleaning or malfunctioning of chemical control compo-
nents and concentration of the corrosive contaminants within deposits on the inner
tube wall. Deposits are formed from feed water system corrosion from condenser
in-leakage constituent.
Corrective action involves the restoration of boiler water chemistry to the proper
values and the consideration of boiler chemical cleaning. Chemical cleaning is
performed to remove the internal deposits and to further generation of hydrogen
on the tube surface.
Chapter 13
Case Study VIIA: Fireside Corrosion
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a front water wall tube by the
way of through-thickness narrow longitudinal fracture on the tube and referred
the problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of such failure through
(i) Material specification: Carbon steel
(iii) Design temperature: 450 °C
13.1 Scope of Work

(v) Preparation and submission of test report based on technical data generated
(i) The failure region consists of through-thickness narrow longitudinal fracture

on the tube sample (Fig. 13.1).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_13
108 13 Case Study VIIA: Fireside Corrosion
Fig. 13.1 Front water wall

tube showing narrow
longitudinal fracture along
with outside deposits
(ii) Thick fireside corrosion deposits on the outer and inner surface of the tube
sample (Figs. 13.1 and 13.3).
(iii) Slight bulging/swelling at failure location (Figs. 13.1 and 13.2).
(iv) Wall thinning was noted at the failed side of the tube (Fig. 13.4).

tube showing swelling/
bulging

tube showing internal
deposits
Fig. 13.4 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement in mm of front water wall tube

Fig. 13.4.

Sample identification C Mn Si S P Cr Ni Cu
Front water wall tube 0.261 0.75 0.254 0.0094 0.019 0.131 0.110 0.234

Sample Location Microstructural characteristics Avg.
identification hardness
in Hv
Front water wall (A) Adjacent to (i) Penetration of oxide-filled cracks from 123
tube failure zone OD side toward tube metal wall (Figs. 13.5,
13.6 and 13.7)
(ii) Furnace wall corrosion deposits of
thickness 221.93 µm (max.) of the tube
metal (Figs. 13.6 and 13.7)
(B) Diametrically Penetration of oxide-filled cracks from OD 156
opposite to failure side toward tube metal wall along with
zone ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 13.8)
(C) Away from Penetration of oxide-filled cracks from OD 152
failure zone side toward tube metal wall along with
ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 13.9)
13.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the failed front water wall tube revealed through-
thickness narrow longitudinal fracture along with penetration of corrosion
products on the fireside. Thick deposit on the fireside of the tube was also
noticed.
specification.
(iii) Dimensional measurement revealed reduction in wall thicknesses and slight
swelling of the tube sample.
Fig. 13.6 Unetched
(iv) Microstructure of the tube sample of front water wall tube revealed corrosion
products along with penetration of oxide-filled cracks from fireside toward the
tube metal surface. The microstructure at the opposite to failure location and
away from failure location also revealed penetration of oxide-filled crack from
fireside toward the tube metal surface along with ferrite and pearlite.
Fig. 13.7 Unetched
13.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIB
Penetration of the corrosion products on the fireside of front water wall tubes suggests
that the tubes had suffered from severe fireside corrosion attack. In the most severe
case, the wall punctured and a steam leak resulted.

Chapter 14
Case Study VIIB: Fireside Corrosion
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a pendent re-heater tube by the
way of open rupture along with deep material dislodged at the bend portion of tube
and referred the problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of such failure
through systematic diagnostic approach.
(i) Material specification: BS 3059 PT2-1990-622-490-S2-CAT2
(iv) Design pressure: 25.10 kg/cm2
14.1 Scope of Work
(vi) Visual inspection.

(vii) Dimensional measurement (outside diameter and wall thickness measure-
ment).
(viii) Chemical analysis of the tubes material.
(ix) Metallographic examination and hardness measurement.
(x) Preparation and submission of test report based on technical data generated
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_14
116 14 Case Study VIIB: Fireside Corrosion
Fig. 14.1 As received tube

sample
Fig. 14.2 Pendent re-heater

tube showing deep corrosion
marks and deposits on the
outer surface of the tube
sample
(i) The failure is open rupture along with deep material dislodged at the bend
portion of tube sample (Figs. 14.1 and 14.2).
(ii) Thick scale on the external surface of the tube (Fig. 14.2).
(iii) No sign of bulging/swelling adjacent to failure area.
(iv) Appreciable corrosion marks and deposits on the outer surface of the tube
sample (Figs. 14.1 and 14.2).
(v) Reduction of wall thickness due to removal of oxide scale at the vicinity of
failure (Fig. 14.3).

Fig. 14.3.
Fig. 14.3 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement in mm of pendent re-heater tube

Sample identification C Si Mn S P Cr Mo Ni
Pendent re-heater tube 0.086 0.266 0.560 0.018 0.012 2.23 1.03 0.130

Sample Location Microstructural characteristics Average
identification hardness
in Hv
Pendent re-heater (A) Adjacent to (i) Typical OD side corrosion (Fig. 14.4) 130
tube failure zone (ii) Ferrite and complete spheroidization of
carbides along with dispersion of carbides
along the grain boundaries and grain body
(Fig. 14.5)
(B) Diametrically (i) Penetration of oxide-filled cracks from 134
opposite to failure OD side toward tube metal wall Max. oxide
zone scale = 392.05 µm (Fig. 14.6)
(ii) Ferrite and complete spheroidization of
carbides along with dispersion of carbides
along the grain boundaries and grain body
(Fig. 14.7)
(C) Away from (i) Grain-boundary attack on the OD side 132
failure zone and spheroidized carbides (Fig. 14.8)
(ii) Ferrite and complete spheroidization of
carbides along the grain boundaries and
grain body (Fig. 14.9)
Fig. 14.4 Unetched

Fig. 14.6 Unetched

14.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the failed pendent re-heater tube revealed open rupture
along with deep material dislodged at the bend portion of tube sample. Thick
deposit along with corrosion marks on the OD side/fireside of the tube was also
noticed.
(ii) Dimensional measurement revealed reduction in wall thickness adjacent to
failure location.
(iii) The chemical composition of the tube sample confirms to the desired
specification.
(iv) Microstructural examination at the adjacent to failure location of the tube mate-
rial of the tube revealed typical fireside/OD side corrosion along with complete
spheroidization of the carbides along the grain boundaries and grain body.
The microstructures at the opposite to failure and away from failure loca-
tion revealed penetration of oxide-filled cracks from fireside toward the tube
metal surface along with complete spheroidization of the carbides along the
grain boundaries. Complete spheroidization of carbides indicates exposure to
elevated temperature for prolonged period of time.
14.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIIB
Penetration of the corrosion products on the fireside/OD side of pendent re-heater

tube suggests that the tube had suffered from severe fireside corrosion attack. In the
most severe case, the wall punctured and a steam leak resulted.
Chapter 15
Case Study VIII: Failure Due
to Manufacturing Defect
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a water wall bend tube by the way
of through-thickness longitudinal cracking at the extrados portion of the tube and
referred the problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of failure through
(i) Material specification: SA-210 Gr. C
(v) Running hours: 5100.
15.1 Scope of Work
(i)Visual inspection.
(ii)Dimensional measurement (OD and wall thickness measurement).
(iii)Chemical analysis of the tube material.
material.
(v) Hardness measurement.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_15
124 15 Case Study VIII: Failure Due to Manufacturing Defect
(i) The failure region consists of through-thickness longitudinal cracking at the

extrados portion of the tube sample (Fig. 15.1).
(ii) No noticeable bulging/swelling in and around the failure zone of the tube
circumference.
(iii) Absence of loose scale on the inner surface of the failed tube.
(iv) Wall thinning was noted at the extrados portion of the tube sample (Fig. 15.2).
Fig. 15.1 Water wall bend tube showing through-thickness longitudinal cracking
Fig. 15.2 Wall thickness and outside diameter measurement in mm of water wall bend tube
Table 15.1 Observed chemical composition (wt%)

Water wall bend tube 0.308 0.285 0.826 0.108 0.039 0.065

Fig. 15.2.

Sample Location Microstructural characteristics Hardness in
identification Hv
Water wall bend Adjacent to failure zone Banded structure of ferrite and 176
tube pearlite (Fig. 15.3)
Diametrically opposite to Banded structure of ferrite and 184
failure zone lamellar pearlite (Fig. 15.4)
Away from failure zone Banded structure of ferrite and 184
lamellar pearlite (Fig. 15.5)
126 15 Case Study VIII: Failure Due to Manufacturing Defect
15.2.5 Discussion
(i) Visual observation of the failed water wall bend tube revealed through-
thickness longitudinal cracking on the extrados portion of the tube sample.
(iii) Measurement of tube wall thickness revealed reduction in wall thickness at
extrados portion of the water wall bend tube. No swelling/bulging of the tube
was noticed.
(iv) Microstructure of the tube sample of water wall bend tube revealed banded
structure of ferrite and pearlite. Segregation of alloying elements during the
initial stages of steel making changes the carbon diffusion rate to give regions
of varying carbon content in the austenite. Subsequent ingot rolling and metal
processing elongate these regions, and the final structure has bands of pearlite
and ferrite.
15.2.6 Conclusion for Case Study VIII
The failure at the extrados or outermost portion of the tube may be due to bending of
the tube at manufacturing stage. Bending produces changes in tube wall thickness.
During the bending process, the outer wall was put into tension; hence, wall thinning
would occur. Since the inner wall was in compression, the original wall thickness
increased. Because the wall thickness on the extrados, or outermost, side of the bend
was at the smaller wall thickness, this resulted to a larger hoop stress, leading to
failure of the tube.
Chapter 16
Case Study IX: Corrosion Fatigue
Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a economizer tube by the way
of typical crack at two locations opposite to each other of the tube and referred the
problem to probe into the metallurgical cause/causes of failure through systematic
diagnostic approach.
(i) Material specification: BS3059/45S2
(iii) Working temperature: 374 °C.
16.1 Scope of Work

(v) Scanning electron microscopic with elemental analysis.
(vi) Preparation of report.
(i) The failure is typical crack at two locations opposite to each other. The hair line
crack is associated with corrosive marks (Fig. 16.1).
(ii) Slight reduction in wall thickness is noted and no swelling/bulging sign on the
tube (Fig. 16.1).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3130-9_16
130 16 Case Study IX: Corrosion Fatigue
Fig. 16.1 Economizer tube

showing failure zone (crack) Crack

Fig. 16.2.
Fig. 16.2 Outer diameter and wall thickness measurement in mm. of failed economizer tube
Table 16.1 Observed chemical composition (wt%)

Sample No. C Si Mn S P Fe
Economizer tube 0.154 0.158 1.03 0.018 0.018 Balance
Specification of BS3059 0.16 0.10–0.35 0.40–0.80 0.035 0.035 Balance

Sample No./location Microstructural characteristics Hardness values in Hv
Economizer tube (adjacent to Ferrite and banded pearlite 156–162
crack) (Figs. 16.3, 16.4 and 16.5)
constituent elements was carried out using atomic emission spectrometer (model-
MetaVision 1008i3 ). The chemical compositions are detailed in Table 16.1.
in Vickers hardness tester under 20 kgf load. The microstructural characteristics and
16.2.5 SEM/EDX Analysis
The SEM/EDX is carried out on the crack surface. The result indicates corrosion
deposits inside the crack which reveal some corrosive constituents like sulfur and
chlorine.
16.2.6 Discussion
(i) Visual examination reveals crack from inner surface along the transverse and
cross section of the tube. The outer diameter shows normal value, while slight
reduction in wall thickness is noticed.
Fig. 16.3 Showing

corrosion deposits inside the
crack
Fig. 16.4 Shows the

presence of corrosion
deposits inside the crack
(ii) Visual inspection shows typical hair line crack with the presence of corrosion
deposits inside the crack.
(iii) The microstructure analysis adjacent to the crack shows normal microstructure
of ferrite and banded pearlite. The hardness survey also shows normal value.
The microstructure also shows the presence of corrosion deposits inside the
crack.
(iv) SEM/EDX of the corrosion deposits inside the crack reveals the presence of
corrosive constituents like chlorine and sulfur. Simultaneous presence of chlo-
ride and sulfur element aggravates the corrosion phenomena due to cyclic stress
and causes the failure of the tube. The source of sulfur and chlorine at the inter-
face of the crack, however, could not be ascertained. The cracking of the tube
Fig. 16.5 Etched in Nital, shows corrosion at the inner surface
Fig. 16.6 SEM and corresponding EDX on the crack of failed economizer tube
Table 16.3 Details of

Elements wt%
elemental analysis on crack
O 10.40
S 0.28
Cl 1.07
Fe 88.25
Total 100.00
is possibly due to corrosion fatigue initiated from internal surface and rupture
until crack propagation reaches the external surface causing leakage/hair line
cracks.
16.2.7 Conclusion for Case Study IX
The failure of the economizer tube is possibly due to corrosion fatigue initiated by
corrosive constituents like sulfur (S) and chlorine (Cl).
16.3 Conclusion
In spite of the best efforts of design engineers and material scientists, engineering
components fail in service. In some cases, failure may lead to serious consequences
like huge financial loss, environmental contamination and even loss of life. The failure
of industrial boilers has been a prominent feature in fossil fuel-fired power plants.
The contribution of several factors appears to be responsible for failures, culminating
in the partial or complete shutdown of the plant. There are several mechanisms of
boiler tube failure, including short-term overheating, high-temperature creep, high-
temperature failure, caustic corrosion, hydrogen damage, dissimilar weld failure,
manufacturing defects, corrosion fatigue, etc. These mechanisms can lead to various
types of tube failures, such as fish mouth type rupture, small fracture opening at the
apex of bulge, thick-edged fracture, thin-edged fracture, window type opening, thick
edge split type fracture, cracks and pin hole type leaks, which can cause catastrophic
incidents.
In the event of a failure, it is therefore essential to investigate the root cause
of failure in terms of design and quality of material and fabrication procedure. A
failure analyst must have an open mind and be ready to examine and evaluate the
views of other involved in operation of power plant. There are innumerable case
studies which have been reported, and case studies reported indicated that actual
mechanism of boiler tube failure can be identified through systematic metallurgical
investigation. Based on the mechanism of failure, sequence of events that led to failure
can be drawn, and corrective actions can be suggested for preventing re-occurrence
of similar failure. Hence, it may be concluded that investigation into the cause of
boiler tube failure is very much helpful in improving the availability and reliability
of boilers.

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Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering

Boiler Tube Failure

ISSN 2195-9862 ISSN 2195-9870 (electronic)

Durgapur, India Dr. Atanu Saha

I wish to express my profound sense of gratitude to Head of Industrial Service

Part I Overview of Failure Mechanisms

Part II Case Studies

4 Case IB: Short-Term Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

8 Case Study IV: Erosion Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

12.2.4 Metallographic Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Fig. 1.2 Simplified (3 cylinder type) steam power plant cycle

1.1 Material for Steam Boilers

θ = Δl/T = tan α. (1.1)

Fig. 1.3 Creep curves of

Fig. 1.4 Relationship

Fig. 1.5 Stress versus time

Table 1.1 Property requirements and materials for construction

1.2 Design Life of Components

Fig. 1.7 Effect of

Fig. 1.8 Use of boiler and

• Use of minimum properties in design.

2.1 Short-Term Overheating

Fig. 2.2 Unusual short-term

Fig. 2.3 Typical short-term

(iii) Low drum water levels and

2.2 High Temperature Creep

T (20 + log10 tr ) × 10−3 = P (2.1)

Fig. 2.4 Variation of

Fig. 2.5 Variation of

σH = PDM /2W (2.2)

Corrective action for control of high-temperature creep failure depends on the

Fig. 2.7 Blister-type

Fig. 2.8 Fish-mouth-type

2.2.1 Temperature Measurement Based on Steam Side Oxide

Table 2.1 Expressions for oxide-growth kinetics in Cr–Mo steels

Fig. 2.9 Empirical

2.3 Hydrogen Damage

Fig. 2.11 Hydrogen

2.4 Caustic Corrosion/Gouging

Caustic corrosion/gouging occurs when alkalinity of boiler water increases. Caustic

4 NaOH + Fe3 O4 = 2 NaFeO2 + 2 H2 O

Fe + 2 NaOH = Na2 FeO2 + 2 H

Causes of caustic corrosion

Fig. 2.12 Boiler locations

deposit-forming materials and by performing periodic removal of water-side deposits

Power plant authority had experienced a failure of a secondary superheater tube by

Designed pressure 136.5 Kg/cm2

(vi) Material specification: BS 3059-Part 2-S2-ST-622.50 Cat 2–1968

3.1 Scope of Work

(i) Visual inspection

(a) Hardness measurement

Fig. 3.1 General view of the

(v) Metallographic examination to analyze microstructural features of the tube

3.2 Examination Details

3.2.1 Visual Inspection

3.2.2 Dimensional Measurement

Table 3.1 Outside diameter of the failed tube sample

Fig. 3.3 Dimensional measurement of the ruptured tube

3.2.3 Chemical Analysis