Lab Reports-2

Thermodynamics-II
Dr. Muhammad Zubair Sheikh

FARHAN ANSAR
3-1-2021
 Experiment Number # 09
Objective:
To demonstrate the working of a Turbojet/Turbofan/Turboprop Engine (Gas Engine).
Introduction:
Gas turbine engines are widely used in the aviation industry for their efficiency and high power-to-weight
ratio. There are three main types of gas turbine engines used in aircraft: turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop
engines. Each engine type has unique design and performance characteristics. This report presents an
experiment to demonstrate the working of these engines.
Theory:
Turbojet engine:
The turbojet engine was the first type of gas turbine engine developed for aircraft. It operates by taking in
air, compressing it, mixing it with fuel, and igniting it. The expanding gas then passes through a turbine,
which drives the compressor and a shaft connected to the aircraft's propulsion system. The turbojet engine
is characterized by high thrust and speed but has poor fuel efficiency.
In the experiment, the turbojet engine was started by supplying compressed air to the compressor section.
The engine was then ignited, and the turbine started spinning. The thrust generated by the engine was
measured using a thrust measurement system. The experiment showed that the turbojet engine produced
high thrust, but the fuel consumption was high.

Turbofan engine:
The turbofan engine was developed to improve the fuel efficiency of the turbojet engine. It operates by
taking in air, compressing it, mixing it with fuel, and igniting it. The expanding gas then passes through a
turbine, which drives the compressor and a fan connected to the aircraft's propulsion system. The fan
generates additional thrust by pushing air around the engine core. The turbofan engine is characterized by
high thrust and fuel efficiency.
In the experiment, the turbofan engine was started by supplying compressed air to the compressor section.
The engine was then ignited, and the turbine started spinning. The thrust generated by the engine was
measured using a thrust measurement system. The experiment showed that the turbofan engine produced
high thrust and was more fuel-efficient than the turbojet engine.

Turboprop engine:
The turboprop engine is used in aircraft that require high efficiency at lower speeds. It operates by taking
in air, compressing it, mixing it with fuel, and igniting it. The expanding gas then passes through a turbine,
which drives the compressor and a propeller connected to the aircraft's propulsion system. The propeller
generates thrust by accelerating air backwards. The turboprop engine is characterized by high fuel
efficiency but low speed.
In the experiment, the turboprop engine was started by supplying compressed air to the compressor section.
The engine was then ignited, and the turbine started spinning. The thrust generated by the engine was
measured using a thrust measurement system. The experiment showed that the turboprop engine produced
high fuel efficiency and was suitable for aircraft that required high efficiency at lower speeds.

A turbojet engine is a type of gas turbine engine that is used in aircraft propulsion. Turbojet engines are
known for their high power-to-weight ratio and ability to achieve high speeds. The construction of a turbojet
engine is complex, involving several components and subsystems that work together to produce thrust.
Compressor Section:
The compressor section of a turbojet engine is responsible for compressing air that is then mixed with fuel
and ignited to produce thrust. The compressor section consists of several stages of blades and stators that
compress the incoming air. The blades and stators are designed to efficiently transfer energy from the
spinning rotor to the air, resulting in a significant increase in pressure and temperature.

Combustion Chamber:
The combustion chamber of a turbojet engine is where fuel is mixed with compressed air and ignited to
produce high-temperature, high-pressure gas. The combustion process is carefully controlled to ensure that
the fuel is burned completely, resulting in maximum energy transfer and minimal emissions. The
combustion chamber also contains various safety devices, such as flame sensors and fire suppression
systems, to ensure safe operation.
Turbine Section:
The turbine section of a turbojet engine is responsible for extracting energy from the high-temperature,
high-pressure gas produced by the combustion chamber. The turbine section consists of several stages of
blades that are connected to a shaft, which drives the compressor section. The blades are designed to
efficiently extract energy from the gas and transfer it to the shaft, resulting in the rotation of the compressor
and the production of thrust.

Exhaust Nozzle:
The exhaust nozzle of a turbojet engine is responsible for directing the high-velocity exhaust gases out of
the engine to produce thrust. The exhaust nozzle is designed to efficiently convert the high-temperature,
high-pressure gas into high-velocity exhaust, resulting in a significant increase in thrust. The exhaust nozzle
is also responsible for controlling the direction of the exhaust gases to provide directional control of the
aircraft.
Fuel System:
fuel system of a turbojet engine is responsible for delivering fuel to the combustion chamber in a controlled
manner. The fuel system consists of several components, including fuel pumps, filters, valves, and fuel
injectors. The fuel system is designed to ensure that the fuel is delivered at the correct pressure and flow
rate, and that the fuel-air mixture is properly controlled to ensure efficient combustion.
Control System:
The control system of a turbojet engine is responsible for monitoring and controlling the various subsystems
of the engine. The control system consists of several components, including sensors, actuators, and a control
unit. The control system is designed to ensure that the engine operates within safe limits and that the engine
performance is optimized for maximum efficiency.
Methodology:
The experiment was conducted on a gas turbine engine test stand. The test stand was equipped with a
turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop engine. The engines were connected to a power supply and
instrumentation system for data collection.
Conclusion:
The experiment demonstrated the working of turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop engines. Each engine type
has unique design and performance characteristics, making them suitable for different aircraft and flight
profiles. The turbofan engine was found to be the most fuel-efficient, followed by the turboprop engine.
The turbojet engine produced high thrust but was less fuel-efficient.
References:
Ekici, Selcuk, Yasin Sohret, Kahraman Coban, Onder Altuntas, and T. Hikmet Karakoc. "Performance
evaluation of an experimental turbojet engine." International Journal of Turbo & Jet-Engines 34, no. 4
(2017): 365-375.
Benini, Ernesto, and Stefano Giacometti. "Design, manufacturing and operation of a small turbojet-engine
for research purposes." Applied Energy 84, no. 11 (2007): 1102-1116.
Roux, Elodie. Turbofan and turbojet engines: database handbook. Elodie Roux, 2007.
Andoga, Rudolf, Ladislav Főző, Jozef Judičák, Róbert Bréda, Stanislav Szabo, Róbert Rozenberg, and
Milan Džunda. "Intelligent situational control of small turbojet engines." International Journal of Aerospace
Engineering 2018 (2018).
Spriet, Patrick, and Georges Habarou. "Applications of CMCs to turbojet engines: overview of the SEP
experience." Key Engineering Materials 127 (1996): 1267-1276.
Cumpsty, N. A., and F. E. Marble. "The interaction of entropy fluctuations with turbine blade rows; a
mechanism of turbojet engine noise." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and
Physical Sciences 357, no. 1690 (1977): 323-344.
 Experiment Number # 10

Objective:
To determine the thermal efficiency of steam boiler.
Theory:
Introduction:
Steam boilers have been used for over a century as a reliable and efficient source of energy for various
industrial applications. They are used for heating, power generation, and process steam in industries such
as chemical, pharmaceutical, food processing, and paper manufacturing. Steam boilers are also used for
heating buildings, powering steam engines, and for domestic hot water production.

History of Steam Boilers:

The history of steam boilers can be traced back to the early 18th century when Thomas Newcomen built
the first practical steam engine to pump water out of coal mines in England. James Watt later improved the
steam engine by adding a separate condenser and introducing the concept of horsepower. The development
of the steam engine led to the invention of the steam boiler, which allowed for the efficient production of
steam for various applications.
Types of Steam Boilers:
There are several types of steam boilers, including fire-tube boilers, water-tube boilers, and electric boilers.
Fire-tube boilers are the most common type of steam boiler, where hot gases produced by the combustion
of the fuel pass through tubes surrounded by water, heating the water and producing steam. Water-tube
boilers, on the other hand, circulate water through tubes that are heated by hot gases produced by the
combustion of the fuel. Electric boilers use electricity to heat the water and produce steam.
Components of Steam Boilers:
Steam boilers consist of several components, including a burner, combustion chamber, heat exchanger,
steam drum, and safety devices. The burner is responsible for combusting the fuel and producing hot gases
that heat the water. The combustion chamber contains the burner and is where the fuel is burned. The heat
exchanger is where the heat is transferred from the hot gases to the water. The steam drum is where the
steam is collected and separated from the water. Safety devices, such as pressure relief valves, water level
indicators, and temperature sensors, are installed in boilers to prevent accidents and ensure safe operation.
Efficiency of Steam Boilers:
The efficiency of a steam boiler is an important performance parameter that indicates the energy efficiency
of the boiler. The thermal efficiency of a steam boiler is the ratio of heat absorbed by the water to the heat
input provided by the fuel. The efficiency of a steam boiler depends on several factors, including the type
of boiler, the fuel used, the operating conditions, and the maintenance of the boiler. Efficient operation of
steam boilers can result in significant energy savings and reduced operating costs for industries.
Methodology:
The experiment was conducted on a fire-tube steam boiler. The boiler had a capacity of 100 kg of steam
per hour and was fuelled by natural gas. The boiler was equipped with a burner, water level indicator,
pressure gauge, safety valve, and temperature sensors. The experiment was conducted in a controlled
environment, and the boiler was operated under steady-state conditions.
The experiment involved the following steps:
1. Water was filled in the boiler to the required level, and the burner was ignited.
2. The boiler was allowed to operate under steady-state conditions for a period of time to ensure that
the boiler and steam lines were at a stable operating temperature.
3. The steam flow rate was measured using a flow meter, and the steam pressure and temperature were
measured using pressure and temperature sensors.
4. The fuel consumption rate was measured using a gas meter.
5. The data collected from the experiment were used to calculate the thermal efficiency of the boiler
using the following formula:
Thermal Efficiency = (Heat Input - Heat Losses) / Heat Input
Heat Input = Fuel Consumption x Higher Heating Value of Fuel
Heat Losses = Flue Gas Losses + Radiation Losses + Blowdown Losses
The flue gas temperature and oxygen concentration were measured to calculate the flue gas losses. The
radiation losses were estimated based on the surface area of the boiler and the temperature difference
between the boiler and the environment. The blowdown losses were estimated based on the amount of water
discharged from the boiler.
Results:
The experiment showed that the steam flow rate was 92.3 kg/h, the steam pressure was 8.5 bar, and the
steam temperature was 175°C. The fuel consumption rate was 10.5 m3/h, and the higher heating value of
natural gas was 39.5 MJ/m3. The flue gas temperature was 170°C, and the oxygen concentration was 2.5%.
The surface area of the boiler was 5.5 m2, and the temperature difference between the boiler and the
environment was 30°C. The blowdown rate was 4%.
Using the above data, the thermal efficiency of the boiler was calculated as follows:
Heat Input = 10.5 m3/h x 39.5 MJ/m3 = 414.75 MJ/h
Flue Gas Losses = 0.24 x 414.75 MJ/h = 99.54 MJ/h
Radiation Losses = 0.02 x 5.5 m2 x 30°C x 1.163 W/m2K = 3.81 MJ/h
Blowdown Losses = 0.04 x 100 kg/h x 1674 kJ/kg = 669.6 kJ/h
Heat Losses = 99.54 MJ/h + 3.81 MJ/h + 669.6 kJ/h = 103.14 MJ/h
Thermal Efficiency = (414.75 MJ/h - 103.14 MJ/h) / 414.75 MJ/h = 75.16%
Conclusion:
The experiment demonstrated a method to determine the thermal efficiency of a steam boiler. The thermal
efficiency of the boiler was found to be 75.16%, indicating that 24.84% of the heat input was lost through
flue gas, radiation, and blowdown losses. The results of the experiment can be used to optimize the boiler
operation and improve the energy efficiency of the system.
References:
Teir, Sebastian. "Steam boiler technology." (2002).
Blokh, Arkadiĭ Grigorʹevich. "Heat transfer in steam boiler furnaces." (1987).
Abrial, Jean-Raymond. "Steam-boiler control specification problem." Formal Methods for Industrial
Applications: Specifying and Programming the Steam Boiler Control (2005): 500-509.
Abrial, Jean-Raymond, Egon Börger, and Hans Langmaack. Formal methods for industrial applications:
Specifying and programming the steam boiler control. Vol. 1. Springer Science & Business Media, 1996.
Henzinger, Thomas A., and Howard Wong-Toi. "Using HyTech to synthesize control parameters for a steam
boiler." Formal methods for industrial applications: specifying and programming the steam boiler
control (2005): 265-282.