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ME50 Thermal Fluid Systems I

Atkinson Cycle Overview and Analysis

Background

The Atkinson cycle is a derivative of the Otto internal combustion engine cycle that was
invented and patented by English engineer James Atkinson in 18828. Like its counterpart, the
Atkinson cycle is comprised of an intake, compression, power, and exhaust phase. In the intake
phase, an air-fuel mixture goes into the cylinder from the intake valve. The mixture is then
compressed during the compression phase. While the valves are closed, a spark plug releases an
electric spark that creates an explosion and pushes the piston in the cylinder down, known as the
power phase. During the exhaust phase, the exhaust valve opens, and all of the exhaust gasses
are released. The cycle is then repeated.

The key difference between the Atkinson cycle and the Otto cycle is during the
compression phase. In the Otto cycle, the valves are closed, and the air-fuel mixture is
compressed. In the Atkinson cycle, however, the intake valve remains partially open from the
intake phase. This leads to a long expansion and delayed compression. This allows the air-fuel
mixture to enter the cylinder for a longer period of time, while some of the mixture goes back
into the intake valve. This means less work is required to compress the mixture during the
compression stroke, which in turn reduces the amount of energy lost as heat. The longer
expansion and delayed compression result in more energy output for less power input, as well as
a higher expansion ratio than compression ratio, as opposed to the Otto cycle where those are the
same8.

Because of the reduced power output, the Atkinson cycle wasn’t very popular at first. It
wasn’t until Toyota began experimenting with its functionality in the 1990s3. One benefit to the
Otto cycle is that it is more fuel efficient. Toyota made the cycle more fuel efficient and started
implementing it into their vehicles. Now, the Atkinson cycle is widely used in a number of
vehicles, mostly hybrid vehicles. The cycle saves a lot of fuel, and although there’s a reduction
in power, the addition of an electric motor makes up for that power, creating a powerful and fuel
efficient vehicle. Since its discovery, this blueprint has been used in every Toyota and Lexus
hybrid vehicle. Toyota has even implemented the Atkinson cycle in petrol engines, by having the
engine switch from the Atkinson cycle to the Otto cycle whenever more power is needed10.

Ideal Analysis

We will use cold air assumptions: air is our working fluid and behaves as an ideal gas, all
processes are internally reversible, the combustion process is replaced by an external heat
addition, the exhaust process is replaced by an external heat rejection, and specific heats remain
constant at 300 K (therefore we take 𝑇1 to be 300 K). We take the mass of the air inside the
engine to be 0.0025 kilograms, as Toyota’s latest Camry hybrid utilizes a 2.5-liter engine. We
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will take 𝑃1 to be 100 kPa, as this is close to atmospheric pressure. We will also impose a
compression ratio of 10 and an expansion ratio of 14, as listed in Toyota’s 2023 Camry hybrid
specifications9. There is some debate over what the expansion ratio of the engines are, but online
discussions seem to suggest that Toyota’s listings for the compression ratio are actually that of
the expansion ratio, and the compression ratio around 10.

The Atkinson Cycle consists of the following four processes2:

(1) → (2): isentropic compression
(2) → (3): isochoric compression
(3) → (4): isentropic expansion
(4) → (1): isobaric exhaust
Figure 1, 2: Pressure vs. Volume and Temperature vs. Entropy Diagram of General Ideal
Atkinson Cycle

State Properties

Given:
𝐴𝑖𝑟, 𝑚 = 0.0025 𝑘𝑔, 𝑇1 = 300 𝐾, 𝑃1 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝑟𝑐 = 10, 𝑟𝑒 = 14

From Table A-2 at T1 = 300 K for ideal air, we get

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑅 = 0.2870 , 𝑘 = 1.400, 𝑐𝑝 = 1.005 , 𝑐𝑣 = 0.718
𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑘𝑔𝐾

State 2:
Since (1) → (2) is isentropic, we have

𝑉1 𝑘
𝑃1 𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑘 → 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( ) = 𝑃1 𝑟𝑐𝑘
𝑉2

𝑃2 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ⋅ 101.400 = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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Using the ideal gas law to solve for T2 , we have
𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2 → 𝑇2 =
𝑚𝑅

Solving for V2 ,
𝑉1 𝑉1
= 𝑟𝑐 → 𝑉2 =
𝑉2 𝑟𝑐

Solving for V1 ,
𝑚𝑅𝑇1
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 → 𝑉1 =
𝑃1
𝑘𝐽
0.0025 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 0.2870 ⋅ 300 𝐾
𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑉1 = = 0.00215 𝑚3
100 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Plugging back into the expression for V2 ,
0.00215 𝑚3
𝑉2 = = 2.15 ⋅ 10−4 𝑚3
10
Plugging back into the expression for T2 , we get
2511 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ⋅ 2.15 ⋅ 10−4 𝑚3
𝑇2 = = 𝟕𝟓𝟒 𝑲
𝑘𝐽
0.0025 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 0.2870
𝑘𝑔𝐾

State 3:
Since (3) → (4) is isentropic, we have

𝑉4 𝑘
𝑃3 𝑉3𝑘 = 𝑃4 𝑉4𝑘 → 𝑃3 = 𝑃4 ( ) = 𝑃1 𝑟𝑒𝑘
𝑉3

𝑃3 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ⋅ 141.400 = 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Using the ideal gas law to solve for T3 , we have

𝑃3 𝑉3
𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇3 → 𝑇3 =
𝑚𝑅
Since (2) → (3) is isochoric, we have
𝑃3 𝑉2
𝑇3 =
𝑚𝑅
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4023 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ⋅ 2.15 ⋅ 10−4 𝑚3
𝑇3 = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟕 𝑲
𝑘𝐽
0.0025 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 0.2870
𝑘𝑔𝐾

State 4:
𝑃4 = 𝑃1 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Again using the ideal gas law to solve for T4 , we have

𝑃4 𝑉4
𝑃4 𝑉4 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇4 → 𝑇4 =
𝑚𝑅
Solving for V4 ,
𝑉4
= 𝑟𝑒 → 𝑉4 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑉3
𝑉3

Again using the fact that (2) → (3) is isochoric, we have

𝑉4 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑉2

𝑉4 = 14 ⋅ 2.15 ⋅ 10−4 𝑚3 = 0.00301 𝑚3

Plugging back into the expression for T4 , we have

100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ⋅ 0.00301 𝑚3
𝑇4 = = 𝟒𝟐𝟎 𝑲
𝑘𝐽
0.0025 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 0.2870
𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑇𝑛+1 𝑃𝑛+1
Interpolating Table A-21 for the enthalpy values and using ∆𝑠 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑙𝑛 ( ) − 𝑅𝑙𝑛 ( ) for
𝑇𝑛 𝑃𝑛
the entropy changes (using the initial entropy as our starting reference), we finally have

Table 1: State Properties of Ideal Atkinson Cycle

State 1 State 2 State 3 State 4

Temperature (K) 𝐓𝟏 300 𝐓𝟐 754 𝐓𝟑 1207 𝐓𝟒 420
Pressure (kPa) 𝐏𝟏 100 𝐏𝟐 2511 𝐏𝟑 4023 𝐏𝟒 100
Specific enthalpy h1 300.19 h2 771.2 h3 1286 h4 421.26
(kJ/kg)
Specific entropy 𝒔𝟏 6.87 ∆𝒔𝟐 0 ∆𝒔𝟑 0.338 ∆𝒔𝟒 0
change (kJ/kgK)
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Figure 3: Pressure vs. Volume Diagram of Ideal Atkinson Cycle

Figure 4: Temperature vs. Entropy Diagram of Ideal Atkinson Cycle

Net Work and Thermal Efficiency

Using the 1st law of thermodynamics,

∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

Since (1) → (2) and (3) → (4) are isentropic (no heat transfer, 𝑄 = 0), we have
∆𝑈1,2 = −𝑊1,2 and ∆𝑈3,4 = −𝑊3,4

And therefore
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𝑊1,2 = −𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

𝑘𝐽
𝑊1,2 = −0.0025 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 1.005 (754 𝐾 − 300 𝐾) = −𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑱
𝑘𝑔𝐾

𝑊3,4 = −𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )

𝑘𝐽
𝑊3,4 = −0.0025 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 1.005 (420 𝐾 − 1207 𝐾) = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖 𝒌𝑱
𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑉2
𝑊2,3 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉1

(2) → (3) is isochoric, so

𝑊2,3 = 𝟎
𝑉1
𝑊4,1 = ∫ 𝑃1 𝑑𝑉
𝑉4

(4) → (1) is isobaric, therefore

𝑊4,1 = 𝑃1 (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )

𝑊4,1 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎(0.00215 𝑚3 − 0.00301 𝑚3 ) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟏 𝒌𝑱

Thus, the net work output is

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊1,2 + 𝑊2,3 + 𝑊3,4 + 𝑊4,1

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (−1.14 + 0 + 1.98 − 0.0861) 𝑘𝐽 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑱

And the thermal efficiency is

𝑇4 − 𝑇1
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 𝑘
𝑇3 − 𝑇2
(420 − 300)𝐾
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − 1.400 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟗 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟗%
(1207 − 754)𝐾

Non-Ideal Analysis
This heat transfer analysis focuses on the “isentropic expansion” from state (3) to (4). In an ideal
case, there would be no heat transfer in system during this change in states. However, this is not
possible in real-world scenarios. The high temperature would mean that there’s some heat
transfer between the surrounding metal in the engine cylinders, which is heat transferred through
conduction and radiation. The calculation below estimates the heat that is lost in the process of
state (3) to (4).

For the calculations shown, a few assumptions were made

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1. Air is our working fluid. Using air simplifies our calculations greatly and there isn’t
enough information provided about air-fuel mixtures.
2. There is steady heat transfer. The heat doesn’t travel too far or with too much time, so we
can assume that the heat transfers steadily.
3. We are using a simplified geometry. Even though the engine isn’t a 1D object, treating it
as such greatly simplifies the calculations and effectively shows what a non-ideal analysis
looks like.
4. The other parts of the engine are at room temperature. The heat transferred from the
engine doesn’t greatly affect the temperature in other parts of the vehicle.
5. There is no other heat transfer in the system. Likewise, the only heat transfer that we are
dealing with are conduction and radiation. The volume inside the engine is small enough
that we can ignore convection through the engine.
6. The isentropic expansion step from states (3) to (4) takes about 40% of the total time that
is needed to complete the cycle. All of the steps take around the same time but the
isentropic expansion step takes twice the time as the other steps, since the intake valve in
the engine is open for a longer period of time.

Given the assumption that the geometry is a simplified shape we can use the bore and the
stroke to calculate the area in which thermal energy is escaping. The engine in question is the
“2.5-Liter Direct-injection” and according to Toyota’s website, the bore and stroke are 87.5 and
103.4 mm respectively.11 Treating it as a flat surface with 4 cylinders we get an area equation as
follows:
Area = 4𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 4𝜋(0.0805𝑚)(0.0976𝑚) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝟐

The material that’s being used is aluminum, and it has the following properties: 𝑘 =
𝑊 (12)
247 , 𝜀 = 0.06.5 Using these we can relate the 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 and 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 to calculate the
𝑚𝐾
temperature out and the total 𝑄̇ (𝑄̇ = 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑄̇𝑟𝑎𝑑 ). Also based off the geometry of the engine
pistons, we will assume that the thickness of the material is d = 0.085mm. The temperature in
will simply be the average temperatures at each state. Since the heat transfer accounts for the
whole process, we will simplify what the temperature function would look like and keep it at a
constant of the average. This makes 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 671 𝐾, and using the assumption that the
surroundings aren’t affected by heat transfer and remain at a constant room temperature 𝑇∞ =
300. Therefore:
𝑑𝑇 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = − 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
𝑄̇𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡
4
− 𝑇∞4 )

Using an online calculator with two equations and two unknowns we find:
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝟔𝟔𝟖 𝑲

𝑄̇ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑾
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Now that the rate of heat transfer has been found, we can find the amount of heat flux can
be found using the mass flow rate by dividing heat transfer rate by mass flow rate. It was
previously determined that the mass that flows in one cycle is 0.0025kg and if we know that the
power of the engine is 4800 RPM, we can calculate the time of one cycle by the following:
𝑚𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 0.0025 𝑘𝑔

𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝑡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 ≡ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = =
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚 0.0025 𝑘𝑔 0.0025 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
𝑚̇ = ( ) = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎
𝑡 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 ( 1 𝑠 0.0136 𝑠 𝒔
⋅ 60
4800 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑄̇ 0.650 𝑘𝑊 𝒌𝑱
𝑞𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 = = = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓
𝑚̇ 𝑘𝑔 𝒌𝒈
0.2 𝑠

Using the previous assumptions that the process from state 3 to 4 takes up about 40% of
the total time of the whole cycle we get:
𝒌𝑱
𝑞3,4 = 0.4 ⋅ 𝑞𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝟏. 𝟑
𝒌𝒈
Finally, we can use heat flux and the assumption that all the heat leaks at the end of the
change in state when the air has been compressed, to calculate the change in temperature to be:
𝛥𝑢 = 𝑞3,4 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4,𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇4,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 )
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
1.3 = 0.718 (−𝑇4,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑇4,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝟒𝟏𝟖 𝑲

𝑇4,𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇4,𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟏 𝑲

The difference in the real and ideal temperature is only about 1%. The leakage is
therefore small but noticeable and all assumptions stand.

Summary
To conclude, the Atkinson cycle is a cycle meant to be an efficient cycle that usually
combines with an external power source, like an electric motor, to power vehicles. Based on
calculation for an ideal analysis case, the Atkinson cycle has a thermal efficiency of 62.9%. For a
cycle, this is extremely efficient. Because this is an ideal case, the actual thermal efficiency is
lower. In fact, the actual thermal efficiency is about 41%11, which is likely due to the heat loss
during the other three processes, which were not analyzed here.
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The non-ideal analysis shows how irreversible properties, like heat loss, can affect the
cycle. For the isentropic expansion state, a non-ideal analysis shows that the difference in
temperature is 1.81 K, which is only around a 1%, which isn’t too significant. However, a
number of assumptions were made that affected this number. For example, the working fluid was
assumed to be air. However, in an actual engine, the working fluid is an air-fuel mixture. If there
was more information about an air-fuel mixture, it would make the calculations more accurate
and likely change the temperature difference, since in an actual engine, air isn’t the only fluid
and it’s not an ideal gas. Likewise, a simplified geometry was used. However, an engine is a
complex shape, and can’t be treated as a 1D shape. Using a 3D shape would increase the heat
loss in the engine, since heat would flow out of the engine from all sides. Finally, it was assumed
that the isentropic expansion step from states (3) to (4) takes about 40% of the total time that is
needed to complete the cycle. This was an assumption made based on judgment and in reality,
the number isn’t known and would need to be measured experimentally. The isentropic
expansion step does take the most time, but assuming that it is 40% of the total time idealizes the
calculations. Realistically, the temperature difference would increase.
All in all, the Atkinson cycle is a complex, but useful cycle that is relevant to today. With
the rise of electrification, the Atkinson cycle is crucial to hybrid cars for its efficiency. In an
ideal analysis case, the thermal efficiency of the Atkinson cycle is relatively high. In addition,
although a number of assumptions were made, the non-ideal case shows that there isn’t a major
temperature difference from the ideal case. Overall, the Atkinson cycle is a useful cycle that can
make a major impact in the future of engineering.
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References

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14 to 1 Compression Ratio on New Camry Hybrid. PriusChat. (2018, January 4). Retrieved April 13, 2023, from
https://priuschat.com/threads/14-to-1-compression-ratio-on-new-camry-hybrid.190085/

2
Atkinson Cycle – Atkinson Engine. Nuclear Power. (2021, November 13). Retrieved April 13, 2023, from
https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/thermodynamics/thermodynamic-cycles/atkinson-
cycle-atkinson-engine/

3Clifford, J. (2015, January 14). Why does Toyota use Atkinson cycle engines? Toyota UK Magazine. Retrieved
April 13, 2023, from https://mag.toyota.co.uk/toyota-use-atkinson-cycle-
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uction.

4Çengel Yunus A., Cimbala, J. M., & Turner, R. H. (2017). Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences (5th ed.).
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Emissivity Coefficients Common Products. Engineering ToolBox. (n.d.). Retrieved April 27, 2023, from
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/emissivity-coefficients-d_447.html

6Engineering Hack. (2021, May 25). Atkinson Cycle | Exam 2021 Question 1 Part 1 | Thermodynamics. YouTube.
Retrieved April 20, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kRdXyvmPqag

7Guasto, J. (n.d.). ME0050 Thermal Fluid Systems I Course Project. Canvas. Retrieved March 20, 2023, from
https://canvas.tufts.edu/courses/44694/files/folder/Project?preview=5798751

8Sherman, D. (2021, November 29). What Is the Atkinson Combustion Cycle, and What Are Its Benefits? Car and
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combustion-cycle-and-what-are-its-benefits/

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Toyota Camry 2023 eBrochure. Toyota. (2023). Retrieved April 13, 2023, from
https://www.toyota.com/content/dam/toyota/brochures/pdf/2023/camry_ebrochure.pdf

10Toyota Canada. (2016, July 22). Atkinson Cycle Engine. YouTube. Retrieved April 13, 2023, from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WKKILW3Zj_Y

11Toyota Motor Corporation. (2016, December 6). New 2.5-liter Direct-injection, Inline 4-cylinder Gasoline Engine.
Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website. Retrieved April 27, 2023, from
https://global.toyota/en/powertrain/engine/

12Wilson, K. (2021, June 2). Top 10 Thermally Conductive Materials. Thermtest. Retrieved April 27, 2023, from
https://thermtest.com/thermal-resources/top-10-resources/top-10-thermally-conductive-
materials#:~:text=Aluminum%20–%20247%20W%2Fm•K

Author Contributions

All members contributed to background research, F. Miah consolidated and wrote its final draft. C. Yen
completed ideal analysis and the lower-half of the table, while F. Miah completed the upper-half of the table and the
figures. I. Abou-Jaoude completed non-ideal analysis. F. Miah completed summary and C. Yen completed
references. All members contributed equally to edits.