Section 1

Why are inter-stage coupling capacitors used in multistage amplifiers?

To prevent Dc from passing between amplifier stages, which can affect the bias
at both stages.

Which components affect the frequency?

C1 and C2
Given that the Rin in 17k ohms Calculate the F1 Frequency?
F1 = 1/2xPIExRxC
What would happen to f1 frequency if the input coupling capacitor C1
decreased in value?
F1 would get bigger because they’re inversely proportional
What would happen to the f2 frequency if the input capacito C1 increased in
value?
C1 has no effect on f2
What would happen to the f2 frequency if the output coupling capacitor C2
increased in value?
C2 has no effect on f2
What factors effect the f2 frequency?
Transistors inter-electrode capacitance
Stray circuit capacitance
Transistors transition frequency

Which components affect the f1 frequency?

C1,C2,C3
Calculate F1 due to C1 only
Rin = R1 + R2 + R3
F1 = 1/2 x PIE x RT x C
What would happen to the f1 frequency if the input coupling capacitor
increased in value?
If capacitance goes up up, F1 goes up.

Which lead of C3 should connect to the collector of Q1 if C3 is a polarised

capacitor? Why?
The positive side of the capacitor, because Q1 is a higher DC voltage.
What would happen to the DC quiescent voltage on the collector of Q1 if C3
became a short circuit?
No Change RG is too high to load the circuit.
What would happen to the DC quiescent voltage on the gate of Q2 if C3
became a short circuit?
It would rise to the value of Q1’s collector voltage and bias it off.
What effect would this have on the output signal?
It would cause VGS to go positive, Q2 would turn off.
Calculate the voltage gain of the first amplifier stage
AV = RC//RL/re
Calculate F1
Rin = R1 + R2 + R3
F1 = 1/2 x Pi x RT x C
Calculate Voltage gain of second stage
Gm x RD
Calculate F1 of the Second Stage
F1 = 1/2 x Pi x RT x C
What is the voltage gain of the entire amplifier?
AV T = Av1 Loaded x AV2
What is the F1 of the entire amplifier
Worst case scenario - 3.64
What would happen at the output if capacitor C3 went open circuit?
No output signal – No connection between stages
Large schematic
List all the capacitors used for inter-stage coupling
C5, C6, C7, C9, C11
What would happen to the output signal if the inter-stage coupling capacitor
C5 went open-circuit?
The signal from the input 1 would not appear on the output – signal 2 still
present
What would happen to the signal at the output if C7 went Open circuit?
No output at all
State at least two reasons why transformers are used for interstage coupling
amplifiers.
Blocks
Improves Efficiency
State at least two disadvantages of transformer-coupling?
Poor Low Frequency response
Distortion
Bulky
Expensive
When replacing Q1 what should be the minimum VCE rating? Explain.
VCE should be 2 times the voltage supply (40v) for 20v+
Back emf of T1 – allows swing up to twice VCC

Section 2
State two advantages of using direct coupling
Fewer components
Can amplify signal frequency down to DC
State two disadvantages of using direct coupling
Poor DC stability
Difficult to locate faults

Determine Q2’s Collector Voltage

VB = VCC x RB2/RB1 + RB2
VE1 = VB – 0.6v
IC1 = IE1 = VE1/RE1
VC1 = VCC – (IC x RC1)
VB2 = VC1 = 5.36v
VE2 = VB2 – 0.6v
IC2 = IE2 = VE2/RE2
VC2 = VCC – (IC2 x RC2)
Determine overall voltage gain of the amplifier
AV2 = RC2 / RE2
Rin2 = B x RE2
Av1 = RC1/RE1
AvT = Av1 x Av2
What type of coupling is used in this circuit?
Direct
Describe the function of Q1 and Q2 in this circuit
Q1 common source JFET
Q2 common source BJT
7. Determine overall gain of the circuit
Av1 = RC1/RE1
AV2 = RC2/ RE2
Determine Q1’s drain current
VS/RS
Determine Q2’s Emitter Voltage
VCC – (IC x RC)
Determine Q2’s collector Current
Beta x IB - IB = Vcc – VB/RB
VB1 = 0v
VE = 0v – 0.6v
IT = VE – VEE/ RE
IC1 = IT/2
VC1 = VCC – (IC1 x RC1)
What would happen to the collector current in Q1 if Q2 stopped conducting
due to a fault?
Q1 collector current would increase
What would happen to the collector voltage at Q1 and Q2 if the tail resistor
doubled in value
The tail resistor doubles in value. Tail current halves. Two collector currents
also halve causing the collector voltages to rise.

Calculate Voltage and current

VB1 = 0v
VE1 = VB1 + 0.6v
IT = VCC – VE/R3
IC1 = IT/2
VC1 = VEE + (IC1 x R4)
 Section 3
State an application for a differential amplifier
Low input signal – Microphone
What is meant by the term differential gain?
How much the amplifier, amplified the difference between the input and
output
What is meant by the term common mode gain?
How much it amplifies signals that are common to both inputs
What is meant by CMRR?
The ratio of differential gain

VB = 0v
VE1 = VB1 – 0.6v
IT = VE – VEE/RE
IC1 = IT/2
VC1 = VCC – (IC1 x RC1)
Calculate AC parameters
re1 & re2 = 26mv/IC
AV Diff = RC/2 x re
AV comm = RC /2 x RE
CMRR 20 x Log Av diff/AV comm
Calculate Voltage and current
VB3 = VEE + VD1
VE3 = VB3 – 0.6v
IT or IC3 = IE3 = VE3 – VEE/RE3
IC2 = IT/2
VC2 = VCC – (IC2 x RC2)

Calculate Gain
Re1 & re2 = 26mv/IC
AV diff = RC/2 x re
AV comm = RC/2 x RE
CMRR = 20 x Log Av diff/AV comm

Section 4

Explain each block of the Summing network

Summing network – Add or subtracts Vin of Vf
Amplifier – Amplifies new signal
Sampling network – Taps a portion of Vout
Feedback network – Feeds the sample back to the input.
What is another name for feedback network?
Beta network
What is another name for negative feedback?
Degenerative feedback
Why is it called this?
Because it reduces the Vin to produce a smaller V-Out
What is another name for positive feedback?
Regenerative feedback
Why is it called this??
Because it reduces Vin for a larger V-out
What effect does positive feedback have on an electronic system?
Oscillation
When negative feedback is introduced..
Gain – Decreases and stabilizes
Distortion – Decreases
Bandwidth – increases
Low Frequency roll off – Decreases
Upper Roll off Hz – increases
Rin = Increases
Rout – Decreases

Calculate Closed Gain

ACL = AOL/1+AOL x Beta
ACL = 1/Beta
Beta = 1/ACL

Section 5
Name the type of negative feedback connection used.

Voltage derived shunt fed

Can a non-inverting op amp circuit be made using one of the other three
feedback connections?
No, this is the only non-inverting op amp.
Calculate Gain of this circuit
AV = 1 + Rf/R1
If Rf became open circuit..
Gain - would rise to AV(OL)
Rin - would fall
Rout - would rise
Distortion - would rise to Distortion AOL
Upper frequency roll point - would fall to F2
Closed loop gain - Almost nothing

Name the type of negative feedback

A voltage drived shunt fed
Calculate The gain given open loop gain
Av = - Rf/R1
What would happen if Rf became open circuit.
Gain – Rises to AV
Rin = Rises to Rin
Output Resistance – Rise to Rout
Distortion – Rise to distortion
Upper frequency F2 – Falls to F2

What type of negative feedback connection would be made if RF was apart of

the circuit?
Voltage derived series fed
Why couldn’t RF be connected directly to the collector of Q2 instead of C3
Q2 would be feedback, upsetting the DC quiescent conditions at both stages
What type of connection is being made by R4?
Series derived series fed
What type of signals does this feedback supply?
Both AC and DC
What type of signals does R8 produce?
DC only
Which component is providing voltage derived shunt fed feedback in the
circuit.
C2
What type of signals apply to this feedback?
AC only
Calculate approximate gain
AV = 1 + R9/R4

Section 6
What is the conduction angle of a class A. amplifier?
360 degrees
What’s the maximum efficiency of a Class A. amplifier with collector resistor?
25%
State one advantage and one disadvantage of a class A. amplifier
Advantage - Low distortion
Disadvantage - Poor Efficiency
What’s a typical application for a class A amplifier?
Small signal voltage Amp
What is a Class B. amplifier
Consists of two devices which conducts for half the input signal each at 180
degrees
What’s the maximum efficiency for a Class B. amplifier ?
78.5%
State one advantage and one disadvantage of a class B. amp.
More efficient than class A.
Cross over distortion
What’s a typical application for a Class B. amplifier?
Motor Driver
What is a class A.B. amplifier?
Where each conduction is more than 180 degrees of input signa
What’s the efficieny of a class A.B. amplifier
Less than 78.5%
State one advantage and one disadvantage of Class A.B. over class B.?
Less distortion
Slightly Poor Efficiency
What’s a typical application for a Class A.B. amplifier?
Audio power amp and Power output stage
What is cross-over distortion?
Crossover distortion is a type of distortion which is caused by switching
between devices driving a load.
The cross-over distortion in the class B. power amplifier

Explain how cross over distortion is reduced in A.B. amps?

is eliminated by the Class A.B. power amplifier which uses diodes at the bases
of transistors to reduce forward bias voltage at bases i.e. by biasing the
transistors slightly above the cut-off.

Describe the terms Complementary symmetry and push pull

Comp – refers to the symmetrical output that uses NPN & PNP
Push – Refers to pushing current into the load and pulling current out of the
load to produce a AC waveform
What is meant by Class C. amp?
An amp that conducts less than half of the input signal

What’s a typical efficiency for a Class C. amp?

Very High

State one advantage and one disadvantage of a Class C. over Class A. types?
Advantage: High Efficiency
Disadvantage: Lots of Distortion

Determine efficiency of the amplifier

PDC = 530mA x 40v = 21.2W
VL RMS = 40 / 2 x 0.707
PL= Square root V

Section 7

Name this Circuit

Class A.B. complementary symmetry amplifier
State the purpose of diodes D1 and D2
Provides forward bias for Q1 and Q2
Determine the maximum possible output power for this amplifier
VL MAX = VCC x 0.707 = 12.73RMS
PL max = VL2 Max/RL 12.732/8Ohms
Determine the DC voltage at the following points
VE1 0v
VB1 +0.6v
VC1 +18v
VE2 0v
VB2 0.6v
VC2 -18v
Determine the quiescent current in the output devices
IC1 = IC2 = IR1 = VR1/R1 18 -0.6V/1K5 = 11mA
Explain the purpose a VBE multiplier transistor
It produces a multiple of its base emitter
Where is the VBE multiplier normally physically located?
On the same heatsink as the output transistors
Explain the purpose of a driver transistor
Increase gain at the output stage and minimize its loading on proceeding
stages
Which type of output stage configuration uses two NPN transistors at the
output devices?
Quasi-Complementary Symmetry
How many diodes are required in the bias circuit of a Class AB quasi-
complementary symmetry output stage?
3
How many Diodes to Bias a Class AB composite pair output stage?
2
Which type of output stage configuration has the PNP output transistor
connected to the positive rail and a NPN connected to the negative rail?
Composite Pair

What type of configuration is this circuit?

Darlington complementary symmetry
What’s the purpose of this transistors Q1 and Q2?
Q1 and Q2 are the driver transistors
What’s the purpose of Q3 and Q4?
They deliver the output current to the load
Explain why this circuit needs four diodes?
To bias the output and their drivers
Calculate voltage at the base of Q1 and Q2
VB1 = 0 +VB3 + VBE1 = 0 + 0.6 + 0.6 = 1.2v
VB2 = 0 – 0.6 – 0.6 = - 1.2v
Calculate the quiescent current in the output devices
VCC – VB1 / R1
Calculate Maximum power
VL MAX 30 x 0.707 = 21.21v
PLMAX V2/RL 21.21/4 = 112w
What would happen if Q2 developed an open base fault?
Only the top half of the circuit would work
What would happen if Q3 developed a short circuit across its collector emitter
terminals?
It would cause the emitter of Q4 and top end of load to be connected directly
to +VCC. Large DC current passes through it.

Section 8
State the purpose of the following components
Q1 and Q2 : They form a differential amp to provide voltage gain
Q3 is the voltage amplification stage
D1 and D2 Forward Bias the output transistors
Q4 and Q5: Are output transistors
R5 & R4: Provide global negative feed back
C2 Gives a DC gain of unity
R7 & R8: Stabilizes the current of Q5 and Q6
Determine the closed loop gain
AVCL 1 + R5/R4 1 + 150/6K8 = 2306
What is the value of closed loop DC voltage gain for this amplifier?
The DC Gain is unity (one) because C2 looks like an open circuit to DC. This
feeds all of the DC output back to the input
Describe the effect of the following faults on the operation of the circuit.
R3 open circuit – There would be no current, no signal to Q3, No output.
D1 or D2 go short circuit - Cross over distortion would appear on the output
signal.
R5 open circuit - No Negative feedback and operates in open loop mode
Q3 open circuit collector - No signal coupled to the output transistors
Q4 Short circuit collector emitter – Very high current through Q3 and Q5
R4 open circuit - Very High current through Q4 and Q5
LM383: Provides power amplification
R2 and R3: Provides negative feedback, Sets AVCL
C3: Makes feedback AC only
R1: Sets input level to LM383 operates volume
C2: input coupling capacitor to block DC
C1: Smooths Supply Rail
C4: Blocks DC at Pin 4

State the effects of the following faults

C2: open – circuit – No input signal could get into the amplifier
C3 open circuit : No negative feedback so gain would be high
R3 open circuit: No negative feedback so gain would be high
LM383 became detached from the heat sink – Overheat and destroyed
Why is heatsinking required in power amplifiers
To keep the power devices cool
What components are needed to mount two T0-220 package transistors on the
one heatsink?
Mica washers insulating, silicon compound, heatsink, nuts and bolts.

PRACs

Section 1
What did Changing the input coupling capacitor from 0.1uF to 2uF have on the
F1?
Increased Frequency
What is the relationship between the value of the input coupling capacitor and
the f1 of the circuit?
Inversely related

Section 2
If RC3 goes high what effect does it have on the DC conditions
Voltage dropped
Why is this?
Larger the resistance, the bigger the voltage drop across it.

Amps Configurations Part 2

SECTION 1
1. List 3 methods for coupling stages in a multistage amplifier
Capacitive Coupling
Transformer Coupling
Direct Coupling

2. Identify capacitive and transformer coupling schematics

3. Describe their advantages, disadvantage and characteristics.

Capacitive
Advantages –
Disadvantages – Reduce the amplitude of low frequency signals
Characteristics – Provides AC coupling – Blocks DC

Transformer
Advantages – Impedance matching – Efficiency – Reduces Low Hz
Disadvantages – Cost – Bulkiness – Distortion – Frequency response
Characteristics – Provides AC coupling

Calculate and measure total gain of a capacitively coupled two stage

transistor amplifier (without global feedback)
AV total = Av1 x Av2 x Av3

List the factors that affect the upper and lower roll-off frequencies in a
multistage in a multistage transistor amplifier.

Calculate and measure the lower roll-off frequencies of a capacitively

coupled multistage amplifier.

New cap CC = 1/2 x x RT x f1

VB1 = Vin x R2/R1+R2

VE1 = VB – 0.6v
IC1 = VE/RE
VC1 = Vcc – (IC x RC)
re = 26mv/1ma
Rin = RB1//RB2//B x (re+Re)
AV1 = R3//Rin2 / R4 + re
AV2 = R7//RL / re
AVT = AV1 x AV2
F1 = 1/2 x x RG x C1
RL = (np/ns) 2 x 8

List the factors that affect the upper and lower roll off frequencies
 If a capacitor is chosen so that f1 is below 20Hz it unlikely to have an
effect on the audible signal. Coupling capacitor blocks DC. Allows flow
from the output of the first stage

SECTION 2
1. Identify direct coupling in multistage transistor amplifiers given the
schematic diagram.

2. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and characteristics of direct

coupling in transistor amplifiers.
 Advantages – Fewer Components, Cheaper, Smaller and amplifies low
frequencies.
Disadvantages – Small variations in DC, power supply
Characteristics – Provides DC AC coupling, Has a good low frequency
response, lower parts count, has DC stability problems, Susceptible to
power supply variations.

3. Calculate the DC bias conditions for a direct coupled transistor amplifier

(without global feedback}

DIRECT COUPLED

DC CONDITIONS

VB2 = VC1
VB1 = VCC X RB2/RB1+RB2
VE1 = VB – 0.6V
IC~IE1 = VE1/RE1
VC1=VCC-(IC1XRC1)
VB2 = VC1 =
IC2~IE2 = VE2/RE2
VC2 = VCC – (IC2 X RC2)

DC GAIN

AV2 = RC2/RE2
RIN2 = B X RE2
AV1 = RC1/RE1
AV TOTAL = AV1 X AV2

DIFFERENTIAL AMP OR LONG TAIL PAIR

VB1 = VB2 ~ 0V
VE1 = VE2 = -0.6V
IT = IRE = VRE/RE = VE1-VEE/RE
IT~ VEE/RE
 IC1 = I C2
VC1 = VCC – (IC1 X RC1)
VC2 = VCC – (IC2 X RC2)

How is DC balance achieved in a discrete transistor amp

DC balance is achieved by using a trimpot between the emitters of the
two transistors to correct for slight differences in the two devices.
Trimpot set so voltages are identical

Section 3
Discrete Transistor differential amplifier
State typical applications for differential amplifiers
Microphones – Professional Audio Equipment
Identify the circuit of discrete transistor differential amplifier

Explain the operation of a discrete transistor amplifiers

Input signal fed to the base is phase inverted at each side of the amplifier
Calculate the quiescent DC voltages around the circuit including those with
constant current source bias
IT = IC1 + IC2
VOUT = (Vin+ - Vin-) x Av (diff)
VB1 AND VB2 = 0V
VE1 AND VE2 -0.6V
IT = -0.6V – (-VEE)/RE
IC1 & IC2 = IC = IT/2
VC1 & VC2 = VCC – (IC X RC)
Re1 & re2 re = 26mv/IC
Av (differential) RC/2xre
Av(common mode) RC/2xre
CMRR = 20 x Log (Av diff/Av Comm)
(In Db) ;)
Describe the terms differential gain, common mode gain,
Common mode voltage gain results from the same signal being given to both
the inputs of an op-amp. If both signals flow in the same direction, it creates
common mode interference, or noise.
Differential mode is the opposite of common mode, in that the direction of the
signals are different. Differential mode consists of observing the potential
difference between the two terminals, considering the two terminals of the
multipole to be isolated (i.e. operating as a dipole), and considering a current
entering the system through one terminal and leaving, in its entirety, through
the other terminal.
Common mode rejection ratio
The common-mode rejection gain (CMRR) is the ratio of its differential gain to
its common mode gain. Normally expressed in Db.
CMRR = 20 x Log Av diff/Av Comm
Calculate and measure gain
AV(common mode) = RC/2RE
AV (Differential) RC/2 x re
Calculate and measure common mode gain, common mode rejection ratio
Av common = RC / 2 x Zccs
How does constant current source bias improves the common mode rejection
ratio Besides supplying constant emitter current, the constant current bias also
provides a very high source resistance since the ac equivalent or the dc source
is ideally an open circuit. viii. High resistance RE will reduce the common mode
gain thus improving the CMRR.
Differential amplifier with constant current source
VB1 = VEE + VD1
VE3 = VB3 – 0.6V
IT = VZ – 0.6V/RE
Re1 & re2 = 26mv/IC
Av diff = RC/2 x re
Av comm = RC / 2 x Zccs
CMRR 20 x Log (Av diff/Av comm)
VRE = VE3 - VEE

SECTION 4

Describe the negative feedback in terms of the general feedback model

Summning network Amp Sampling network Feedback network
When the feedback signal (vf) reaches the second input to the summing
network it is added to Vin.
Negative or Degenerative feedback which is where Vin and Vf are not in phase
Va actually gets smaller. Degenrative feedback doesn’t run away it settles the
system down.
List the effects of negative feedback on amplifier performance
When negative feedback is applied to an amplifier it’s gain is reduced.
The trade off for this reduction in gain is that other amplifier parameters
improve by the same factor that the gain was reduced. e.g. If a amplifier has
an open loop gain of 200 and closed loop gain of 20 its gain reduction is 200/20
= 10 Other parameters such as Bandwidth and distortion also improve by a
factor of 10.
Calculate the closed-loop voltage gain of an amplifier using the general
feedback equation.
ACL = AOL/1+AOL x beta
Calculate the closed loop gain of an amplifier using the feedback factor (beta)
Beta = vf/Vout
ACL = 1/Beta

SECTION 5
Name the four basic negative feedback connections
Voltage derived series fed
Voltage derived shunt fed
Current derived series fed
Current derived shunt fed
State the effect of each connection on the input and output resistance of an
amplifier
Voltage derived series fed

Voltage Derived, Series Fed NFB

In Fig. 3.2.2 the feedback is derived from the collector voltage,

which effectively reduces the output impedance of the amplifier.
Applying the feedback to the emitter circuit of the input stage, which
is in phase with the base signal, the feedback waveform on the
emitter reduces the current into the base, so effectively increasing
the input impedance.
Voltage derived shunt fed

Voltage Derived, Parallel Fed NFB

With voltage derived parallel fed NFB both input and output
impedances are reduced. In Fig.3.2.4 an intermediate stage has
been included maintaining the correct 180° phase relationship
between the output collector voltage and the input voltage
waveform.

Current derived series fed

Current Derived, Series Fed NFB

Fig. 3.2.3 shows the feedback applied in series again, increasing

the input impedance of the amplifier as in Fig.3.2.2. In this circuit the
feedback is derived from a resistor (Rf) connected in series with the
amplifier load current in order to maintain the correct phase
relationship with the emitter signal of the input transistor; the extra
resistance here will effectively increase the output impedance.
Current derived shunt fed

 Voltage Derived, Parallel Fed NFB

With voltage derived parallel fed NFB both input and output
impedances are reduced. In Fig.3.2.4 an intermediate stage has
been included maintaining the correct 180° phase relationship
between the output collector voltage and the input voltage
waveform.

Fig. 3.2.5 Current Derived, Parallel Fed NFB

Identify components in an amplifier being used to provide negative feedback

Voltage derived Series Fed OP – Rf an R1 form the negative feedback network
Voltage derived Series Fed Trans – R4 and Rf form the negative feedback
network
Voltage derived shunt fed – RB forms the feedback network
Current derived series fed RE forms the feedback network
Current derived shunt fed – Rf and R6 make the negative feedback network
Identify whether the feedback is ac only dc , or both
R4 AC and DC
R2 and R4 AC + DC
R3 and C2 AC only
C4 AC
R6,R7, C6 AC + DC
Specify which connection is being used by components providing negative
feedback

Identify components that provide global negative feedback

R4 and R8 local feedback
R9 global

Calculate voltage gain in circuit that employs global negative feedback

SECTION 6
Calculate maximum power output power, DC input power and efficiency
Efficiency – n = Powerout/Power in x 100%
Power amp Efficiency - n = Signal power to load/DCinputpower x100%
PDC = IS(AV) x VS
VLoad (RMS) = VLOAD (peak) x 0.707
P = V2/R
Pload = (Vload(RMS)) 2 / RLoad

List main classes of amps operation and describe their differences

Class A – In a class A amplifier the transistors are biased so that their DC
operating point lies somewhere in the middle of the linear operating region.
(Between Cut off and saturation)
Small change in the input voltage can produce a large change in output current
without clipping.
Active devices operate for 360 degrees of the input. (conducts for entire cycle
of input waveform. 360 degrees causes transistors to dissipate power in the
form of heat. Additional power doesn’t reach the load which make the class A
the least efficient amplifier.
Application – Small signal amp – Pre amp.
 Class B – Consists of NPN and PNP transistors working alternatively to produce
and output signal. Class B – Complementary symmetry. Crossover distortion
Application – Motor Driver
Class AB – Overcomes cross over distortion by conducting for slightly more
than 180 degrees of the input signal.

State relationship between conduction angle and amplifier efficiency

As conduction angle increases efficiency goes down

Explain operation and applications for Class A, AB, B, C, and D amplifiers.
Class A is found most often in applications that require low power and low
distortion, such as for radio or guitar amplifiers.
Class B are mainly used in the low-cost design. These amplifiers are very
significant as compared to the class-A amplifiers. This type of amplifier suffers
mainly from distortion if the level of signal is low.
The Class AB amplifier is used in high-fidelity audio systems due to the good
signal reproduction and efficiency
Class-C amplifiers is in RF transmitters operating at a single fixed carrier
frequency, where the distortion is controlled by a tuned load on the amplifier.
Applications of Class D amplifier
 Television sets and home-theatre systems.
 High volume consumer electronics.
 Headphone amplifiers.
 Mobile technology.
 Automotive.

Limitations of class B?
The major disadvantage is the cross-over distortion. Coupling transformers
increases the cost and size. It is difficult to find ideal transformers. Transformer
coupling causes hum in the output and also affects the low frequency
response.
AB push pull operation?
The term push-pull refers to a common type of class B or class AB amplifier
circuit in which two transistors are used on alternating half- cycles to
reproduce the input waveform at the output.

Measure efficiency of amp

Efficiency – n = Powerout/Power in x 100%
Power amp Efficiency - n = Signal power to load/DCinputpower x100%

SECTION 7
Calculate the DC voltages at key points in a simple class AB output stage
VE = 0v
VE2 = 0V
VC1 = +VCC
VC2 = -VEE
VB1 = +0.6V
VB2= -0.6V
IC1 = IR1 VR1/R1 = VCC-VB1/R1
IC1 = IC2
Calculate quiescent current in output devices of ab SINGLE SUPPLY
VB1 = VE1 + 0.6V
VB2 = VE2 – 0.6V
IC = VCC-VB1/R1
IB = IC/B
B TOTAL = BETA 1 X BETA 2
Identify Darlington, Quasi, Composite pair, output configs and identify the
driver transistors.
DARLINGTON PAIR – POWER TRANSISTORS DRIVE THE BASE OF THE POWER OF
THE HIGHER POWERED OUTPUT TRANSISTOR – Q1 & Q2 DRIVER TRANSISTORS
Q3 & Q4 OUTPUT TRANSISTORS
4 DIODES DEVELOP THE 1.2V FOR EACH DARLINGTON PAIR (2.4V) TOTAL
VB Q1 = +1.2V
VB Q2 = -1.2V
QUASI – USES 2 NPN – 3 DIODES

COMPOUND – 2 DIODES

Identify a complimentary MOSFET output stage

Describe functions of main components of power amp output stage

SECTION 8
Identify and Describe the operation of the voltage amplification stage in a
complete discrete transistor power amplifier
Voltage -VAS – VAS is normally directly coupled to the output to maintain good
low frequency response by using a NPN transistor in place of R2

Identify and Describe the operation of the differential amp stage in a complete
discrete transistor power amplifier
The differential amp stage provides high voltage gain aswell as inverting and
non-inverting outputs.
Identify global feedback – predict closed loop voltage gain
ACL = 1 + R5/R4
R5 and R4 provide negative feedback
Describe function of major components
Q1 and Q2 – Form a differential amplifier to provide voltage gain
Q3 – is the voltage amplification stage
D1 and D2 forward bias the output transistors
Q4 and Q5 are output transistors
R5 and R4 – provide global negative feedback
C2 – gives a DC gain of unity
R7 and R8 – stabilizes the current of Q5 and Q6
State typical faults
C1 goes open circuit – No input signal = no output signal
Q3 develops an open circuit – No signal from V.A.S. = no output
Diode D1 and D2
Q5 develops an open circuit emitter – only top half of signal appears at the
output
Q5 develops a collector emitter short-circuit – 25v appears at output – Blows
Q1
C2 open circuit – There’s 100% feedback from output to input for AC + DC
R5 open circuit – Feedback loop is broken, gain rises, output clipping
Verify correct operation

Describe general requirements for commonly available integrated circuit (IC)

power amplifiers.
An integrated circuit amplifier is a compactly packaged collection of active and
passive devices that may boost the voltage or current level of a signal. The
active components are transistors, three-terminal semiconductor devices that
are capable of current gain, wherein a small change in current produces a pro-
rated change in the integrated circuit amplifier output. Discreet electronic
circuits, which use separate transistors, resistors, and capacitors, were the
earliest prototype of the integrated circuit. The integrated circuit amplifier or
chip amplifier or microchip amplifier was the result of the attempt to reduce
the weight and space requirements of fixed and portable electronic gadgets
and equipment. 

Explain the need for heatsinking output transistors

Helps to eliminate heat from the transistor
Describe method and list hardware for heatsinking power devices
Metal device that has good thermal conductivity to draw the heat away
Mica washers – Insulating bushes and spaces – nuts and bolts

Prac Exam
Are the wave forms in or out of phase why?
Yes, signals are rising and falling in sync.
Measure and record V-in = Divisions x Volts 2 x 50 mv =100mv
Measure and record V-out – Divisions x Volts 6 x 2 = 12 v
Calculate voltage gain AV = Vout/Vin
What operation is this in ?
Class B cross over distortion
Flick Sw2 to left –
Cross over distortion disappears, signal increases slightly
Why?
Because it changed it to a Class AB by giving transistors a small amount of
forward bias
What class is it operating in now?
Class A.B.
Switch SW1 to the left, what happened?
Output signal slightly decreases.
Why?
Because it changed from local to global feedback
 Notes!
Section 1.
An amplifier with a single active device is called a stage.
Reasons for cascading amp – Increase overall gain + Combine features of other
amplifier configurations.
Main considerations – Overall Gain, Coupling, Bandwidth
Ways of coupling – Capacitive, Transformer, Direct.
Input caps – Blocks DC at input
Output capacitor – blocks DC at output.
Disadvantage - coupling caps attenuate the signal of low hz signals.
If capacitor is chosen so that f1 is below 20hz it is unlikely to have any effect on
the audible signal.
3 cap faults – O/C S/C and leaky
T1 – acts as collector load
Resistor R4 and R5 provide DC bias