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Electromagnetic Induction
 Magnetic flux

Measure of number of magnetic field lines passing through an area.

𝑛ො

𝜙 = න 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴
𝜃 𝐵
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴cos𝜃

𝑑𝐴
 ෠ T and area vector for the loop 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 is given as 𝐴Ԧ = 5𝑗Ƹ m2 , then
If 𝐵 = (2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ + 4𝑘)
find the magnetic flux passing through the closed loop 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆.

Given: ෠ T and 𝐴Ԧ = 5𝑗Ƹ m2

𝐵 = (2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ + 4𝑘) 𝑄

Formula: 𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝐴Ԧ
𝑃
Solution: 𝜙 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ + 4𝑘෠ . 5𝑗Ƹ 𝑦
𝑅
𝜙 = 15 Tm2

𝑥 𝑆
 A square conducting loop of side 𝑎 is placed near a long straight wire carrying a
T current 𝑖 as shown. Find the magnetic flux passing through the square loop.

Formula: 𝜙 = ‫𝐵 ׬‬. 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ
𝜇0 𝑖
Solution: 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑥
𝑖
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 𝑎
𝜇0 𝑖
𝑑𝜙 = (𝑎 𝑑𝑥)
2𝜋𝑥
𝑙
𝑙+𝑎
𝜇𝑜 𝑖 𝑑𝑥
𝜙=න 𝑎𝑑𝑥
𝑙 2𝜋𝑥

𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝑎 𝑙+𝑎
⇒ 𝜙= ln
2𝜋 𝑙
 Coil & Coil Experiment
• When the key is closed, a deflection is
observed in the galvanometer.

• When the key is opened, a deflection is

observed in galvanometer (opposite
deflection).

𝟎
• If a relative motion is caused (keeping the
𝑮 switch closed) between the coils P and S,
then there is a deflection.

P → Primary coil S → Secondary coil • Jerky motion of coils (keeping the

switch closed) produces large
deflection.

• If the current is steady and P and S are

stationary, no deflection is observed in
the galvanometer.
 Coil & Magnet Experiment

𝟎 Magnet
𝑮

• If a relative motion is caused between the coil

Coil and magnet, then there is a deflection.
 Experiment-1

Current flows in the loop

• Changing magnetic field leads to the current in the

conducting loop
 Experiment-2

𝐵 =Constant

• If area of the loop changes, it leads to

current flow in the conducting loop
𝑖 𝑖
𝑅
 Experiment-3

𝐵 =Constant 𝜔 𝐵 =Constant

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = Constant 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = Constant

𝑖=0 𝑖≠0

• When the angle between 𝐵 and 𝐴 changes, the

current flows through the conducting loop.
 Conclusion

Current flows in the conducting loop in the magnetic field in

the following conditions:

Magnetic field (𝐵) changes

Ԧ changes
Area (𝐴)

Angle between magnetic field (𝐵)

Ԧ changes
and area (𝐴)

• When the flux through the loop changes, the

current flows in the conducting loop.
 Lenz’s Law

The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the cause that has induced it.

• Lenz’s law follows from the law of conservation

of energy.

• The direction of induced current is

Clockwise for an observer viewing the
𝟎
loop from the side of the magnet.
𝑮
 Lenz’s Law

𝑣 𝑣

• The direction of • The direction of

induced current is induced current
Clockwise for an is Anticlockwise
observer viewing for an observer
the loop from the viewing the loop
side of the from the side of
𝟎 magnet. 𝟎 the magnet.
𝑮 𝑮
Find the direction of induced current in the loop as shown.

𝐵 (Increasing) Inward

• Current is opposing the change in

magnetic flux
𝑖 𝑖 • Direction of induced
𝑅 current: Anti-Clockwise
 A bar magnet is released from the top of the fixed loop as shown. What will be
the acceleration of the bar magnet?

To find : Acceleration of the bar magnet

𝐒
Solution : As the magnet approaches loop, flux 𝑎
through loop increases. Hence to oppose

𝐍
this increase in flux, current flows in
clockwise direction in the loop when
viewed from bottom. 𝑖
𝑅

𝐍
Due to opposite flux, force acts on
magnet in upward direction. Thus, the 𝑖
effective acceleration 𝑎 of the magnet

𝐒
gets reduced.

A 𝑎=𝑔 C 𝑎>𝑔
𝑎<𝑔

B 𝑎<𝑔 D 𝑎=0
 Faraday’s Law

• The change in magnetic flux in the

loops are same. So, induced EMF in 𝐵 (Increasing)
both the loops are same.

• Due to different materials, loops have

different resistance. Thus, the induced 𝑖1 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑖2
current is different in both the loops. 𝑅 𝑅

Induced Current ⇒ Different Copper (𝑟1 Ω) Iron (𝑟2 Ω)

Induced EMF ⇒ Same

𝑖1 𝑟1 = 𝑖2 𝑟2
 Faraday’s Law

The magnitude of the emf induced

in a conducting loop is equal to
the rate at which the magnetic
flux through that loop changes
with time.

𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙
E =− E = 𝐍 𝐒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝟎

E ⇒ Induced EMF
𝜙 ⇒ Magnetic flux 𝑮

Current (𝑖) in the

loop is given by

E
𝑖=
𝑟
 Induced Charge Flown

When the induced current starts flowing in the circuit, the flow of induced
charges takes place. Charge flown in the circuit in time 𝑑𝑡 will be,

𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙
𝐸
𝑖 = = 𝑑𝑡 ∵𝐸=
𝑑𝑡
𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝜙
. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝑞 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 is the resistance of the circuit.
Thus, for a time interval ∆𝑡 we can write,

∆𝜙
∴ ∆𝑞 =
𝑟
 A conducting loop of radius 𝑅 having resistance 𝑟 Ω is placed in a varying
magnetic field 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑡 2 . Find the magnitude and direction of the induced current
in the loop.

Given: Radius and resistance of loop (𝑅, 𝑟),

Magnetic field (𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑡 2 )
To find : Magnitude and direction 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑡 2
𝑖
of induced current

Solution : EMF generated E

𝑟
𝑖 𝑖
𝑑𝜙 𝑅
E =| | = 2𝐵𝑜 𝜋𝑅2 𝑡 𝑖
𝑑𝑡

Current induced

2𝐵𝑜 𝜋𝑅2 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑟

2𝐵𝑜 𝜋𝑅2 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = (Anti-clockwise)
𝑟
 A circular conducting loop of radius 𝑅, resistance 𝑟 Ω is placed in a constant
magnetic field 𝐵0 and is made to rotate anti-clockwise with a constant angular
velocity 𝜔 about an axis passing through the center as shown. Find the value of
the induced current in the loop.
Given: Radius and resistance of loop (𝑅, 𝑟), Magnetic
field (𝐵0 ) and angular velocity (𝜔) 𝜔
To find : Value of induced current 𝐵0

Solution : Magnetic Flux:

𝜙 = 𝐵𝑜 𝜋𝑅2 cos𝜔t
𝜔𝑡 𝐴′
𝐴
EMF generated
𝑑𝜙
E=|− | = 𝐵𝑜 𝜔𝜋𝑅2 sin𝜔t
𝑑𝑡
Current induced
E
𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑟

𝐵0 𝜋𝑅2 𝜔
𝑖 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑟
 AC Generator

• AC generator is a device which converts the

mechanical energy into the electrical energy.

• It works on the principle of electro-magnetic

induction in which the motion of armature
between magnets results in Current flow and
this current is transferred through two
separate coaxial slip rings.

• The galvanometer swings between positive

and negative values. This indicates that there
is an alternating current flowing through the
Mechanical AC Electrical galvanometer.
energy generator energy
• The direction of the induced current can be
identified using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
 AC Generator

When the coil is rotated with a constant

angular speed 𝜔, the angle 𝜃 between the Soft iron core
Armature
magnetic field vector 𝐵 and the area vector
Slip rings Strong
𝐴 of the coil at any instant 𝑡 is 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡.
magnets
The flux at any time 𝑡 is
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴cosθ = 𝐵𝐴cos𝜔𝑡

From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for

the rotating coil of 𝑁 turns is then
𝑑𝜙𝐵
E = −𝑁 Carbon brushes
𝑑𝑡

E=NBA𝜔sin𝜔𝑡 = NBA(2πν)sin(2πν𝑡)
 AC Generator

• AC generators are used in power plants, dynamo, sailboats and so on. The
input to the AC generators is usually mechanical energy which is supplied by
steam or gas turbines as well as internal combustion engines.

• These turbines are rotated by different means ex: water, steam, wind etc.
 Motional EMF
The EMF induced by the motion of a conductor in magnetic Field
is called Motional EMF .

Induced EMF
𝐵(𝑡)
• Every time magnetic flux changes through a loop 𝐸𝑀𝐹 is
𝑅 generated.
• If a loop is not complete, then it will not produce an
induced current, but this does not mean that induced
EMF will also be zero.
Induced EMF in a Rod

• At Steady State,

𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵

• For 𝑒 − , 𝐹Ԧ𝑚 will be in

opposite direction of 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 .

• The Induced Potential Difference

here, is given by the following
formula:
𝑃. 𝐷 = 𝐸𝑙

• If 𝐵, 𝑣Ԧ and 𝑙Ԧ are mutually perpendicular

𝑃. 𝐷 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
• Motional EMF: E = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
 Direction of Induced Current

• Fleming’s right-hand rule states that the

Direction of Motion
direction of induced current (indicated by
Middle Finger) is perpendicular to both
the direction of the magnetic field from
the North pole to the South pole
(indicated by Index Finger) and the
direction of movement or motion
(indicated by Thumb).
 Motional EMF (Vector Form)

At steady state,
𝑣 𝑄 𝐹Ԧ𝐸 = −𝐹Ԧ𝑚
𝛼 𝑞𝐸 = −𝑞(𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵)

𝜃 𝐸 = −(𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵)
𝐵
𝑙Ԧ
𝐸𝑀𝐹, E = − ‫𝐸 ׬‬. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ

𝐸 = −(𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵)
𝑃
E = න 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ

If magnetic field is uniform then,

E = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
 Motional EMF for Random Shapes

𝐵 Concept of Effective length:

𝑄
• If 𝑣Ԧ and 𝐵 are constant for every
part of the wire, then we can
𝑣 𝑙 𝑣 𝑙 replace a random shaped wire by
𝐷 𝐶
𝑣 a displacement vector 𝑙Ԧ joining the

𝑃 initial and final points.

E = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
 Motional EMF Different Cases

𝑄 𝐵
𝐵
𝑄 𝐵

𝑣 𝑙
𝜃
𝑙 𝑣 𝑄 𝑃
𝑙 𝑣
𝑃
𝑃

E = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 E =0 E = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 sin𝜃

• length(𝑙), velocity 𝑣 • length(𝑙), velocity 𝑣 are parallel • length(𝑙), velocity 𝑣

and magnetic field 𝐵 to each other. are at 𝜃 angle.
are perpendicular to
each other. • If any two quantities are parallel
to each other then induced emf
will be zero.
Consider a rod 𝑃𝑄 of length 𝑙 placed in a magnetic field and moving with velocity
𝑣 as shown. Find which end of the rod will be at a higher potential and what will
be the potential difference between the two ends of the rod.

Given:
𝑦
Angle between 𝑣Ԧ and 𝐵 = 60° 𝐵

Formula: E = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ 𝑄
𝑣

Solution: Since, 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 is directed towards 𝑙

𝑄,hence 𝑄 is at higher potential 60° 𝑥
than 𝑃
𝑉𝑄 − 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ 𝑃

ො 𝑙Ԧ
𝑉𝑄 − 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑣𝐵sin60° 𝑛. 𝑧
3
𝑉𝑄 − 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
2
 Consider a rod 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙 placed in a magnetic field and moving with velocity
𝑣 as shown. Find which end of the rod will be at a higher potential and what will
T be the potential difference between the two ends of the rod.

Given: Angle between 𝑣 and 𝐴𝐵 = 30°

𝐴
𝐵
Formula: 𝑣
E = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
30°
Solution: Since, 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 is directed towards
end 𝐵 so, 𝐵 is at higher potential
than 𝐴
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
60°
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵sin90° 𝑛Ƹ. 𝑙Ԧ 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 𝑙 Cos60° 𝐵
1
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 2 𝑣𝐵𝑙
A circular conducting ring (𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆) of radius 𝑟 is kept in a magnetic field 𝐵 in which
it moves with a velocity 𝑣 as shown. Calculate the net EMF and the potential
difference developed across the points 𝑃 and 𝑄.

Given: 𝑙Ԧ = 𝑟, 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 is in magnetic field 𝐵

𝑄 𝐵
2r
Formula: E = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
𝑟
𝑣
Solution: Angle between 𝑣 and 𝐵 = 90° 𝑟
𝑣
Angle between 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 and 𝑙Ԧ = 45° 𝑃 𝑟 𝑅
𝑉𝑄 − 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑣𝐵sin90° 2r Cos45°
𝑉𝑄 − 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑣𝐵𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑄 = −𝑣𝐵𝑟 𝑆
 A conducting square ring of side length 𝑙, resistance 𝑟 Ω is placed at a distance 𝑎
from an infinite wire carrying current 𝑖 and moving with velocity 𝑣 as shown.
Calculate the value of the induced current in the ring.

Given: Square ring placed at distance 𝑎 from ∞

an infinite wire carrying current 𝑖
Formula: E = 𝑣Ԧ × 𝐵 . 𝑙Ԧ
𝐵 𝐶
Solution: For side 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐷 → 𝑣Ԧ ∥ 𝑙Ԧ
∴ E=0 𝑖
𝑣
For side 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐷 → 𝐵 ⊥ 𝑣Ԧ ⊥ 𝑙Ԧ
𝑎
∴ E = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 𝐴 𝐷
𝜇0 𝑖 𝑙 𝑣 1 1 𝑙
E𝑛𝑒𝑡 = E2 − E1 = −
2𝜋 𝑎 𝑎+𝑙
∞
𝜇0 𝑖 1 1 E𝑛𝑒𝑡
∴ 𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑣𝑙 2𝜋𝑟 − 𝑎+𝑙 (𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = )
𝑎 𝑟
 Energy Conversion

𝑖
𝐵 • The rod moving on two rails in magnetic
𝑃 field, it will act like a battery and the
potential difference across the rod is,
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑅 𝑣 𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙
𝑙

• Kinetic energy/work done by the external

𝑄 𝑖 agent is converted into electrical energy.
 Concept of Energy Consideration
• In a constant magnetic field, if we change the
flux, an emf is induced in the 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆. 𝑃𝑄 is the
movable arm. 𝑑𝜙
E= −
𝑑𝑡
𝐵𝑙𝑣
Current = 𝑖 =
𝐵 𝑟
𝑆 𝑖 𝑃 𝑟 is the resistance of movable arm 𝑃𝑄
• As the magnetic field is present, there will also
be a force 𝐹𝐵 acting as,
𝑣 𝐹𝐵
𝑙 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵

𝑅 • This force is directed outwards in the direction

𝑖 𝑄 opposite to the velocity of the rod.
𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣
𝐹𝐵 =
𝑟

• The arm 𝑃𝑄 is pushed inwards with force 𝐹 so, the

mechanical power required is:
Power = Force x Velocity

𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣 2
𝑃 = 𝐹. 𝑣 =
𝑟
 Concept of Energy Consideration

• The Power dissipated in form of Electrical

Power is:
𝐵 P = 𝑖 2𝑟
𝑆 𝑖 𝑃 𝐵𝑙𝑣
Current(𝑖) = 𝑟
𝐹
𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑣 2
𝐹𝐵 𝑃= x𝑟
𝑙 𝑟2
𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 2
𝑅 𝑄 𝑃=
𝑖 𝑟
Electrical Power = Mechanical Power
• The concept of Energy consideration here
shows that the Lenz’s Law is consistent with
the conservation of Energy.
 Induced EMF Inside a Rotating Rod

• 𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙
𝐵𝑜
• 𝑑𝜀 = 𝑣. 𝐵𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝜔𝑥 න 𝑑𝜀 = න 𝜔𝐵𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝜔 0
𝑂 𝑃 𝜔𝐵𝑙 2
𝑑𝑥 𝜀𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑥 2
𝑙 Induced EMF inside a rotating rod,
when one end hinged is:

𝐵𝑜 𝜔𝑙 2
𝜀 = 𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉𝑃 =
2
 Induced EMF Inside a Rotating Disc

𝐶
𝐵𝑜
• As the rod is rotated, an emf is induced
𝐸 between the center and any point on the
periphery.
𝑃

𝐴 𝑂
𝑂
𝐵 • All the points on the periphery of rotational
𝑅 disc are equipotential points.
𝜔𝑜

𝐹
• The magnitude of induced 𝐸𝑀𝐹 is,

𝐵0 𝜔0 𝑅2
𝐷 𝜀=
2
 Induced Electric field

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝐵(𝑡)

• Electric field can be produced by charges • Electric field can also be produced when a
at rest. time-varying magnetic field is present in
• Conservative in nature. space. Such an electric field is known as
the induced electric field.
• Non-conservative in nature.
 Introduction to Induced Electric Field

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑
• Induced electric field is generated due to time varying
𝐵(𝑡) magnetic field.

• Induced electric field lines form closed loop.

• Direction of induced electric field is given by:

𝑑𝐵
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = −𝐴
𝑑𝑡

• They obey the law,

𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸
 Magnitude of Induced Electric Field

𝑑𝜙
𝜀=−
𝐵(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

△ 𝑉 = − න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ

𝑟 Magnitude of induced electric field is,

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝜙
= − න 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 . 𝑑𝑙Ԧ
𝑑𝑡

For this special case, magnitude of induced

𝑑𝑙 electric field is,
𝑟 𝑑𝐵
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
2 𝑑𝑡
 Magnitude of Induced Electric Field

For outer points, 𝑟 > 𝑅

2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝐵
𝑟 △ 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 2
= න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ
𝐵(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 0

2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝐵
𝐸න 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜋𝑅2
0 𝑑𝑡
𝑅
𝑑𝐵
𝐸. 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑙Ԧ 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 For this special case, magnitude of induced
electric field is,

1 𝑅2 𝑑𝐵
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
2 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
 A rod of length 𝐿 is placed at a distance 𝑑 from the center of a region having
time varying magnetic field 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑡 as shown. Find the potential difference
across the two ends of rod.

Given: A rod is placed in a time varying 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑜 𝑡

magnetic field.

𝑟 𝑑𝐵
Formula: 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑂
Solution: 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝐵0 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝜃
2
:
𝐵0 𝑑𝐿 𝐴 𝐵
𝑃𝑑 =
2
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
 Eddy Current

Eddy currents are loops of electric current induced within the body of conductors because
of changing magnetic flux through the conductor. The current is induced in accordance
with Faraday's law of induction.

• They are also known as Foucault’s current

after the name of the scientist Foucault.

• They are known as eddy currents as they

are in a pattern like eddies in the water.

• Eddy currents can generate heat in the

conductor.

• Eddy currents can generate a force on

the conductor.
 Eddy Current

A conductor tied to a string and moving in a varying magnetic field. When ever it crosses the region of magnetic
field, the direction of currents generated in it changes. The varying magnetic field causes the localized currents in
the conductor.
Eddy Current

• By introducing slots in the plate, we are increasing the

length through which current is traversing and reducing
the area available for the currents.

• As resistance is directly proportional to the length and

inversely proportional to the area, this will result in
increase in resistance of the conductor. Which will
cause lower current and lower heat loss due to eddy
currents.
 Applications of Eddy Current

Electromagnetic Brake Metal Detector Electromagnetic Stove

• To control the speed of • To search for explosives and • To cook food.

fast-moving electric trains. weapons.
Electromagnetic Damping

• Electromagnetic brakes - To control the

speed of fast-moving electric trains.

• Electromagnetic damping is a damping technique

where electromagnetically induced current slow
down the motion of an object without any actual
contact”
Eddy Current

Eddy currents generate

heat in base of pan made
of magnetic material.

Induction Plate - Made

of glass or ceramic

Induction Coil – Behaves

like an electromagnet

Fast varying Magnetic

Field
 Inductor

• An inductor is an electrical component

that opposes change in current.

• Inductors are also known as coils or

chokes.

Inductor 𝐿 • The representation of inductor in an

electrical circuit is as shown in the
diagram.
 Inductance

Property of a current-carrying coil (Inductor) that opposes the change of

current flowing through it by producing an opposing induced emf.

Inductance

Self - Inductance Mutual Inductance

EMF is induced in EMF is induced in

the coil due to the coil due to
change in current change in current
in the same coil. in nearby coil.
 Self Induction

The phenomenon in which a varying current in a circuit produces an induced

emf in the same circuit which opposes the cause is known as “Self-induction”.

• 𝜙𝑇 ∝ 𝑖
• 𝜙𝑇 = 𝐿𝑖
𝐿 = Coefficient of Self–inductance
𝑑𝜙 𝑇 𝑑𝐿𝑖
𝑖 𝜀=− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡

𝜙𝑇 E 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝐿= = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
𝑖 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
 Coefficient of Self–Inductance for a long Solenoid

• Magnetic Field due to one ring, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖

• Flux through one loop of solenoid,
𝑖 𝑅
𝜙 = 𝐵. 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃

𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 × 𝜋𝑅2 × 1

= 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖. 𝜋𝑅 2

Here, 𝜃 = 0° as 𝐵 and 𝐴Ԧ along same direction

Total Flux through solenoid,

𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙
𝜙 𝑇 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 . 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙. 𝑖

𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑉 𝜙𝑇
𝐿= = 𝜇0 𝑛2 . 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑉
𝑖
Where 𝑉 is total volume of solenoid.
 Factors on which Self-Inductance of a Coil Depends

𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙
𝑖

𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑉

𝐿 depends on:- • Length of the coil

• Area of cross-section of the coil
• Permeability of the core material
• Number of turns per unit length in the coil
 Find 𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑄 across an inductor of inductance 2 𝐻 if the current 𝑖 is
decreasing at a rate of 4 𝐴/𝑠 in the inductor.

First method: Second method:

𝑑𝑖
𝐿 =2𝐻 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
+ −
𝑃 𝑄 𝑃 𝑄 𝑃 𝑄
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
− + 𝑑𝑖
= −4 𝐴𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑡 Mathematical method,
E 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = −𝐿 = 2 × 4 = 8 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑉𝑝 − 𝐿 = 𝑉𝑄
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑄 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑄 = −8 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑄 = 2 × −4 = −8 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡

𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑄 = −8 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
 Self inductance of a Toroid

• Toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a

large number of turns of a wire are closely
wound. It can be viewed as a solenoid that
has been bent into a circular shape to close
𝑅 𝑟 on itself.

• Let 𝑅 be the mean radius of the toroid and

𝑁 the total number of turns in the toroid.
𝑖
Let 𝑖 be the current flowing in the
windings.
𝑖

+ −
 Self inductance of a Toroid

𝜇0 𝑖
𝐵= 𝑁
2𝜋𝑅
𝜙 = 𝐿𝑖
𝐿𝑖 = 𝐵. 𝐴
𝜇0 𝑖
𝐿𝑖 = 𝑁. 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑁
2𝜋𝑅
𝑖 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝑟 2
𝐿=
2𝑅
𝑖
𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝑟 2
𝐿=
2𝑅

+ −
 Modified Kirchhoff’s rule for Inductors

According to Kirchhoff’s second law (Loop rule), when we go through an inductor in the
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
same direction as the assumed current, we encounter a voltage drop equal to 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 , where 𝑑𝑡
is to be substituted with sign.

𝑅 𝐿
Let’s us consider a circuit as shown in fig.

𝐻 𝐿 𝐻 𝐿 According to Kirchhoff’s Law:

𝑖 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐿 𝐸 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

+ −

𝐸
 Faraday’s Law in a Circuit containing Inductor

𝑖induced current

𝑖
𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝐵𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

𝑑𝑖
= Positive
𝑑𝑡

𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑖induced current

𝑑𝑖
= Negative
𝑑𝑡
 Energy Stored in an Inductor

Switch ON
Current through
inductor, (0 → 𝑖0 )

𝐿
𝑑𝑖
Induced EMF E = 𝐿 𝑖
𝑑𝑡
+ −
Inductor opposes
𝑖↑ E the flow of current
𝑉 E

+ − Battery needs to work

against EMF

+ −
 Energy Stored in an Inductor
• Magnetic field is induced which indicates
there is energy in the inductor, i.e., if there
is magnetic field then there must be
energy.
Rate of Work done given by,
𝑑𝑊
𝐿 = −𝜀𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊 = −𝜀𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
+ − 𝑑𝑊 = − −𝐿 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑖0 E 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑖𝐿𝑑𝑖
𝑊 𝑖
𝑉 න 𝑑𝑊 = න 𝑖𝐿𝑑𝑖
0 0
+ −
1
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 2
2
This work is stored as energy in the
magnetic field generated in the inductor
due to flow of current.
1
𝑈 = 𝐿𝑖02
2
 Energy Density

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑖 𝑅 1 𝐿𝑖 2
= . 2
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑙

𝑙 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙𝑖 2
=
2𝜋𝑅2 𝑙

We know that, 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑖 2 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖 2
= =
2 2𝜇0
𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑙
𝐵2
𝐸. 𝐷. = ∵ 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝑖
𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝑉 2𝜇0
 Energy Density

Although this formula is proved using field

𝐵2 expression of an ideal solenoid, But this is
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = valid for all the cases.
2𝜇0
𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: The core of solenoid is vacuumed.

• If the magnetic field is space varying (i.e., magnetic field has different value in different
region of space), then following procedure is followed to find the total energy:

𝑑𝜀 𝐵2 𝐵2 𝐵2
= 𝑑𝜀 = 𝑑𝑉 𝜀𝑇 = න 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑉 2𝜇0 2𝜇0 2𝜇0
If cube of side 𝑎 is placed near an infinite sheet carrying current 𝜆 𝐴/𝑚
as shown, then find the energy in the cube.

∞  Magnetic field at point 𝑃 due to infinite

sheet carrying current 𝜆 𝐴/𝑚 is,
𝜇0 𝜆
𝐵=
2
𝑃 𝑎 Therefore, energy density will be:
𝜆 𝐴/𝑚 𝐵2 𝜇02 𝜆2 𝜇0 𝜆2
= = = Constant
2𝜇0 8𝜇0 8
Total energy confined in the cube of side 𝑎 is:

𝐵 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝜇0 𝜆2 𝑎3
∞ 𝐸=
8
 Growth of current in LR Circuits

Transient State LR Circuits

𝜀
+ −  Transient State
𝑖 𝑖 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑖 = 𝑖0

𝐿 𝑅 Steady State LR Circuits

𝑆1 Let, 𝑖0 as the maximum value of current.

𝑆2  Steady State
𝑖 = 𝑖0
𝑖 𝑉
𝑖0 = 𝑅 = Constant ∴ 𝜀 = 0
𝑉
+ −
Inductor behaves as a closed switch or wire
having 0 resistance at 𝑡 → ∞, i.e., a long time
after the switch has been closed.
 Growth of current in LR Circuits

𝑎 𝐴 𝐵
𝑏 𝑅

𝑖 Open 𝑖
Circuit
𝐴 𝐵
𝑉  Inductor acts as open circuit at 𝑡 = 0
+ −
𝑉
𝑖≠
𝑅 𝑡=0
 Growth of current in LR Circuits

𝑎 𝐴 𝐵
𝑏 𝑅

𝑖 Short 𝑖
Circuit
𝐴 𝐵
𝑉  Inductor acts as a plain wire at 𝑡 → ∞.
+ −
𝑉
𝑖=
𝑅 𝑡→∞
 Growth of current in LR Circuits
According to KVL,
𝑑𝑖
𝑉 − 𝐿 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑖 −𝐿 = 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑉
𝜀=𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑅
+ − = 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝐿
𝑏 − 𝑖
𝑅 𝑅
𝐿
Integrating both sides we get,
𝑖 𝑖
𝑉 𝑅𝑡
(− 𝐿 )
𝑖= 1−𝑒
𝑅
𝑉
+ − 𝑡
(− 𝜏)
𝑖 = 𝑖0 1 − 𝑒

Here, 𝐿
𝜏= , 𝜏 = Time constant
𝑅
𝑉
𝑖0 =
𝑅
 Growth of current in LR Circuits

• Time constant is the time taken by the

current to grow from 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 to 0.632 𝑖0 or 63.2% 𝑖
of its steady state value.
𝑖0
5𝜏, 0.99𝑖0
• The rate of growth of current at any time
instant is, 0.63𝑖0
𝑑𝑖 𝑖0 − 𝑡
= 𝑒 𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜏

𝑡 𝑖
0 0 𝑡
𝑡 𝑡=𝜏 5𝜏
𝑡 −𝜏
𝑖0 (1 − 𝑒 )
𝜏 0.63𝑖0
∞ 𝑖0
 Decay of current in LR Circuits

 Initially (𝑡 = 0):
𝑏
𝑖 = 𝑖0
𝑐 𝐿 𝑅
The current in the circuit will be maximum.

 As soon as the battery is disconnected the

current does not fall to 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 because the
𝑉 inductor opposes the decay of current.
+ −
 At steady state (𝑡 → ∞):
𝑖
𝑖=0
The current in the circuit will become 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
 Decay of current in LR Circuits

According to KVL,
𝑑𝑖
−𝐿 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑏 𝑑𝑡

𝑐 𝑑𝑖 𝑅
𝐿 𝑅 = − 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 𝐿
Integrating both sides,

𝑅𝑡
− 𝐿
𝑉 𝑖 = 𝑖0 e
+ −
𝑖 𝑡
−𝜏
𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑒
 Decay of current in LR Circuits

 The time constant (𝜏) is the time interval at 𝑖

which the current reaches 37% of, or 0.37
times its steady state value (i.e., 𝑖0 )
𝑖0

 The rate of decay of current at any time

instant is,
𝑑𝑖 𝑖0 − 𝑡
=− 𝑒 𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝜏

𝑡 𝑖 0.37𝑖0
0 𝑖0
𝑡
𝑡 −𝜏 𝑡
𝑖0 𝑒 𝜏
𝜏 0.37𝑖0
∞ 0
 A cell of EMF 15 𝑉 is connected across an inductor of 10 𝐻 and a resistance
of 10 Ω. The ratio of magnitude of current at 𝑡 = ∞ to that of at 𝑡 = 1 is,

𝐿 10
Here, 𝜏 = 𝑅 = 10 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑒 1/2
𝑖 A
𝑒 1/2 − 1
𝑉 15
10 𝐻 10 Ω At 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑖 = 𝑅 = 10 = 1.5 𝐴𝑚𝑝.
𝑡
−𝜏 𝑒
At 𝑡 = 1, 𝑖 = 𝑖0 1 − 𝑒 B
𝑒−1
= 1.5 1 − 𝑒 −1
𝑒−1
𝑖 = 1.5 𝐴𝑚𝑝.
𝑒 C 1 − 𝑒 −1
15 𝑉
+ − 𝑖𝑡=∞ 𝑒
=
𝑖𝑡=1 𝑒−1
D 𝑒 −1
 Mutual Inductance

When two coils are brought in proximity with each other the magnetic field in one of the
coils tend to link with the other. This further leads to the generation of voltage in the second
coil. This property of a coil which affects or changes the current and voltage in a secondary
coil is called mutual inductance.

Primary coil (𝐶1 ) Secondary coil (𝐶2 )  𝜙s ∝ 𝑖𝑝

 𝜙s = 𝑀𝑖𝑝
𝜙s
𝑀=
𝑖𝑝
𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 Differentiating,
𝑑𝜙s 𝑑𝑖𝑝
𝑮 ∝
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−𝑑𝑖𝑝
𝜀𝑠 ∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑝
Mutual inductance is independent of 𝜙𝑠 and 𝑖𝑝 . 𝜀𝑠 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
 Mutual Inductance
Primary coil Secondary coil

𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠

𝑖(𝑡)𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐵(𝑡)𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝜙(𝑡)𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝑖(𝑡)secondary 𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜙 𝑡 secondary

 Coefficient of Mutual Inductance
𝜙s
𝑀=
𝑖𝑝
𝑀 = Mutual Inductance
Unit = Henry (𝐻)
𝝓𝟏 Mutual inductance depends upon,
 Dimension of the coils
𝝓𝟐  Number of turns in the coils

 Distance between the coils

 Permeability of the core material
 Orientation of the coils
𝑵𝟐 Mutual inductance of the system is same
irrespective of choosing of primary and secondary
𝑵𝟏 coils. It is also known as reciprocity theorem.
𝑀12 = 𝑀21
EMF induced in secondary coil,

𝑑𝑖𝑝
𝜀𝑠 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
Coefficient of Mutual Inductance

Assume Primary Coil

Assume 𝑖𝑝 in Primary Coil

Calculate 𝜙𝑠 in the Secondary Coil

𝜙𝑠
Calculate 𝑀 = 𝑖𝑝
 Two coils having radii 𝑅 and 𝑎, and number of turns 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 , are kept at
a distance 𝑑 from each other as shown. Find the coefficient of mutual
induction. 𝑅 ≫ 𝑎

Solution :
Mutual inductance is given by,
𝑁1
𝜙2
𝑖1 𝑀=
𝑁2 𝑖1
𝑅 Here, 𝜙2 = 𝐵𝑁2 𝐴2
𝑎
𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑖1 𝑅2
= 3 × 𝑁2 × 𝜋𝑎2
2 𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 ൗ2

𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝜋𝑎2 𝑅2
𝑀= 3ൗ
𝑑 2 𝑅2 + 𝑑2 2
 Mutual Inductance for Two Concentric Coils

 𝑟≪𝑅

𝑅 Magnetic field due to coil 2 at center,

𝑖 𝜇0 𝑁2 𝑖
𝐵2 =
2𝑅
𝑟 Flux through coil 1,
𝑁2 𝑁1
𝜙𝐵 1 = 𝑁1 𝐵2 𝐴1
1
𝑁1 𝜇0 𝑁2 𝑖 2
𝜙𝐵 1 = 𝜋𝑟 = 𝑀𝑖
2 2𝑅

𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑀=
2𝑅
 Mutual Inductance of Two Long Co-axial Solenoids

Magnetic field due to 𝑆1 ,

𝐵1 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑖

𝑙 Flux through 𝑆2 ,
𝜙𝐵 = 𝑛2 𝑙 𝐵1 𝜋𝑟12
𝑟2
𝑟1
𝜙𝐵 = 𝑛2 𝑙 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑖𝜋𝑟12 = 𝑀𝑖
𝑁1 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑁2 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑀 = 𝜇0 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝜋𝑟12 𝑙

𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 × 𝑆
𝑀=
𝑙

Where 𝑆 is the area of cross section of

inner solenoid.
 Find the current 𝑖 in the inductor in the following circuit at any time 𝑡.

Solution :
−𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝑡
𝑅 𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖0 1 − 𝑒 𝐿

𝑖 𝑖0 is maximum current in the inductor at

𝑡=∞
𝑉
𝑅 𝑖0 =
𝐿 3𝑅
To find 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑛 replace battery by a
𝑉 conducting wire and calculate equivalent
+ − resistance across inductor.
𝑅 3𝑅
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑛 = +𝑅 =
2 2

𝑉 −3𝑅𝑡
𝑖= 1−𝑒 2𝐿
3𝑅
 Series Combination of Inductors

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿e𝑞𝑛

𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2

Parallel Combination of Inductors

𝐿1

𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛

𝐿2 1 1 1
= +
𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝐿1 𝐿2
 Series Combination of Inductors

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2

V V
+ − + −

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑑𝑖 ∴
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑉=𝐿 𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝑉 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = 𝐿 + 𝐿2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1
 Parallel Combination of Inductors

𝐿1
𝑖1 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2

𝐿2

𝑖2
𝑖
V V
+ − + −

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 ∴ 1 1 1
= + = +
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑒𝑞𝑛 𝐿1 𝐿2
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1
𝑑𝑡 2
 Coefficient of Coupling

The coefficient of coupling of two coils gives a measure of how the two coils are coupled
together i.e., the interaction between two coils in terms of mutual induction.

𝑀
𝐾= 0≤𝐾≤1
𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑃 𝑆
Where,
𝑀 = Mutual Inductance
d
𝐾 = Coefficient of coupling
𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are self-inductance of two coils
Also define as,

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝜙2

𝐾= 𝐾=
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝜙1
 Coefficient of Coupling

The value of 𝐾 is a number, depending on the geometry

of the coils and their relative closeness.

𝑃 𝑆
𝑃 𝑆 𝑆 𝑃

Co-axial coupling (Ideal) Normal coupling No coupling

𝐾 = 1, 𝑀 = 𝐿1 𝐿2 0 < 𝐾 < 1, 𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐾 = 0, 𝑀 = 0
 Series Combination of Inductors

Series Combination (Aiding) Series Combination (Opposing)

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 𝑀

𝑉 𝑉
+ − + −

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
Two metallic parallel rails are connected across a wire having resistance 𝑅 in the
magnetic field 𝐵 as shown. A rod 𝑃𝑄 of mass 𝑚, length 𝑙 and resistance 𝑟 can slide
smoothly on the rails in the horizontal plane. Neglect the friction and resistance of
the rail. Find
𝑎- The external force to be applied to move the rod 𝑃𝑄 with the constant velocity 𝑣0 .

Solution : 𝑖 𝑃

𝑟
𝐵
𝑃 𝑅 𝑖𝑙𝐵 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝜀 = 𝑣0 𝐵𝑙

𝑅 𝑣 𝑄
𝑙 𝑖
𝑣0 𝐵𝑙 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑖𝑙𝐵
𝑖=
𝑄 𝑅+𝑟
𝑣0 𝑙 2 𝐵2
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 =
𝑅+𝑟
 Two metallic parallel rails are connected across a wire having resistance 𝑅 in the
magnetic field 𝐵 as shown. A rod 𝑃𝑄 of mass 𝑚, length 𝑙 and resistance 𝑟 can slide
smoothly on the rails in the horizontal plane. Neglect the friction and resistance of
the rail. Find

𝑏- If rod 𝑃𝑄 have velocity 𝑣0 at time 𝑡 = 0 then, find the velocity 𝑣 at time 𝑡.

𝑖 𝑃
𝑎 = −𝐾𝑣

𝑟 𝑑𝑣
= −𝐾𝑣
𝑣𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝐹=
𝜀 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝑅+𝑟 𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑣
න = −𝐾 න 𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 𝑣 0
𝑄
𝑖 𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑣𝐵𝑙 𝑣𝐵2 𝑙 2
𝑖= 𝑎=− −𝐵2 𝑙2 𝑡
𝑅+𝑟 𝑚(𝑅 + 𝑟)
𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑒 𝑚 𝑅+𝑟
𝐵2 𝑙2
Let, 𝐾 = −
𝑚(𝑅+𝑟)