2.

SOLUTIONS
HAIZEL G. ROY
H.S.S.T. (HG) CHEMISTRY
GOVT. H.S.S. KALAMASSERY
ERNAKULAM.
 SOLUTIONS

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more pure

substances whose composition can be varied within certain limits.
 BINARY SOLUTION

A solution consisting of two components is called a

binary solution.
The two components are solute and solvent.
The component present in excess is called the
solvent.
The component present in lesser quantity is called
solute.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
 CONCENTRATION

Concentration is the amount of solute present per unit mass of solvent

or solution.
 METHODS FOR EXPRESSING
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
MASS PERCENTAGE
VOLUME PERCENTAGE
MASS BY VOLUME PERCENTAGE
 PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)

Parts per million is used when a solute is present in trace quantities.

It is the number of parts of a component per million parts of the
solution.
 MOLE FRACTION

It is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total

number of moles present in the solution.
 MOLARITY (M)

It is the number of gram moles of solute dissolved in one litre of the

solution.

Thus, if one gram mole of a solute is present in 1 litre of the solution, the
concentration of the solution is said to be one Molar.
Molarity is temperature dependent.
 MOLALITY (m)

It number of moles of the solute dissolved in one kilogram of the solvent.

Thus, if 1 gram molecule of a solute is present in 1 kg of the solvent, the

concentration of the solution is said to be one molal.
Molality is the most convenient method to express the concentration

because it involves the mass of liquids rather than their volumes.

It is also independent of the variation in temperature.

NORMALITY (N)
 NOTE

Mass Percentage, Parts Per Million, Mole Fraction and Molality are
independent of temperature.
Molarity is a function of temperature, because volume depends on
temperature and the mass does not.
PROBLEMS
 SOLUBILITY

It is its maximum amount of substance that can be dissolved

in a specified amount of solvent at a specified temperature.

 SOLUBILITY OF A SOLID IN A LIQUID

Solubility of Solid Solute in Liquid Solvent depends on nature of

solute and solvent.
Ionic/polar compounds like NaCl, KCl etc dissolves in polar solvent
like water.
The non-polar/covalent or organic molecules can dissolve in non-polar
compounds like benzene.
When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves and
its concentration increases in solution.
The ability of the solute to dissolve in a solvent is known as
dissolution.
Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute particles
and get separated out of solution.
This process is known as crystallisation.
A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the same rate.
Under such conditions, number of solute particles going into the
solution will be equal to the solute particles separating out and a state
of dynamic equilibrium is reached.
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same

temperature and pressure is called a saturated solution.

A solution in which more solute can be dissolved at the same

temperature is called an unsaturated solution.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY
 1. NATURE OF SOLUTE AND SOLVENT

Strong solute-solvent attractions increase the solubility while weak

solute-solvent attractions decrease the solubility.

Polar solutes tend to dissolve best in polar solvents while non-polar

solutes tend to dissolve best in non-polar solvents.

 2.TEMPERATURE

In a nearly saturated solution, the dissolution process is endothermic

(Δsol H > 0), the solubility should increase with rise in temperature.
If the process is exothermic, (Δsol H < 0) the solubility should decrease.
Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with rise in temperature.
When dissolved, the gas molecules are present in liquid phase and the process
of dissolution is an exothermic process.
Therefore, the solubility should decrease with increase of temperature.
 3. PRESSURE

Pressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in

liquids.
Because solids and liquids are highly incompressible and
practically remain unaffected by changes in pressure.
Aquatic Life is more comfortable in cold water than warm water. Why?

When temperature is low, solubility will be high.

So cold water contains more dissolved oxygen than warm water.

Therefore, aquatic life is more comfortable in cold water.

SOLUBILITY OF A GAS IN A LIQUID
 HENRY’S LAW

The law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a

liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas.
OR
The law states that, the mole fraction of a gas in the solution is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution.
 OR
The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (P) is proportional to the
mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution.
P = KH.x
Where KH is Henry’s law constant.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF HENRY’S LAW
 CHARACTERISTICS OF KH

1. Different gases have different KH values at the same temperature.

This suggests that KH is a function of the nature of the gas.

Nitrogen at 293K KH = 76
Oxygen at 293 K KH = 34
2. Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the
gas in the liquid.
3. The solubility of gases increases with decrease of temperature.
Nitrogen at 293 K KH = 76
Nitrogen at 303 K KH = 88
Nitrogen at 293 K KH = 34
Nitrogen at 303 K KH = 46
APPLICATIONS OF HENRY’S LAW
 1. IN PACKING OF SODA CANS

All carbonated drinks are bottled under high

pressure to increase the solubility of CO2 in
solution.
When the bottle is opened, the pressure above the
solution decreases and some of carbon dioxide
bubbles are released off, which leads to
effervescence / fizz.
 2. IN DEEP SEA DIVING

When Scuba divers come towards the surface of water, the pressure gradually
decreases.
This releases the dissolved gases and leads to the formation of bubbles of
nitrogen in the blood.
This blocks the capillaries and creates a medical condition known as bends.
To avoid bends, the tanks used by Scuba Divers is filled with air and diluted
with Helium (11.7% helium, 56.2% nitrogen and 32.1% oxygen).
 3. FOR CLIMBERS OR PEOPLE LIVING IN HIGH ALTITUDES

For Climbers or people living at high altitudes, the concentration of

oxygen in blood and tissues are low.

Due to this, climbers become weak and unable to think clearly.

This leads to a condition known as Anoxia.

4. The fishes and other aquatic life

survive inside the water bodies in

polar areas where water is freezed on

the top.
5. Thermal power plants that
discharges the hot water into water
bodies like ponds, rivers or lakes
may kill the fish by decreasing the
dissolved oxygen concentration in
it.
 VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID SOLUTIONS

It is the pressure exerted by the vapours

above the liquid surface in equilibrium

with the liquid at a given temperature.

 VAPOUR PRESSURE OF LIQUID-LIQUID SOLUTIONS
RAOULT’S LAW

Raoult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial

vapour pressure of each volatile component in the solution is directly

proportional to its mole fraction.

Consider a binary solution of two volatile

liquids A and B.
If PA and PB are the partial vapour pressures of
the two liquids and XA and XB are their mole
fractions in solution.
Then,
Where PA and PB are the vapour pressures of the
pure components A and B respectively.
 RAOULT’S LAW IN COMBINATION WITH DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

Assuming that vapours of a

liquid is behaving like an ideal
gas,
then according to Dalton’s
law of partial pressure, the
total pressure PT is given by
RAOULT’S LAW AS A SPECIAL CASE OF HENRY’S LAW
 CLASSIFICATION OF BINARY SOLUTIONS

The binary solutions may be of two types. They are

Ideal Solutions

Non-Ideal Solutions
 IDEAL SOLUTION

The solutions which obey Raoult’s law exactly at all concentrations and at

all temperatures are called Ideal Solutions.

Let PA and PB are the partial vapour pressures and XA and XB are the mole

fractions of these volatile components A and B respectively.

Then according to Raoult’s law we can write,

According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures, the total vapour pressure

is given by
 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION FOR AN IDEAL SOLUTION

An ideal solution is one which obeys Raoult’s law at all

concentrations and temperatures.
The essential characteristics of ideal solutions are
Obeys Raoult’s law at all concentrations and temperatures.
 NON IDEAL SOLUTIONS

The Solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations and
temperatures are called non ideal solutions.
For a non-ideal solution containing the volatile components A and B,

The essential characteristics of non-ideal solutions are:

Does not obey Raoult’s law at all concentrations and temperatures.
 TYPES OF
NON IDEAL SOLUTIONS
 POSITIVE DEVIATIONS FROM RAOULT’S LAW

In this type, the vapour pressure of each component of the solution is

greater than the vapour pressure as expected by Raoult’s law.
The total vapour pressure of the solution is higher than that of an ideal
solution of the same composition.
In these solutions, ΔHmixing and Δvmixing are +ve.
 CAUSE OF POSITIVE DEVIATION

In this type, the attractive forces between solvent and solute molecules are

weaker than those between solute molecules or between solvent molecules.

It leads to the increase in vapour pressure resulting in positive deviations.

Eg: Acetone and Carbon disulphide, Benzene and acetone, Ether and Acetone.
 NEGATIVE DEVIATIONS FROM RAOULT’S LAW

In this, both the components have partial pressures, less than that
expected from Raoult’s law.
As a result, the total vapour pressure of the solution is lower than that
of an ideal solution of the same composition.
Here both ΔH mixing and ΔV mixing are ―ve.
 CAUSE OF NEGATIVE DEVIATION

In this type of deviations, the solute-solvent interactions are stronger

than the solvent―solvent or solute―solute interactions and lead to
decrease in vapour pressure resulting in ―ve deviations.
Eg: Benzene and Chloroform, Chloroform and Nitric acid, Chloroform
and ether etc.
 AZEOTROPES

The solutions which boil at a constant temperature and distill over

completely at the same temperature without any change in composition
are called constant boiling mixtures or azeotropes.
Azeotropes are of two types.
They are
 MINIMUM BOILING AZEOTROPES

The solutions that show large positive deviation from

Raoult’s law is called Minimum Boiling Azeotropes.

Eg: 95.6% Ethanol and 4.4% H2O by volume.

 MAXIMUM BOILING AZEOTROPES

The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s

law is called Maximum Boiling Azeotropes.

Eg: 21.2% HCl and 78.8% H2O by weight.

Eg: 68% HNO3 and 32% H2O by mass

 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

The properties of a solution which depend only on the number of

solute particles but not on the nature of the solute are called
colligative properties. The important colligative properties are
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
Elevation of Boiling Point
Depression of Freezing Point
Osmotic Pressure
 1. RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE

Vapour pressure is the escaping tendency of the liquid from the surface of
solution.
In solution, a part of the liquid surface is occupied by non-volatile solute
particles.
Therefore, evaporation of the liquid will take place from a lesser surface area.
This is referred to as the Lowering of Vapour Pressure.
According to Raoult’s law, the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a
solution is equal to the mole fraction of the non-volatile solute.
DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS
 2. ELEVATION OF BOILING POINT

The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure.
The boiling point of a solution (Tb ) containing a non volatile solute is always

greater than that of the pure solvent ( T0b).

The effect of adding a non volatile solute on the boiling point and vapour
pressure is represented graphically.
In the graph, at T0b, the vapour pressure of the solution is less than the vapour

pressure of the pure solvent.

Therefore the solution does not boil at T0b.

But it boils at an elevated temperature Tb.

Where the vapour pressure of the solution becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
The difference between the boiling points of the solution (Tb) and the solvent
(T0b) is called elevation of boiling point (ΔTb).
 MOLAL ELEVATION CONSTANT OR EBULLIOSCOPIC CONSTANT

The molal elevation constant or Ebullioscoppic constant (Kb ) is defined

as the elevation of boiling point produced by the dissolution of 1 mole of

a non volatile solute in 1000 g of the solvent.
 APPLICATIONS

Sea water freeze at low temperature than distilled water but boils at higher
temperature.
Sea water contain dissolved salts. Therefore, boiling point increases & freezing
point decreases.
The addition of coolant helps to raise the boiling point of the water to prevent
the radiator from overheating.
Refining of sugar from sugar cane solution.
 DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS

A known mass of the solute is dissolved in a known mass of solvent.

Noting the boiling point of solvent and that of solution, the elevation of
boiling point is determined.
From these values, the molar mass of the solute can be calculated.
 APPLICATIONS

To get hard boiled eggs, sodium chloride is added to water.

Addition of salt or other non-volatile solid reduces the vapour pressure of the
liquid and consequently the boiling point increases and the water can attain a
temperature higher than 1000C before starting to boil.
This helps cook and hard boil the egg quicker.
Addition of salt to water before or while heating will increase its boiling point.
PROBLEMS
 3. DEPRESSION OF FREEZING POINT

The freezing point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the liquid
and solid states of the substance have the same vapour pressure.
The freezing point of a solution (Tf) containing a non volatile solute is always

less than that of the pure solvent (T0f ).

The effect of adding a non volatile solute on the freezing point and vapour
pressure is represented graphically.
In the graph at T0f, the vapour pressure of the solution is less than the vapour

pressure of the pure solvent.

Therefore, the solution does not freeze at T0f.

It freeze at a depressed temperature (Tf), where the vapour pressure of the

solution becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure.

The difference in freezing point between the pure solvent T0f and that of the

solution (Tf), is called depression in freezing point, ΔTf .

 MOLAL DEPRESSION CONSTANT OR CRYOSCOPIC CONSTANT

Molal Depression Constant or Cryoscopic constant (Kf) is defined as the

depression of freezing point produced by the dissolution of 1 mole of a solute in
1000g of the solvent.
Since ΔTf is proportional to molality, ΔTf is a colligative property.
 DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS
A known mass of the solute is dissolved in a known mass of the solvent and the
freezing point depression ΔT f is determined.
 APPLICATIONS

In cold climate, ethylene glycol is added to water in the car radiator

as antifreeze.
During winter, salt is sprinkled on the road to lower the freezing
point.
Sea water freeze at low temperature than distilled water.
Sea water contain dissolved salts. Therefore, boiling point increases
& freezing point decreases.
PROBLEMS
 4. OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE

OSMOSIS

The phenomenon of spontaneous flow of a

solvent through a semi permeable
membrane, from the pure solvent to the
solution.
Or from a dilute solution to a concentrated
solution is called osmosis.
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE

The excess pressure which must be applied to the solution to prevent

the flow of solvent from its side to solution side across a semi

permeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.

 SEMI PERMEABLE MEMBRANE

A membrane which allows only the flow of solvent molecules and not

the solute molecules is called semi permeable membrane.

LAWS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 1. VANT HOFF BOYLE’S LAW

The law states that, the osmotic pressure of a solution is directly

proportional to the molar concentration at a given temperature.

i.e., π α c
 2. VANT HOFF CHARLES LAW

The law states that the osmotic pressure of a solution at a given

concentration is proportional to the absolute temperature ‘T’.

i.e., π α T
DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS
 DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS OF POLYMERS

For determining the molecular mass of polymers, osmotic pressure is

preferred due to the following reasons.
Poor solubility of the polymers.
Polymers are not stable at higher temperatures.
Osmotic pressure measurements can be done at room temperature.
Molecular mass can be measured more accurately.
Molarity is used instead of molality.
 ISOTONIC, HYPERTONIC AND HYPOTONIC SOLUTIONS

de-Vries developed an approximate method for comparing the relative osmotic

pressures of aqueous solutions
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called
isotonic solutions.
A solution of greater osmotic pressure when compared to other solution is
called a hypertonic solution.
A solution whose osmotic pressure is less than the other solution is called
hypotonic solution.
 For intravenous injections only solutions with osmotic pressure
equal to that of 0.9% NaCl solution is used. Why?

0.91% NaCl solution is isotonic with respect to human blood.

Hence 0.91% NaCl solution is used for intravenous injections.

 EXAMPLES OF OSMOSIS

If we place blood cells in the solution containing more than 0.9% Nacl, water
will flow out of the cells and they would shrink. (Hypertonic)
If we place blood cells in the solution containing less than 0.9% NaCl, water will
flow into the cells and they would swell. (Hypotonic)
A raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses water via osmosis and
shrivel into pickle.
Edema – Retention of water in intercellular spaces of people taking salty food
due to osmosis.
When a plant cell is placed in hypotonic solution, the water is drawn in and the
cell swells.
If the cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will diffuse out of the cell
fluid and partial collapse of the cell will take place. (plasmolysis)
Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water.
A carrot that has become limp because of water loss into the
atmosphere can be placed into the water making it firm once again.
People taking a lot of salt or salty food experience water retention in
tissue cells and intercellular spaces because of osmosis.
 REVERSE OSMOSIS

The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the

osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side.
i.e., the pure solvent flows out of the solution through semi
permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.
Reverse Osmosis finds application in Desalination of sea water &
Purification of water.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
 APPLICATIONS OF OSMOSIS

Capillary rise of liquids.

Absorption of water from soil into plants.

Preservation of meat by salting (adding NaCl)

Preservation of fruits by adding sugar (Candid fruit, Cherry)

PROBLEMS
 ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

The wrong values of molar masses obtained from colligative properties

due to association or dissociation of molecules in solution is called

abnormal molar mass.

 ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS DUE TO ASSOCIATION

Association is a process in which two or more molecules combine to

form a bigger molecule.
Due to association, there will be decrease in the number of particles.
As a result, there is a decrease in the value of colligative properties.
Hence the observed values of molar mass will be greater than the
normal values.
 EXAMPLE: DIMERISATION OF ACETIC ACID IN BENZENE

Molecules of ethanoic acid (acetic acid)

dimerise in benzene due to hydrogen bonding.
Dimerisation occurs in solvent with low
dielectric constant.
The number of particles is reduced due to
dimerisation.
Hence the observed values of molar mass will
be greater than the normal values.
EXAMPLE: DIMERISATION OF BENZOIC ACID IN BENZENE

Molecules of benzoic acid (C6​H5​COOH)

dimerise in benzene due to hydrogen bonding.

Dimerisation occurs in solvent with low
dielectric constant.
The number of particles is reduced due to
dimerisation.
Hence the observed values of molar mass will
be greater than the normal values.
 ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS DUE TO DISSOCIATION

If dissociation occurs, the number of solute particles increases.

It results in an increase in the values of colligative properties.
Hence the observed values of molar mass will be lower than the
normal values.
Eg. NaCl, KCl, BaCl2, AlCl3 ………………….
­
EXAMPLE-1
EXAMPLE-2
 VANT HOFF FACTOR

To account for the abnormal molar mass, Van’t Hoff introduced a factor
‘i’ known as Van’t Hoff factor.
It is the ratio of the observed colligative property to the theoretical
colligative property.
OR
It is the ratio of normal molar mass to the observed molar mass.
 MODIFIED EQUATIONS FOR COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

If Vant Hoff Factor ‘i’ is included, the equations for colligative

properties can be modified as follows.