CHAPTER 01

01 SOLUTIONS
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA RAJKOT 2023-24

SOLUTIONS:
A homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting substances whose composition can be
varied within certain limits is called SOLUTION.

Components of solution: -
SOLUTE: The component, which is present in lesser quantity, that dissolves to form a solution, is called solute
SOLVENT: The component, which is present in larger quantity, in which solute dissolves, is called solvent.
Types of solutions: Depending upon the physical state of solute and solvent there are nine types of solutions

S.NO Type of SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLES

solution
1 solid Solid solid Alloys
2 solid Liquid Solid Hydrated salts, Amalgam of Hg with Zn&Na
3 solid gas solid H2 in Pd, Ni, Pt, Dissolved gas in minerals
4 Liquid Solid Liquid Salt solution, sugar in water
5 Liquid Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water
6 Liquid gas Liquid Aerated drinks, O2 dissolved in H2O
7 gas Solid gas Iodine vapours in air, smoke
8 gas Liquid gas Humidity in air
9 gas gas gas Air

Expressing the Concentration of solution:

Concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute present in a given amount of solution or solvent.
It can be expressed in any of the followimg way

1.Mass percentage :-The amount of solute present in 100grm solution.

Mass Percentage =

2.Volume percentage:-The volume of a component per 100 parts by volume of the solution
or liquid solutions percentage by volume is expressed as

Volume Percentage =

3.Mole fraction:- it is the ratio of no. of one component to the total no. of moles of all components. It is
expressed as ‘x’. For two component system made of A and B.

No. of moles of solute

Mole-fraction of solute(B) =
No. of moles of solute + No. of moles of solvent
 WB
nB MB
xB = =
nA + nB WA WB
+
MA WB
WA
Mole-fraction of solvent x = nA
=
MA Thus xB + xA = 1
nA + nB
A
WA WB
+
MA WB

4. Molarity (M) = No of moles of solute present in per litre of solution ,

Molarity (M) = No. of moles of solute = Wsolute  1000

,
Volume of solution(L) Msolute Volume of solution (ml).

Wsolute 1000 x density of Solution

Or = 
Msolute Mass of solution .
• It decreases with increase in temperature as volume of solution increases with temperature.

5. Molality (m) = Molality (m) = No. of moles of solute Wsolute 1000

= 
Mass of solvent(in Kg) Msolute WSolvent in grams.
• No effect of change of temperature on molality as it is mass to mass ratio.

6. Parts per million (ppm)concentration of very dilute solution is expressed in ppm.

Parts of acomponent per million parts of the solution

Mass of solute
Ppm=  10 6 , =
Mass of solution
Solubility: -The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent at a
specified temperature.

Solubility of solid in liquids: - Solute( solid ) + Solvent = Solution

The concentration of saturated solution is called solubility

Factors affecting the solubility of solids in liquids

[1] Nature of solute and solvent: -
If solute (solid) and solvent (liquid) are chemically similar then the solid is miscible in the liquid.
It is expressd as ‘Like dissolves like’
Example- Polar solute (like ionic compounds) are soluble in polar solvent (like water) and very less soluble or
insoluble in nonpolar solvents (like benzene, ether etc)

[2] Effect of temperature: -

Generally, solubility of solids in liquids, increases with increase in temp.
However, there are some solutes whose solubility in liquids decreases with increase in temp due to
exothermic dissolution process (e.g., Cerium sulphate, lithium carbonate, sodium carbonate monohydrate
etc)
-----Accoding to Le Chateliers principle.
[3] Effect of Pressure: - Not affected by pressur because both solid and liquid are incompressible.

Solubility of gases in liquids: Factors affecting of Solubility of gases in liquids: -

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[1] Nature of the gas and the solvent:-Easily liquifible gases are more soluble in common solvent eg. CO2,
HCl, NH3 are more soluble in water than H2, O2, N2 etc.
If gas and solvent are chemically similar, the gas will be more soluble and vice versa.
Eg. H2, O2, N2 are more soluble in C2H5OH and HCl, NH3 are more soluble in water.

[2] Temperature; solubility decreases with increase in temp because the dissolution is exothermic.

[3] Effect of pressure of the gas over solution;- The effect of pressure on solubility of gas in liquids is
explained by Henry Law.

Henry`s law:
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas in equilibrium with
the liquid at a const temp .
mα p or m =k p { where m= mass of gas k= prop. const. p=pressore}
(for mixture of gases the solubility is expressed in mole fraction and pressure in partiai pressure.)

Henry Law may also be states that- “The partial pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its mole
fraction at given temp.”

p α x or p= KH. x

{where x = mole fraction of gas(solute) , p = partial pressure KH= Henry constant)

Note- The value of KH depends upon 1; nature of the gas 2; nature of the solvent 3; temperature.
If we plot a graph between partial pressure of the gas and its mole fraction.

p 1
1)Greater the value of KH, lower is the solubility of gas ( x = , solubility = )
KH KH
2) The value of KH increases with increase of temp.

Note- The solubility of gases decreases with increasing temp, this is the reason that aquatic species are
more comfortable in cold water rater than warm water.

Applications of Henry's Law

1In Preparation of areted drinks: -To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle
is sealed under pressure
2. In Deep Sea divivg: -The air filled in the cylinder of sea divers (Scuba divers) is diluted by helium (because
helium is less soluble and small size) to avoid the bends. Which are caused by the high conc. of N2 in the
blood. As we know solubility of N2 increases in the blood with increase in the pressure as scuba divers goes
into the water, this N2 forms bubbles when diver comes back to the surface. These bubbles affect the nerve
impulse and cause bends.
Note- in cylinder – (He=11.7%, N2 = 56.2%, O2 =32.1%)
3. At high altitude less amount of dissolved oxygen in blood causes anoxia due to which people feel weak
and are unable to think. (Anoxia)

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Limitations of Henry Law: -
1.The pressure of gas is not too high
2.The temp is not too low.
3.The gas should not undergo any chemical reaction with solvent.
4.The gas should not undergo dissociation in the solution.

Vapour pressure of liquid:

The pressure exerted by the vapours in equilibrium with the liquid at a particular temperature is called
vapour pressure of liquid.
Liquid Vapour

It depends upon
1) nature of the liquid
2) temperature (higher the temp higher the vapour pressure)

Raoult’s Law
a/c to this Law- the vapour pressure of a volatile component in a solution is directly proportional to its mole
fraction.

For solution containing volatile solute: Raoult`s law

The partial vapour pressure of each component is directly proportional to the mole fraction of each
components at particular temperature.

If a binary solution is made up of two volatile components A and B .and their mole fractions in the solution
are XA and XB respectively.And partial pressures are PA and PB.
PA  X A PB  X B

PA = PA . X A --------(i) PB = PB . X B -----------(ii)

 
{Where PA and PB are vapourpressur of A and B in pure state.andPA and PB arepartial vapour pressures of
component A and B in the solution}
According to Daltons law of partial pressure -
Ptotal = PA + PB , Ptotal = PA . X A + PB . X B

But XA +XB =1, and XA =(1-XB), Then Ptotal = PA .(1 − X B ) + PB . X B

The relation between the composition of the vapour phase in equilibrium with the solutionis determined
by the partial vapour pressure of the component
PA PB
YA = and YB =
PTotal PTotal

{Where YA and YB are the mole fraction of component A and B}

PA = Y A  PTotal PB = YB  PTotal

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Raoult`s law for solution containing non-volatile solute: - If a solution is containing a non-volatile solute,
then the vapour pressure of solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of solvent
If a binary solution is made up of two component, solvent A(volatile) and solute B (non volatile), then vapour
pressure of solution is given by –

P = PA , PA = PA . X A or P = PA . X A ---------------(1)

P
Or = XA (P0A=V.P of pure solvent, PA = V.P of solution)
PA0

On Substracting both sides by 1

P PA0 − PA
1− = 1 − X A or = XB
PA0 PA0
P0 − P
(where A 0 A = Relative lowering is vapour pressure and XB= mole fraction of solute)
PA
The relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solution is equal to the mole fraction of the solute which is
non volatile, non electrolyte.

Henry’s law is special case of raoult’s law

Henrys law is special case of raoults law. It can be seen that the partial pressure of volatile component or gas
is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. Only the proportionality constant KH differ from P1o.

Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions:

Ideal Solution Non Ideal Solution

Follows Raoult’s law at all temperature and Does not follow Raoult’s law at all
concentrations. P = PA + PB temperature and pressure. P ≠ PA + PB

Intermolecular forces in resulting solution are Intermolecular forces in resulting solution

same as in pure components. are different from the inter molecular force
A–B=A–A=B–B of pure components. A – B ≠ A – A, B – B

No change in volume while mixing Change in volume while mixing components.

components. Δ V mix ≠ 0
Δ V mix = 0

No heat change take place while mixing the Heat changes take place while mixing the
components. Δ H mix = 0 components. Δ H mix ≠ 0

Eg: n – hexane + n – heptanes&benzene + Eg: Acetone + Water&Acetone + CHCl3

toluene

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Non Ideal Solution

Showing Positive elevation from Raoult’s Law Showing Negative Deviation from Raoult’s Law
Vapour pressure of resulting solution is greater Vapour pressure of resulting solution is less
than sum of partial pressure of components. P than sum of the partial pressure of pure
> PA + PB components. P < PA + PB
Resulting intermolecular force is weaker than Resulting intermolecular force is stronger than
pure components. pure components.
Δ V mix = +ve Δ V mix = –ve
Volume of solution > Sum of volume of Volume of solution < Sum of volume of
pure components pure components
Δ H mix = +ve Endothermic mixing process Δ H mix = –ve Exothermic process
Acetone + Water Acetone + CHCl3, HNO3 + H2O
Alcohol + Water
Carboxylic Acid + Water

Azeotropic mixture or Azeotropes: -

[1] This binary mixture having same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at constant
temperature.
[2] These are also known as constant boiling mixtures.
[3] The components of Azeotropescan not be separated by distillation.

Azeotropes are of two types: -

(1) Minimum Boiling Azeotrope: -

[1] These are the Solution or mixture which show positive deviation.
[2] They boil at a temp. lower than boiling points of both the constituents.
Eg.-Ethanol and water mixture. Ethanol + Water
Composition 95% + 5%
B.P 78.50C 1000C But B.P. for mixture =780 C
(2) Maximum boiling Azeotropes:
[1] Solution showing positive deviation
[2] The boiling point of the solution is higher than both the constituents
Eg. Nitric Acid and water.
Composition 68% + 32 %
B. P. 860C 1000C B.P for mixture =120oC

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Colligative properties: -
Properties which depend upon the number of particles of the solute but does not depend upon their
nature are called colligative properties.
Important Colligative properties are: -

(a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure,

(b) Elevation of boiling point,
(c) Depression of freezing point,
(d) Osmotic pressure

Relative lowering of vapour pressure: -

When a solution containing non-volatile solute and volatile solvent then the vapour pressure of solution
will be less than the vapour pressure of pure solvent. Let us consider that the V.P. of pure solvent is PA ,
and mole fraction X A and the vapour of the solution is P .

A/c to Roults Law

PA  X A and PA = PA . X A ,
and P = PA ,or P = PA . X A ---------(1)


But XA +XB =1, and XA =(1-XB),

so that

P = PA (1 − X B ) or P = PA − PA X B or PA − P = PA X B

PA − P
= X B ------------(2) ( PA0 − P = P =Lowering in V.P)
PA
PA0 − P P
(where = Relative lowering is vapour pressure and XB= mole fraction of solute)
P 0
A PA0
The relative lowering of vapour pressure of the solution is directly proportional to the mole fraction of
the solute.

Calculation of molecular mass from Relative lowering of V.P.:-

nB
Mole fraction of solute x B = --------------(3)
nA + nB
W W
n B = B , n A = A for a very dilute solution n B << n A
MB MA
nb
XB = ----------------------------------------------------------- (4)
nA
From eq. (2) and (4)
PA − P n B PA − P WB M A
= or = 
PA nA PA M B WA
{where WB=Gram mass of solute,MB= Molar Mass of solute, WA=Gram mass of solvent MA= Molar mass
of solvent}
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Elevation of boiling points:-
The boiling point of solution a liquid is the temp at which the V.P of the liquid becomes equal to atmospheric
pressure. When a non-volatile solute is added to the volatile solvent then the V.P of solution is lowered.
Hence, thesolution has to be heated to make V. P of solution equal to atmospheric pressure. Thus, the boiling
point of solution containing a non-volatile solute is higher than that of pure solvent.
The temperature difference between the solution and solvent is known as elevation in boiling point.
Let the B.P of solvent and solution are Tb and Tb , then elevation in boiling points

TB = Tb − Tb ----------(1)

Elevation in B.P is a colligative property which depends upon the no. of moles of the solute and it is directly
proportional to the molality
Tb  m

or Tb = K b .m -----(2)
[where Kb= Molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant., m=molality]
{When m=1 then Tb = K b , Ebullioscopic constant may be defined as the elevation in B.P. when 1 mole of a

non-volatile solute is dissolved in one kg of solvent.}

Graph for elevation of boiling point:

Calculation of Molar Mass:-

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If WB is the mass of solute, MB is the molar mass of solute and WA is the mass of solvent then

WB 1000
Molilaty =  ----------(3)
M B WA

From eq. (2) and (3)

WB 1000 W 1000
Tb = K b .   or M B = K b .  B 
M B WA Tb W A

Depression of freezing point: -

The temperature at which the solid and liquid phase of a substance are in equilibrium and have same vapour
pressure.
The freezing point of the solution containing a non- volatile solute is always lesser than that of pure solvent.
The decrease is called depression in freezing point. It is due to the presence of non-volatile solute the vapour
pressure of solution is lesser than that of pure solvent.
The temp difference between pure solvent T f and and the solution T f is known as depression of freezing
point.
T f = T f − T f --------------------(1)
T f is related with molality as-
T f  m or T f = K f .m -----(2) [where Kf= Molaldepression constant or
cryoscopicconstant., m=molality]
{When m=1 then T f = K f , Cryoscopic constant may be defined as the depression in Freezing point when
1 mole of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in one kg of solvent.}unit of K f = K Kg mol-1

Graph for depression of freezing point:

Calculation of Molar Mass: -

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If WB is the mass of solute, MB is the molar mass of solute and WA is the mass of solvent then

WB 1000
Molilaty =  ----------(3)
M B WA
From eq. (2) and (3)
WB 1000 WB 1000
T f = K f .   or M B = K f . 
M B WA T f WA

Application of depression of freezing points: -

Anti-freeze solution: -In hill areas where temp is less then zero, the water, which is used in car/vehicle
radiators,can freeze .therefore to avoid this problem some substance are mixed in water ,which lower its
freezing point. Ex- Ethlene glycol. This type of solutions is called antifreeze solution.

*Clearing of Ice from roads in the hills: - (as de-icing agent) --Some salts such as NaCl or CaCl2 used.
They lowered the freezing point of water to such extent that it does not freeze to form ice.
Note- K b and K f can be calculated from molar enthalpy of vaporization( H vap ) and molar enthalpy of
MRTb2 MRTb2
fusion ( H fusion ) respectively by the followimg equations:- K b = Kf =
H vap  1000 H fusion  1000

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Osmosis and Osmotic pressure:-

Osmosis: The phenomenon of flow of solvent from the pure solvent to the solution or from a low
concentrated solution to higher concentrated solution through semi permeable membrane is known as
osmosis.
Osmosis discovered by Abbey Nollet (1748)

Osmotic pressure: - It is the pressure which must be applied to the solution side to prevent the passage of
pure solvent into it through semi permeable membrane.

Or

The excess pressure applied on the solution side which prevents the osmosis phenomenon known as O.P.
The osmotic pressure (  ) is proportional to the molar concentration ( C) of the solution at a given temp.(T)

 =CRT But (C=n/v) then

n
= RT , or V = nRT ---------(1) [ Van’tHaff’s eq. for dilute solution)
V

WB RT
= 
MB V

Or

Wsolute  R  T
Molar mass MB=
V

Reverse osmosis: - If the external pressure on the solution side is higher (more) than osmotic pressure, then
the process of osmosis is reversed and solvent molecule move from solution to the pure solvent or less conc.
Side.this phenomenon is called reverse osmosis (R.O.)
Use: - 1 The process employed for desalination of sea water.
2.To provide portable water for domestic purposes.

Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution Hypotonic solutions

Two solutions having same Solution having more osmotic Solutions having less osmotic
osmotic pressureare called pressure than a particular soln. pressure than a particular soln.
Isotonic solution. they have A Hypertonic solution will be AHypotonic solution will be less
same molar conc. more conc. With respect to conc with respect to other
other solution solution

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*Plant cells when placed in water it swells up
*Plant cells when placed in salt solution it shrinks. The outflow of fluid from the plant cells placed in a
hypertonic solution is known as plasmolysis (shrinking of plant cell)
General applications of phenomenon of osmosis
1.Shrinking and swelling of blood cells when put into aqueous NaCl having concentration more or
less than 0.9%.
2. Water movement from soil into plant body.
3. Preservation of meat and fruits by salting against bacterial infection.
4. Osmotic pressure is more useful to determine the molecular mass of the macro molecules or
Biomolecules because it is done at room temperature.
Edema: - Due to higher conc. Of salt in our food the retention of water in tissue cell and intercellular spaces
takes place due to osmosis. Due to this the tissue and cells becomes puffy/swell, this is known as edema.

Semi-permeable Membrane: -A Special type of membrane which allow only the solvent and not solute to
pass through it. Or A membrane that is selectively permeable, i.e. being permeable to only
certain molecules and not to all molecules.
*semi- permeable Membrane membrane can plant or animal origin
Natural semi-permeable Membrane –Parchment, Pig’s bladder. Artificial-Cellphane, Cellulose acetate.
Freshly prepared inorganic substances such as-Copper ferrocynide and silicates of iron, cobalt and nickel etc

Abnormal molecular mass: --When the molecular mass of the substance determined by any of the colligative
properties is different from its theoretically calculated molar mass, the substance is said to show abnormal
molecular mass. it is due to 1) the solution is not dilute (or not ideal) i2) when the solute undergoes
association or dissociation in solution

Association: -Acetic acid and benzoic acid when dissolved in benzene, then molecular mass is found to be
doubled then expected because the molecules of Acetic acid and benzoic acid associated due to H-Bonding
and found as dimer.

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Dissociation: -When solute dissociate in solution AB → A + + B −
When solute dissociate in solution, no of particles increases in the solution, which increases the
colloigative property and decreases the molecular mass.

Eg. KCl → K + + Cl −

Van't Hoff Factor(i): -To calculate the extent of association or dissociation van’t Hoff introduced a factor
called vantHaff factor. It is defined as the ratio of the normal molar mass to the observed molar mass
(abnormal molar mass)of the solute.
OR
the ratio of the experimental value of the colligative property to the calculated value of the colligative
property.

Normal. molar mass Mn

i= i=
Abnormal Molar Mass Mo

Abnormal value colligativ property

Or i=
Normal value of colligativ property

Total number of moles of particles after associatio or dissociati

i=
Total number of moles of particles before associatio or dissociati

Colligative property is always inversely proportional to molecular mass

Molar Mass  1
Colligativ Property

The value of i predicts the nature of the solute in the solution.

✓ If i = 1, solute behaves normally in solution.
✓ If I > 1, solute undergoes dissociation in solution
✓ If i < 1, solute undergoes association in solution

Using Van’ hoff factor, we can modify the colligative properties for the substansce which undergoing
association or dissociation.

PA - P
(a) = i xB
PA

(b)  Tb = i Kb  m

(c) Tf = iKf  m

(d)  = iCRT

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Degree of dissociation: -
Suppose 1 mole of a substance dissocates to form n moles of molecules or ions and  is the degree of
dissociation.
A ⎯Dissociati
⎯ ⎯⎯ on
→ nA
Initially no of moles 1 0
At equilibrium (1-  ) n

Total no of moles of particles at equilibrium after dissociation= (1-  ) + n 

We know that, i = Total number of moles of particles after associatio or dissociati

Total number of moles of particles before associatio or dissociati

Then i = (1 -  ) + n OR
1
i −1
Or  =
n −1
‘n’ is no. of ions produced per formula of the compound.
Degree of association: -
Suppose 1 mole of n molecule s associates to form one molecule of substance and  is degree of
association, then.
nA ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→
Association
An
initial no of moles 1 0
At equilibrium (1-  )  /n

Now, total no. of moles after association = (1-  ) +  /n

We know that, i = Total number of moles of particles after associatio or dissociati

Total number of moles of particles before associatio or dissociati

(1 -  ) + 
Then i = n
1
i −1
Degree of association  =
1
−1
n

****************THE END*************

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