Anthropology Block 4

Tribe-Caste
Continuum in India
Block IV
Indigenous Knowledge and
Natural Resource Management
157
Indigenous Knowledge
and Natural Resource
Management
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UNIT 11 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND Indigenous Knowledge
and Natural Resources
NATURAL RESOURCES*
Contents
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Indigenous Knowledge (IK)
11.1.1 What is Indigenous Knowledge?
11.1.2 Pattern and Difference between Indigenous Knowledge and Western

Knowledge
11.1.3 Transmission of Indigenous Knowledge
11.2 Indigenous Knowledge, Flora and Forest

11.2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and End -users
11.2.2 Need and Priorities
11.3 Indigenous Knowledge and Soil

11.3.1 Indigenous Knowledge Ethnopedology, Conceptual Width
11.3.2 Methodological Approaches

11.3.2.1 Ethnographic Approach
11.3.2.2 Comparative Approach
11.3.2.3 Integrated Approach
11.3.3 Dominant Research Themes
11.4 Indigenous Knowledge and Water

11.4.1 Case Study –Saura Tribe of Odisha
11.4.2 Traditional System of Water Management
11.4.3 Traditional System of Terracing
11.4.4 Traditional System of Tank Management

11.5 Summary
11.6 References
11.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 explain what is indigenous knowledge, how it is patterned and how it is
different from western or modern knowledge system;
 understand how indigenous knowledge is related to natural resources and
further why it is important to make optimum use of natural resource for
human population; and
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Contributor: Dr. Nihar Ranjan Mishra, Associate Dean Academic, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
*
National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

Indigenous Knowledge  know what are basic constitutes of natural resources, its linkages with
and Natural Resource indigenous knowledge, people , and how they are necessary for livelihood
Management
of local population;
11.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit highlights the significance of indigenous knowledge and natural
resources and their utilisation among the local population with focus of
relationship between human beings and natural biodiversity. Natural Resource
Management (NRM) refers to the management of natural resources such as
land, water, soil, plants and animals, with a specific focus on how management
affects the overall quality of life. Indigenous people happen to be the carriers
of ancestral knowledge and wisdom regarding biodiversity. Their active
participation in biodiversity conservation programs is essential for resource
management to be more effective and cost-efficient. A comprehensive NRM
approach is very critical to human survival and prosperity. Forests worldwide
cover around 3.9 billion hectares, while the existing forest resources are divided
into six categories globally, namely, Moist Tropical, Montane Sub Tropical,
Dry Tropical, Montane Temperate Forests, Sub Alpine and Alpine.
Under diverse natural conditions, over a billion people in rural and under diverse
natural conditions, over a billion people in rural and urban areas live in harmony
under a democratic system in India. However, the loss and fragmentation of
natural habitats invariably affect all animal and plant species. The predominant
causes underlying the declining forest cover are over-exploitation, overgrazing,
encroachments, unsustainable practices, forest fires, and non eco-friendly
development projects in the forested areas. Forest resources help protect
ecological systems besides enhancing the quality of environment by way of
controlling soil erosion and water retention. But, increasing population and
commercial demand for wood have dented the natural forest cover nurtured by
our ancestors.
Considering that local knowledge is no longer receiving its due attention in
modern India, the loss of natural biodiversity has doubled with conservation
becoming much more challenging. Along with science, local technologies and
people’s knowledge regarding ethno forestry have an important role to play
in biodiversity conservation and sustainability. A balance between local and
formal institutions can result in empowerment, security and opportunities for
local people. Also equity of knowledge provides an opportunity for local people
to participate in the management of local resources with global implications.
Before going to detail description of the one attributes of the natural resource
management such as flora, fauna land and water we are here first discuss about
Indigenous Knowledge, its conceptual understanding with how its differ pattern
in the local population.
11.1 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE (IK)

Indigenous knowledge (IK) is used at the local level by communities as the basis
for decisions pertaining to food security, human and animal health, education,
natural resources management, and other vital activities. IK is a key element of
the social capital of the poor and constitutes their main asset in their efforts to
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gain control of their own lives. For these reasons, the potential contribution of Indigenous Knowledge
IK to locally managed, sustainable and cost-effective survival strategies should and Natural Resources
be promoted in the development process. Indigenous knowledge is an integral
part of the culture and history of a local community. We need to learn from local
communities to enrich the development process in sustainable way. Indigenous
knowledge (IK) is currently flavour of time both economic commodity and
political slogan. It has market value placed upon it, and has become pivotal in
preserving the identity and culture of indigenous people whose traditional way
of life is under threat.
11.1.1 What is Indigenous Knowledge?

Indigenous knowledge can be broadly defined as the knowledge that an
indigenous (local) community accumulates over generations of living in a
particular ecological setting. The definition includes all forms of knowledge-
technologies, know-how skills, practices and beliefs- that enable the community
to achieve stable livelihoods in their environment. A number of terms are used
interchangeably to refer to concept of IK, including traditional knowledge
(TK), Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), Local Knowledge (LK) and
Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS). The most recent definition given by
Gadgil (1993) it is a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs handed down
through generations by cultural transmission about the relationship of living
beings including humans with one another and their environment. It is unique
to a given culture or society.
Although there are some conflict prevalent in the naming of these knowledge
system. For the sake of the simplicity we have being using both the term
interchangeably. In this way TK and IK are synonymous in using. But there are
debates over the use of term for particular concern or some other perspectives.
Generally in the development scenario the term ‘indigenous’ is more favour than
‘traditional’. While at the same time ‘traditional’ is refers more on the lifestyle
of the particular community. One more different as indigenous generally used
for the tribal community whereas traditional refers to the non-tribal village.
IK is unique to every culture and society and it is embedded in community
practices, institutions, relationships and rituals. IK is considered a part of the
local knowledge in the sense that it is rooted in a particular community and
situated within broader cultural traditions. It is a set of experiences generated
by people living in those communities. IK is based on, and deeply embedded
in local experience and historic reality, and therefore unique to that specific
culture, it also plays an important role in defining the identity of the community.
It has developed over the centuries of experimentation on how to adapt to local
conditions. It therefore represents all the skills and innovations of a people and
embodies the collective wisdom and resourcefulness of the community.
Indigenous people have specific ways of the transmission of cultural trait
from one generation to next generation. Cultural communication done through
traditional folk-songs, folk-tales, folk-legends, folk-ritual, proverbs, and
total design of living style to convey as means of transmitting specific human
elements of traditional knowledge. Often this way of communicating in order
to acculturation of new individual to specific community is intermingled with
all the social institution like family, kinship and religion. 161
Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous knowledge is having many definitions but there is not anonymity
and Natural Resource among the users of the term. For some (Sillitoe, 1998: 224) anthropologist of
Management
the view that indigenous knowledge is comes under the development domain,
while some includes in this totally way of life. Sillitoe (1998, 224) is of opinion
while defining the term indigenous knowledge as ‘intellectual pursuit’ rather
than developed as practical purposes. So as form him it is developed as thinking
level or special perspective of thinking world in his concern ‘development
project’. So the objective of the indigenous knowledge is to incorporation of
locally prevalent ideas, knowledge in to the mainstream knowledge (some says
in the western stream of knowledge) in the development perspective to attain a
position in the power structure by the Indigenous Knowledge entity.
While talking the evolution of the indigenous knowledge Sillitoe (1998, 225) is
of the opinion that there are two ways or of the development of the indigenous
knowledge system. In this both are developed largely separately two divergent
views such as one academic and other one is development focused. In academic
perspective the study of indigenous knowledge system is developed from the
starting from the 1960s with the advent of ethnoscience in the discipline and more
developed with the other related perspective such as Symbiotic Anthropology
& Human Ecology. While in the development way it started in 70s in subject
such as farming system and participatory development with incorporation of
the anthropological knowledge to these studies. In fact this perspective comes
from the resultant of far-reaching changes occurs in the thinking and practical
application in the various development issues. Earlier in 1960s the development
is seen only the technology transfer model from the western (developed) to
non-western (un-developed countries) like inception of the high yield varieties
of grains in the Indian subcontinent.
Check Your Progress
1) Define the term indigenous knowledge.
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11.1.2 Pattern and Difference between Indigenous Knowledge

and Western Knowledge
There is difference in the construction, development and transmission of the
indigenous knowledge and western knowledge. Primarily traditional knowledge
differs from modern knowledge in the manner of creation i.e. traditional
knowledge is normally empirically validated therefore it is said that Modern
Knowledge has been validated in laboratory of brick and mortar whereas
traditional knowledge has been validated in the laboratory of life.
As the anthropologist Levi-Strauss (1966) argued that indigenous knowledge
and Western science are two parallel modes of acquiring knowledge about
the universe, yet he observes that “the physical world is approached from
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opposite ends in the two cases: one is supremely concrete, the other supremely Indigenous Knowledge
abstract.” On the other hand Cleveland (1998) and with Soleri (Cleveland, and and Natural Resources
Soleri, 2002) had given the four point method to study both the knowledge
system. Such as, the indigenous knowledge of local farmers consists of basic
four questions. First how local farmer understand the basic biological models of
relationship between plant genotypes, phenotype and results of seed selection.
Second include the farmer’s ethno-ecological understanding of agro-practices.
Third point comes to mind basic between farmer ethno-knowledge with the
broader mainstream knowledge. Finally the fourth and last one is to ‘contribute
collaboration’ of farmer’s and scientific understanding in a way to improve the
result of agro-production.
Indigenous Traditional knowledge is not patterned like the western knowledge
system. Traditional knowledge is not like the science a discovery of truth.
Rather than it is looking what is exactly exist pattern of living at present
and how it constitute to the wellbeing of the human society. So traditional
knowledge is the knowledge meant for survival. The primer thought on which
traditional knowledge is established is the means to live not for explaining
something, or arrival on the core truth of the subject. It is matter of concern
of belief and cultural lifestyle of the local people that is accessed, documented
and disseminated within the society through the process of socialization. So it
is differed from the modern or Western knowledge which is emphasis on the
learning there knowledge becomes the concept for simple determination and
application of the discovering the truth of the concern subject.
11.1.3 Transmission of Indigenous Knowledge

The local population of any specific ecological setting has special way of
transmission of cultural trait from one generation to next generation with the
institutional based formal form of socialization. Cultural communication done
through traditional folk-songs, folk-tales, folk-legends, folk-ritual, proverbs,
and total design of living style to convey as means of transmitting specific human
elements of traditional ecological knowledge. Often this way of communicating
in order to acculturation of new individual to specific community is intermingled
with all the social institution like family, kinship and religion. In indigenous
knowledge systems, there is usually no real separation between secular and
sacred knowledge and practice - they are one and the same thing.
Check Your Progress
2) Difference between Indigenous and Western Knowledge.
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In next section we will try to know how this indigenous knowledge system
interact with biodiversi-ty attributes separately namely flora and forest, land,
water, soil etc.
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11.2 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE, FLORA AND
Management FOREST
Indigenous knowledge on the flora of India and adjacent region is as old as
ancient scriptures, bio-geographical niche, cultural history, natural resource on
which the indigenous communities are dependent upon on this subcontinent. The
topography coupled with gigantic watershed river system, diverse mountainous,
desert, oceanic ecosystems and varied climatic influences and other factors have
contributed immensely towards the rich flora of the region with variety of life
forms subsistent on them. There is marked affinity of indigenous traditional
knowledge (ITK) of different communities of India with that of Indo-Tibetan,
Sino-Himalayan, Indo-Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar region rich in forest biodiversity and genetic resource. Globally
Indian sub-continent has admixture of flora and fauna of African, European,
Mediterranean, Australian and south American origin (https://www.fao.org/3/
XII/0303-A3.htm#P28_106).
While coming to Indian condition it is estimated that 90% of tribal communities
in India live in or in close proximity to forests. The forests that remain in India
today are mostly in tribal areas. According to the 2001 Census, the tribal
population in the country was 84.3 million accounting for 8.2% of the total
population. The tribes have traditionally lived in about 15% of the geographical
area of the country, mainly in forests, hills and undulating inaccessible terrain
in plateau areas which are rich in natural resources. As per the Forest Survey of
India report (2003), about 60% of the forest covers of the country and 63% of
the dense forests lie in 187 tribal districts.
Indian region, further, is endowed with rich forest biodiversity, representing
nearly 18000 flowering plant species occurring in various distinct floristic
zones. About 75,000 species of animals, 340 species of mammals, 1200 kinds
of birds, 420 reptiles, 140 amphibians, 1200 kinds of birds, 420 reptiles, 140
amphibians, 2000 fishes, 50,000 insects, 4000 molluscs and other invertebrates
are distributed in the land mass of 329 million hectares and a coastline of 7516
kms.
Indigenous communities are represented by nearly 430 distinct ethnic groups
interspersed among 54 million under 227 linguistic groups and inhabiting
different phytogeographical locations. An appreciable proportion of the
biological components is used by indigenous communities for variety of value-
added products such as food, fodder, dyes, fibre, gum-resins, rattans, bamboos,
medicinal herbs etc. through their traditional mode of survey, collection and
usage. Various ethnic groups have gathered considerable knowledge about the
use of plants due to their constant and intimate association with the forests and
plants in particular. ITK on Indian flora still remains scrupulously guarded by
the communities from publicity. The wild resources are in fact the result of co-
evolutionary relationships between indigenous peoples and nature since time
immemorial (https://www.fao.org/3/XII/0303-A3.htm#P28_106).
From the taxonomic-cum indigenous peoples’ dependence on the forest
diversity point of view, ethnobiological studies have been carried out on all
India basis. Ethnobiological information on nearly 10,000 wild plant species
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including 7500 species for medicinal purpose, 3900 subsidiary food, 525 fibre Indigenous Knowledge
and cordage, 400 as fodder, 300 piscicides and pesticides have been documented. and Natural Resources
Among the fauna indigenous traditional knowledge based on sound taxonomy
of 76 species of animals (60: vertebrates- amphibians, birds, pisces, reptiles
and mammals), 16 invertebrates (arachnids, insects, molluscs, etc.) exist.
Scientific scrutiny of several of such bio-resources have characterised and
standardised applications for safe use. Numerous medicinally important flora
assessed through indigenous knowledge system have been documented and
tested of popular tribal remedies. Over 300 items of assorted medicinal plants
are extracted and traded from Himalayan and north-eastern region of India,
Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar (https://www.fao.org/3/
XII/0303-A3.htm#P28_106).
11.2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and End-users

Indigenous knowledge on the traditional classification system being followed
by ITK holders (IKH) in colloquial/ dialects/linguistics has not been by and
large converted in to taxonomic language of scientific world. Choice of species
with features of taxonomic characters on the variability and propagating
materials other those a traditional/orthodox taxonomist follows are needed
under different project activities pertaining to the integration of ITK base
with modern conservation measures. With the shrinkage of the bio-resources
rich areas under indigenous communities and vanishing of knowledge along
with indigenous communities such as Kolazuthu and Aryazuthu of mountain
tracts of southern India, there is urgent need to make joint venture through the
application and integration of scientific knowledge through the ways and means
the communities understand and prefer most considering the components of
ITK.
Table 11.1: End - Users and Components of ITK
End-Users Components of ITK

Products of Grassroots In- Services
novation / Outputs
Indigenous Knowledge - Survey and inventorisation - Benefit sharing through
Holders - Education and extension individual / collective mode
materials and material/ nonmaterial
benefits to IKH.
- IPR (Intellectual Property
Right) recognition
- Capacity building.
Organisation or projected - Interpretation and - Free supply of useful
activities with short or long conversion of ITK materials for propagation /
term objectives or mandate - Conservation of rare and domestication etc.
threatened species. - Developmental activities in
IKH localities.
Source: https://www.fao.org/3/XII/0303-A3.htm
Benefits to indigenous knowledge holders may be in the form of award to

the preservers/ custodians of biodiversity, monetary incentive for ITK on the
phytogeographic/ zoogeographic and economic evaluation on species of great
significance to mankind (Individual - Material). Under nonmaterial approach
the individual (IKH) honour for traditional method for systematic evaluation
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Indigenous Knowledge for conservation efforts may be considered. The local governments in the form
and Natural Resource of communication and amenities may develop the services for rendering to the
Management
communities being focussed for integration of knowledge.
From the integration of taxonomic knowledge there is need for characterisation
of traditional methods of identification and classification, value addition and
methods of pre and post harvesting of species. The range extension of species
helps in inventorisation and monitoring. Popular beliefs folklore has now
scientific principles for interpretative approach. As mentioned earlier, ethno-
biological information on 10000 wild plant species and 76 species of fauna have
been deciphered taxonomically in India, under co-ordinated project activities
through concerted efforts in India.
With the property right and patent regimes the lesser known aspects of ITK have
now larger attention and specific interest for commercial extraction. The lacunae
in this respect exist in various ways and means. For example, with the change
in dialects and linguistics in an area of ITK significance confusion over a name
and complex groups of species exist with superfluous nomenclature. There is
no uniform code of nomenclature in a physiographically and biodiversity rich
area.
From the organisational level there is need for registration of grassroots
innovations, certification of products for the authentication, besides developing
benefit sharing mechanism on sustainable basis. Ethno-taxonomical products of
biological origin have least record of information. For example, a plant is known
to an IKH by its morphology, area of occurrence and usefulness to which they
(IKH) have a vernacular. Yams (Dioscorea) of north-eastern India are known
by Khasi tribe by the characteristic leaf with simple to digitate and variously
shaped underground corms of similar species. The taxonomic knowledge of
IKH may be put under coded, where the species and the products are known
scientifically and the application of recent trends has subsequently made.
The products of ITK base are used for their time tested, cost effectiveness,
purity, environmentally friendly nature and popular beliefs. It is found that the
admixture of products of dubious taxonomic entity is in practice for commercial
gains. With the upsurge of patent regime with out recourse to effective IPR
of IKH in different areas, several agencies have competition among them for
registration and marketing of the product. It is found that the little and less known
ITK on better known species diversity have higher prospects. In such case the
differences in patent laws of different countries play a key role particularly
when the inventory is at inter organizational- cum- international level (https://
www.fao.org/3/XII/0303-A3.htm#P28_106).
11.2.2 Need and Priorities

The improvements with regards to the products/ outputs and services
proposed are (i) bio-geographical levels of characterisation of biodiversity
rich areas of ethno-biological significance using remote sensing and GIS (ii)
registration of grassroots innovations by IKH (iii) characterisation of products
through application of scientific knowledge (iv) relocation, reintroduction
and rehabilitation of rare and threatened species (v) preparation of extension
materials based on local dialects and language. (vi) involvement of community
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through participatory approach (vii) gender initiatives with regards to different Indigenous Knowledge
aspects of sustainable utilisation (viii) studying the aspects of ITK entities of and Natural Resources
communities of disjunct and close affinity (ix) benefit sharing considering the
sanctity of the region and ethics (x) developing at organizational and local
government level accessibility to IK rich areas and IKH (xi) capacity building
of IKH through integrated approach, and (xii) development of common format
for the use of IKH at regional/national/international levels for rapid assessment,
evaluation of features of forest biodiversity significance and integration of
knowledge (https://www.fao.org/3/XII/0303-A3.htm#P28_106).
11.3 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND SOIL

Indigenous pedological knowledge is related to soil of the land of the particular
ecological setting. This includes the indigenous knowledge of the local
population regarding the soil typology, structure, fertility, suitable utility and
conservation for the various function related to local population livelihood
such as agriculture or horticulture etc. In this local classification use the soil
classification as ‘folk taxonomy’ for adapted indigenous soil management
practices. Local farmer have a vast amount of practical knowledge repertoire
about how their soils affect crop productivity.
Soil constitutes one of the key parameter in the analysis of the relationship
between demographic pressure, land use dynamics and land degradation
processes in the local agro-climate. The analysis of indigenous knowledge
systems has a long tradition in anthropology (Conklin 1972) and in this a broad
sub-discipline which is called ethnocology which focus local knowledge of
all ecological condition of the particular locality and particular group of the
people.
11.3.1 Indigenous Knowledge, Ethnopedology, Conceptual

Width
Ethnopedology is a part of ethnoecology, the study of indigenous environmental
knowledge (Toledo, 1992, 2000). It is a hybrid discipline structured from
the combination of natural and social sciences, such as soil science, social
anthropology, rural geography, agronomy and agro-ecology (Barrera-Bassols
and Zinck, 2003). Often, terms such as traditional, folk, local, indigenous,
farmers’ and peoples’ soil knowledge systems are used interchangeably to refer
to ethnopedology.
Ideally, ethnopedology encompasses all empirical soil and land knowledge
systems of rural populations, from the most traditional to the modern ones. It
analyses the role of soil and land in the natural resource management process,
as part of ecological and economic rationale. Soil and land are explored as
(1) polysemic cognitive domains, (2) multiple-use natural resources, and (3)
objects of symbolic meanings and values. Symbolism (Kosmos), knowledge
(Corpus) and management practices (Praxis)—the K – C – P complex—
articulate the empirical wisdom of local people about the soil resource. The
interaction of the three domains of the K – C – P complex results in the merging
of sacred and secular features, knowledge and experience, facts and values,
and matter and mind. In practical terms, it allows peasant’s risk aversion to
be counteracted, enhances food self-sufficiency and agricultural sustainability, 167
Indigenous Knowledge promotes low dependence on external inputs, makes maximum use of soil and
and Natural Resource landscape diversity, and secures survival under economic uncertainty. To reach
Management
these goals, a strict cultural control — selecting and monitoring land uses and
management practices — is applied within each community.
The main research fields of ethnopedology include:
• local classification nomenclatures, and soil and land taxonomies;
• local soil and land resources perception, and the explanation of the structure,
distribution, properties, processes and dynamics of the soil mantle;
• local knowledge of soil and land relationships with other biophysical
factors, elements and processes;
• beliefs, myths, rituals and other symbolic meanings, values and practices
related to land management and soil quality evaluation;
• local land uses and soil management practices;
• local adaptation, renewal and transformation strategies of soil properties
and land qualities
• co-validation of ethnopedological knowledge, abilities and skills with
modern soil science, geopedological survey, agro-ecological strategies,
and agricultural and other rural practices, to promote participatory land
evaluation and land use planning procedures for endogenous sustainable
development (Barrera-Bassols N and J.A. Zinck, 2003)
Check Your Progress
2. Describe Ethnopedology.
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11.3.2 Methodological Approaches

They mark a shift from mono-disciplinary to integrated research. A review of
ethno-pedological information sources reveals three main research approaches:
ethnographic, comparative and integrated. It also shows a shift from early
mono-disciplinary research towards studies that combine a variety of methods
and techniques, in accordance with the broad nature of the traditional soil
knowledge.
11.3.2.1 Ethnographic Approach
In the ethnographic approach, field data analysis and ethnopedological knowledge
acquisition are the main objectives in recognising farmers’ environmental
rationality from a cultural perspective (Malinowski, 1935; Conklin, 1957).
In this type of study, the ethnopedological information is not compared with
scientific soil information. In most cases, the empirical soil information does
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not substantially contribute to integrated analysis of the local natural resource Indigenous Knowledge
management. In this detail ethnographic knowledge of the local population with and Natural Resources
the methodological approach studied.
Classical ethnographies usually contain a few descriptive sections devoted
to ethno-pedology. Linguistic criteria referring to soil attributes and land
management strategies are often listed. Earlier ethno-pedological attempts were
based on the linguistic analysis of local soil and land classification systems,
similar to earlier studies on ethnobiology (Talawar and Rhoades, 1998).
11.3.2.2 Comparative Approach
The shortcoming of the ethnographic with the addition of the scientific and
western knowledge of the local knowledge comes in this approach. The
comparative approach aims to establish similarities and differences between
local knowledge and scientific information. This type of study intends to
identify possible correlations between different soil and land classifications and
management systems. The analysis does not take into consideration the socio-
cultural contexts from which perceptions, beliefs, cognition and practices are
derived.
As in conventional ethnobiology, the analysis and correlation of soil and land
classification systems form the main objective of the research, thus excluding
other fundamental elements belonging to the local environmental knowledge
systems, such as the symbolic meanings and values, as well as farmers’ expertise.
Although some studies demonstrate the scientific validity of local soil and land
resources cognition, in most cases it is assumed that soil science is superior to
local soil knowledge, so that the latter needs to be proven and formalized to be
scientifically tapped (Thrupp, 1989; Sillitoe, 1998). The application of local
soil and land resources knowledge during the production process is left out;
thus the practical consequences of cognition systems and the analysis of local
ecological and economic rationale are not covered by these studies (N. Barrera-
Bassols and J.A. Zinck, 2003).
11.3.2.3 Integrated Approach
The integrated approach identifies and mobilises the relationship between
cultural and scientific information in order to elaborate natural resource
management schemes according to local social, cultural, economic and
ecological contexts. Together with off-community agents (e.g. soil scientists,
agronomists, social scientists, planners, among others); farmers participate
in validating and integrating information into the local decision-making and
planning procedures. Designing sustainable natural resource management
models is promoted. This ethnopedological approach is still in its early day’s
(O¨ stberg and Reij, 1998; WinklerPrins, 1999). Its main goal is to link soil and
land wisdom and knowledge in order to promote feasible and sustained local
endogenous development in an interdisciplinary perspective. By analysing
historical, ecological, economic and political factors and changes at the local
level, and with the full participation of the local actors, this contextual approach
could gain strength through co-validating and implementing in a creative way
both the scientific and the empirical sources of information (N. Barrera-Bassols
and J.A. Zinck, 2003).
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Indigenous Knowledge 11.3.3 Dominant Research Themes: From Soil Classification
Management to Land Management Practices
Ethnopedological research covers a wide topical array centred on four main
subjects: (1) the formalisation of local soil and land knowledge into classification
schemes (2) Comparison of local and technical soil classifications (3) the
analysis of local land evaluation systems, and (4) the assessment of local agro-
ecological management practices (N. Barrera-Bassols and J.A. Zinck, 2003).
There are some significant similarities and complementarities between
indigenous and scientific soil taxonomic systems, showing potential synergism,
especially for solving problems related to soil and land management. A few
examples are provided to illustrate this potentially fertile research area.
Ten years of ethnopedological research findings in the Himalayas demonstrate a
close correlation between indigenous and conventional soil taxonomies (Tamang,
1993). Most of the indigenous classes can be readily converted into commonly
used scientific classification schemes. Also, a close correlation between
indigenous soil colour classes and soil chemical conditions reveals that farmers
are well aware of the unique differences between soil colour and associated
properties. Furthermore, there is a strong correlation between indigenous land
classes and soil fertility. Local land quality classes for agricultural purposes
correlate well with selected chemical properties (e.g. levels of cation exchange
capacity and exchangeable cations), particularly in those soils that have not
been altered by chemical fertilisers (Shah, 1995).
Indigenous and conventional knowledge systems are equally limited in their
abilities to mitigate and prevent actual soil erosion hazards in the Himalayas.
Both, however, have also extensive complementarities, considering the time
frame and spatial scale of the responses provided by each system. Indigenous
knowledge responds primarily over the long-term and takes into account off-
site effects of soil loss. Complex soil landscape management and land use
planning strategies constitute local responses to each specific erosion event over
a decadal perspective. In contrast, conventional science primarily formulates
general responses to individual erosion events and operates fundamentally
on the site and over the short-term. Structural and vegetative techniques are
implemented to reduce downstream sedimentation. The complementation of
local and conventional approaches and techniques in the Shivalik Himalayas in
India promotes increased productivity and drastically reduces sedimentation in
eroded agricultural lands.
11.4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND WATER

The importance of water resource development was recognised by many ancient
civilisations, which emphasised on various mechanisms of water appropriation,
collection and its distribution. The maintenance of water quality and the means
of regenerating the water resources were crucial factors for sustainability,
especially in the dry areas. Water harvesting can be traced back through human
history almost as far as the origins of agriculture. These ancient practices
sustained people when conditions otherwise would have totally prevented
agriculture. Since the inception of human civilisation, human beings have given
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emphasis on capturing rain water through the construction of ponds and other Indigenous Knowledge
storages. Many people in the world have continued to rely on water harvesting and Natural Resources
practices.
Social and cultural diversity coupled with the environmental complexity have
generated diverse approaches and technologies in the management and use of
different natural resources. Water used to be shared, preserved and regulated as
per cultural norms of the people everywhere. Earlier people used to conserve
water for their multifarious use, both individually and communally, following
age-old traditions. Traditionally, indigenous communities made decisions
concerning the sustainable use and management of natural resources, which
were governed by the village Council/institutions. Many tribal and rural
communities were, or are, well aware of the value of conserving biological
resources, and had devised effective methods to conserve them.
Surface water was or is traditionally harvested collectively by constructing
embankments across water conduits, gullies, natural channels and dikes; whereas
ground water was/is harvested through dug-wells. The traditional system of rain
water harvesting, which was one of the best ways of water management, helped
people in overcoming rural poverty and unemployment resulting in an overall
improvement of the economy. Agarwal and Narain (1992), while emphasising
on the importance of traditional system of water harvesting in Rajasthan, point
out that these water bodies were the major sources of their livelihood. They
further point out that these systems even helped the people of Thar Desert
to face the water crisis in summer. The traditional cultural and institutional
mechanisms evolved strategies for effective use of resources. Culture usually
plays a vital role in the development and conservation of traditional societies.
The culture specific factors like traditional practices, values and beliefs play an
important role in using, sharing, managing and conserving water resources. The
traditional system of community management and local governance was based
on the ideas, values and beliefs that a particular society held. In the traditional
system, participation was evolved through centuries as a cultural norm and it
was enforced through social institutions. Their cultural beliefs and practices
coincided with the process of natural resource management and it had not only
helped in preserving the natural resources but also in preserving the social
solidarity. The rituals that they perform at the time of scarcity, used to bring all
the villagers on to one platform. The cultural practice of obeying the decision
of village council had helped in maintaining the social order and customary
relation among the villagers.
There existed social arrangements to ensure participation of different social
groups in the maintenance of water bodies and irrigation tanks. Village tanks
were considered as the sacred resources of village and their maintenance was
considered as a matter of honour. The tanks benefited most of the sections of
the village society directly and indirectly. Some of the weaker sections had
the traditional rights to distribute of water among landowners. This right to
distribute water also has given them the right to access irrigation water to their
lands. Even though the system was not based on principle of equity, it was
efficient. The farmers used to make an effort to acquire water, distribute it
among themselves according to some accepted norms.
171
Indigenous Knowledge 11.4.1 Case Study – Saura Tribe of Odisha
Management The Saura are one of the oldest known tribes of India. They are called by
various terms such as Savara, Sabara, Saura, Sora, etc. They are found in
great compactness on the edges of the Eastern Ghats in undivided Ganjam and
Koraput districts of Orissa and Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. The
Saura show their racial affinity to the proto-Australoid physical characters,
which are dominant among the aborigines of Central and Southern India. The
four types of Saura who are prominently found in Orissa are Lanjia Saura,
Sudha Saura, Kampu Saura and Malia Saura. The Saura in the study village
belong to Sudha Saura.
11.4.2 Traditional System of Water Management

The agriculture in the study area was completely subsistence in nature. The
farmers were depending on nature for agricultural production, which was the
main source of their income. They had lots of ecological knowledge, which
helped them in forecasting the future state of rain. The farmers who lived and
enjoyed the agrarian life were fascinated by the myths, legends, rituals, customs
and beliefs. The villagers had many beliefs, which helped them in forecasting
the time of rain. The Sauras of this area believe that if three seeds are found in
a palasa fruit, in that year there would be good or copious rain.
They have observed that some animals could feel the forthcoming of rain. It
is also believed by Sauras that kudindati bird, which usually lays one or two
eggs in the first half of rainy season, if lays three eggs and able to bring all
three birds safely from these eggs there will be good rain in that year. They
also have a belief that heavy rain will come from that direction towards which
the kumpeilada bird keeps the tail of its nest in the beginning of rainy season.
All the villagers, irrespective of caste and community, used to believe that
the flying of para (pigeons) or jhari poka at unexpected times and ants with
eggs moving from one place to another are indicators of forthcoming of rain.
Similarly, Peacocks dance seeing rain clouds as if to invite the monsoon, which
is their mating season.
Gadasum Puja: It is popularly known locally among the non-Saura as bana
devata puja or giri gobardhan puja or brusam puja. This ritual is observed in
the month of Asadha (June-July) during the time of drought. If there was no
rain in the month of Asadha, Gomango used to call a meeting of villagers and
discuss about the situation in that meeting. The contribution of the villagers for
this ritual used to be decided in that meeting. With the permission of Gomango
the Barika collects the contribution from all the households in the village. Here,
the participation of villagers was not confined to only landholding households.
Once the collection of contribution are over the Gomango used to consult the
kamanda (priest). After consulting panjika (almanac) the kamanda used to
inform the date of observance of this ritual to the Gomango.
Indra Puja: When the irrigation system of the study village was not so
developed, the villagers were performing various rituals for receiving rain at
the time of drought. It is viewed that at the time of difficulties, when there was
drought, the villagers used to collectively arrange for the worship of the lord
172
Indra to bring rainfall. The puja used to be held near the village deity by the Indigenous Knowledge
Pujari (Brahmin priest). The belief was that if the Pujari performs the ritual in and Natural Resources
a proper way, then rainfall will inevitably occur during the worship. The Pujari
will not leave his asana (seat) until it rains.
11.4.3 Traditional System of Terracing

Though Sauras were depending on the mercy of monsoon for their survival,
they had a good tradition of water management. By stone packed contour
bundling, they used to lay small terraced fields on the hill slopes and grew
paddy. By means of channels they regulated the flow of water from the natural
hill streams and irrigated their terraced fields. They were terracing the hillsides
for rice cultivation. The bed of the stream was levelled and terraced in some
places. Floodwater was drained out by some drains on both the sides. By doing
this they used to take advantage of the perennial springs to irrigate their narrow
terraced fields during late winter and early rainy months. In order to pass the
water from one field to another they used to make a hole in the wall of the land.
The hole used to be made just above four inches from the level of the land so
that the entire water cannot runoff to lower land.
11.4.4 Traditional System of Tank Management

Apart from the terracing system, they used to depend on bandha (tanks) to irrigate
their lands. ‘Bandha is the traditional rainwater harvesting system consisting of
a major embankment across the line of the drainage. It resembles a rectangular
(or semi-circle) catchments basin with only three embankments and the fourth
side left open for runoff and drainage water to enter. Bandha are inextricably
linked to the socio-cultural aspects of rural life and have historically been an
indispensable part of the village habitat, sustaining its socio ecological balance.
Bandha systems were developed ingeniously and maintained over centuries.
The traditional village Bandha are the best source of rainwater conservation.
Besides, providing surface water it also helps in recharging the ground water.
It is an easily accessible community resource for meeting the requirements of
drinking water to human beings as well as animals. The sustainability of flora
and fauna in rural areas is directly related to the perennially of Bandha. In this
rain-fed area the village bandha used to serve as a major source of irrigation.
Traditionally, Bandha were providing protective irrigation on a limited scale.
Here the irrigation system was a community constructed, maintained and
operated entity.
11.5 SUMMARY
Indigenous knowledge can be broadly defined as the knowledge that an
indigenous (local) community accumulates over generations of living in a
particular ecological setting. The definition includes all forms of knowledge-
technologies, know-how skills, practices and beliefs- that enable the community
to achieve stable livelihoods in their environment. Indigenous knowledge is
situated in the historical cultural repositories of knowledge of local population
and transmission with one generation to next with the meaning of culture.
Indigenous knowledge is pattern different with western knowledge in a way it is
not constructed differently and not in the way comes with the truth but develop
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Indigenous Knowledge know how to useful livelihood purpose of the local population. It is very well
and Natural Resource used not only livelihood in different area such as land, water, soil and flora and
Management
forest but also it is considered a unique method when combine with modern
scientific or western knowledge as source of biodiversity conservation.
11.6 REFERENCES
Barrera-Bassols, N., & Zinck, J.A. (2003). Ethnopedology: A worldwide view
on the soil knowledge of local people. Geoderma, 111(3), 171-195
Brokensha, D.W., Warren, D.M., & Werner, O., (1980). Indigenous knowledge
systems and development. University Press of America.
Cleveland, D.A. & Soleri, D. (2009). Farmer knowledge and scientist knowledge
in sustainable agricultural development: Ontology, epistemology and praxis.
P., Sillitoe (Ed.). Local science vs global science: Approaches to indigenous
knowledge in international development (pp-209-230). New York: Berghahn
Books.
Conklin, H.C. (1972). Folk classiﬁcation. Yale University Department of
Anthropology: New Haven.
Gadgil, M., Berkes, F., & Folke, C., (1993). Indigenous knowledge for
biodiversity conservation. Ambio, 22(2/3), 151-156
Levi-Strauss, C., (1996). The savage mind. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Malinowski, B. (1935). Coral gardens and their magic. A Study of the methods
of tilling the soil and of agricultural rites in the Trobriand Islands, New Guinea,
Vol. 1. London: George Allen Publisher.
Ostberg, W., Reij, C., 1998. Culture and local knowledge: their roles in soil
and water conservation. In: Blume, H.P., Eger, H., Fleischhauer, E., Hebel,
A., Reij, C., Steiner, K.G. (Eds.), Towards Sustainable Land Use: Furthering
Cooperation Between People and Institutions. Advances in Geoecology 31, vol.
1. Catena-Verlag/ ISSS, Reiskirchen, Germany, pp. 1349 – 1358. 2 vols`
Shah, P.B. (1995). Indigenous agricultural land and soil classifications. H.,
Schreier, P.B, Shah, & S., Brown (Eds.). Challenges in mountain resource
management in Nepal. Processes, trends, and dynamics in middle mountain
watershed. Kathmandu, Nepal: IDRC/ICIMOD.
Sillitoe, P. (1998). Knowing the land: Soil and land resource evaluation and
indigenous knowledge. Soil Use and Management 14 (4), 188 – 193
Talawar, S., Rhoades, R.E., 1998. Scientific and local classification and
management of soils. Agriculture and Human Values 15, 3 – 14.
Tamang, D. (1993). Living in a fragile ecosystem: Indigenous soil management
in the hills of Nepal. International Institute for Environment and Development.
Gatekeeper Series 41 (23 pp.).
Toledo, V.M. (1992). What is ethnoecology? Origins, scope and implications
of a rising discipline. Etnoecolo´gica I (1), 5 – 21
174
Toledo, V.M. (2000). Indigenous knowledge on soils: An ethnoecological Indigenous Knowledge
conceptualisation. In: Barrera-Bassols, J.A., Zinck, (Eds.). Ethnopedology in a and Natural Resources
worldwide perspective (pp. 1-9). An annotated Bibliography. ITC, Enschede,
The Netherlands: ITC Publication, vol. 77. ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands,
pp. 1-9.
11.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Refer to sub-section 11.1.1
2) Refer to sub- section 11.1.2
3) Refer to sub- section 11.3.1
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UNIT 12 INDIGENOUS METHODS OF
Management CONSERVATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES*
Contents
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Natural Resources
12.2 Conservation of Natural Resources
12.3 Indigenous Methods of Conservation of Natural Resources
12.3.1 Land
12.3.2 Soil
12.3.3 Mineral
12.3.4 Water
12.3.5 Forest
12.4 Summary
12.5 References
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 explain natural resources and its types;
 understand the conservation of natural resources; and
 know the indigenous methods of conservation of land, soil, mineral, water,
forest.
12.0 INTRODUCTION
Religious beliefs, traditional beliefs, cultural mores and practices play a crucial
role for the successful conservation of the environment and specific organisms
especially in the developing countries (Berkes et al, 2000; Lingard et al, 2003;
Sasaki et al, 2010).
It is usually observed that among the rural communities of the world, the
preservation of the environment has an inextricable link to the culture of the
people (Anoliefo et al 2003). This is also noticeable in the people’s farming
systems, care for the land, forests, wild life, trees, and streams. These rural or
indigenous people are those who are the original or oldest inhabitants of an
area or region, who have lived in a traditional homeland for many generations
(Toledo, 2000). Hence it is easier for them to pass on the knowledge about their
environment from one generation to another.
176 *
Contributor: Dr. Anjuli Chandra, Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor cum Assistant Director Centre for the study
of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, Gandhigram Rural Institute- Deemed University, Gandhigram, Dindigul
District, Tamil Nadu
12.1 NATURAL RESOURCES Indigenous Methods
of Conservation of
Natural resources occur naturally within environments that exist relatively Natural Resources
undisturbed by humanity, in a natural form. A natural resource is often
characterized by amounts of biodiversity and geo-diversity existent in various
ecosystems. Some of them are essential for our survival while most are used
for satisfying our needs. Natural resources are materials and components
(something that can be used) that can be found within the environment. Every
man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level).
The Earth’s natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, fuels, plants,
and animals. A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh
water, and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an
alternate form which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal
ores, oil, and most forms of energy.
On the basis of origin, natural resources may be divided into:
• Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and
organic material), such as forests and animals, and the materials that can
be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also
included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic
matter.
• Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-
organic material. Examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water,
air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.
Check Your Progress
1) Define natural resources and its types.
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Activity
Through the local people try to identify the natural resources available in
your area, its longevity and careful use of these resources.
12.2 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL

RESOURCES
In 1982 the UN developed the World Charter for Nature, which recognised the
need to protect nature from further depletion due to human activity. It states that
measures need to be taken at all societal levels, from international to individual,
to protect nature. It outlines the need for sustainable use of natural resources and
suggests that the protection of resources should be incorporated into national
and international systems of law.
177
Indigenous Knowledge Conservation is the practice of caring for natural resources so all living things
and Natural Resource can benefit from them now and in the future. All the things we need to survive,
Management
such as food, water, air, and shelter come from natural resources. Some of these
resources, like small plants, can be replaced quickly after they are used. Others,
like large trees, take a long time to replace. These are renewable resources.
Other resources, such as fossil fuels, cannot be replaced at all. Once they are
used up, they are gone forever. These are nonrenewable resources. Conservation
of natural resources is the wise use of the earth’s resources by humanity.
Smith and Wishnie (2000) defined conservation as actions that prevent or
mitigate biodiversity loss and are designed to do so. In time past, local people
have developed a variety of resource management practices that continue
to exist in tropical Africa, Asia, South America and other parts of the world
(Appiah-Opoku, 2007).
12.3 INDIGENOUS METHODS OF

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES
Indigenous knowledge systems are a body of knowledge, or bodies of knowledge
of the indigenous people of particular geographical areas that they have survived
on for a very long time. IKS is local knowledge that is unique to a given culture
or society (Mapara, 2009). IKS is built by societies through generations of living
in close contact with nature. It includes norms, taboos, a system of classification
of natural resources, a set of empirical observations about the local environment
and a system of self-management that governs resource use. In particular, rural
women are one group within a community who hold enormous indigenous
knowledge of conservation which can assist modern efforts of environmental
management (Fonjong, 2008). Indigenous Peoples are carriers of ancestral
knowledge and wisdom about their biodiversity. Their effective participation
in biodiversity conservation programs as experts in protecting and managing
biodiversity and natural resources would result in more comprehensive and cost
effective conservation and management of biodiversity worldwide.
Activity
Describe any of the tribal group’s (in your area/ state) methods practice by
them for conserving the natural resources.
Natural Resource Management has been in the traditions of the Indian society,
expressing itself variously in the management and utilisation practices. This
evolved through the continued historical interaction of communities and their
environment, giving rise to practices and cultural landscapes such as sacred
forests and groves, sacred corridors and a variety of ethno forestry practices.
This has also resulted in conservation practices that combined water, soil and
trees. Nature-society interaction also brought about the socio-cultural beliefs
as an institutional framework to manage the resultant practices arising out of
application of traditional knowledge. The attitude of respect towards earth as
mother is widespread among the Indian society (Taylor, 2002).
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12.3.1 Land Indigenous Methods
of Conservation of
Land conservation is the process of protecting natural land and returning Natural Resources
developed land to its natural state. It is a set of methods that aim to sustain the
natural features and functions of land, including as part of watershed processes
and functions. Some of the most common techniques include preservation,
restoration, remediation, and mitigation.
Preservation of the environment means that lands and their natural resources
should not be consumed by humans and should instead be maintained in their
pristine form. Under this form of land conservation, humans would no longer be
able to use certain land for human use but would be able to enjoy it for its natural
beauty. One of the most famous preservationists in U.S. history is John Muir.
John Muir was a Scottish immigrant who lived from 1838 to 1914 and had a
large admiration for California’s Yosemite Valley. Muir was a strong advocate
for the complete protection of land and believed that people should only use the
environment for enjoyment and not as a resource for goods. The influence of
John Muir is still evident today through the continuation of the Sierra Club and
the establishment of the Muir Woods National Monument, a preserved area of
land in Northern California that is home to an ancient redwood forest.
Another technique used in land conservation is restoration, which is the process
of returning ecosystems and communities to their original natural conditions.
This often includes introducing native animals, planting native plants, restoring
waterways to their natural path, and removing human infrastructure. In the Florida
Everglades, in the United States, there is an enormous restoration project going
on. The Everglades are a complex system of marshes and grasslands that flood
seasonally. These areas have been becoming drier over the last few decades
because the water it relies on is being used for irrigation and development and
is managed for flood control. The restoration project is trying to restore the flow
of water to the area by undoing dams and other water-control features. If this
project is successful, it will benefit the region because it will bring back wildlife
that has left due to the drying conditions and help increase ecotourism in the
area.
Remediation is the process of cleaning a contaminated area using relatively
mild or nondestructive methods. One interesting method of remediation
is known as bioremediation, which is the use of naturally occurring or
purposefully introduced organisms to break down pollutants. This technique
was used following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in
2010. Naturally occurring bacteria were used to clean up the oil. The bacteria
were able to ingest and break down the oil into less harmful substances.
Another technique of land conservation is mitigation which is a process of
replacing a degrading site with a healthy site that is of equal ecological value in
a different location. The purpose of mitigation is to compensate for destroying
one area by purchasing or creating a new area that is of equal ecological value.
This technique is less desired than the others because it still allows land to be
destroyed.
179
Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous peoples’ relationship with their traditional lands and territories
and Natural Resource is said to form a core part of their identity and spirituality and to be deeply
Management
rooted in their culture and history. Many or most of the world’s major centers of
biodiversity coincide with areas occupied or controlled by Indigenous Peoples.
Traditional Indigenous Territories encompass up to 22 per cent of the world’s
land surface and they coincide with areas that hold 80 percent of the planet’s
biodiversity. Also, the greatest diversity of indigenous groups coincides with
the world’s largest tropical forest wilderness areas in the Americas (including
Amazon), Africa, and Asia, and 11 per cent of world forest lands are legally
owned by Indigenous Peoples and communities. For Aboriginal people the
relationship is much deeper. The land owns Aboriginal people and every aspect
of their lives are connected to it. They have a profound spiritual connection to
land. Aboriginal law and spirituality are intertwined with the land, the people
and creation, and this forms their culture and sovereignty. The health of land
and water is central to their culture. Land is their mother, is steeped in their
culture, but also gives them the responsibility to care for it. Farmers’ traditional
knowledge of agriculture includes tested technologies in the field. Under rainfed
conditions farmers in hill regions plough their land several times before the onset
of rain to conserve water and increase water retention capacity. Farmers plough
their land straight instead of in circles and open parallel furrows for rainwater
harvesting and retaining moisture. However, there is a recommendation to
plough the land across the slope to check erosion.
12.3.2 Soil
Soil is vital to food production. Practices that conserve soil are essential: nature
takes 500 years to replace 25 millimeters of lost soil. In Hungary, growers are
using conservation tillage techniques that leave at least 30% of the previous
year’s crop remnants on the surface of the soil, before planting to adapt to
drought, temperature extremes and heavy rains that are affecting the quality
of the soil. Hill farmers, in order to conserve soil and water grow grasses for
ground cover such as Eulaliopsis binnata, Chrysopogun fulvus and agave sps.
Shrubs like Ipomea icarnea, Arando donex, Dendrocalamus strictus, napier
grass, Vitex negundu, Morus alba and bagrera are grown, and in wild form are
available bhang, lantana, sweet neem, etc.
In Eastern and Southern Africa, soil conservation measures have been undertaken
since time immemorial. It appears that indigenous conservation knowledge
has accumulated particularly in areas where the natural resource base is under
severe pressure from local communities, the ecosystems are fragile and there is
a long history of adaptation to adverse conditions. Indigenous soil conservation
systems may be agronomic, vegetative or physical in nature.
Agronomic and vegetative techniques may be biological or cultural. They
include such practices as crop rotations, mixed cropping and trash lines. Crop
rotations and mixed cropping are traditional systems that are widely practiced
in the region. Good crop rotations such as maize followed by legumes facilitate
the conservation and addition of humus, restoration of soil structure and
fertility and reduction of pests and diseases. In mixed cropping, two or more
crops are grown in the same field in the same season. In most cases grains and
leguminous crops are mixed. The fast growing legumes provide soil cover early
180
in season, shielding the impact of raindrops. They fix nitrogen too, and thus Indigenous Methods
help to maintain soil fertility. In slopping hillsides, maize stover is sometimes of Conservation of
Natural Resources
used to make trash lines, which help in slowing down the flow of runoff, and
traps eroded soils.
Physical Tillage Techniques
Pit cultivation: This is essentially a soil and water conservation system as well
as a fertility restoration technique, through refuse decomposition. Grass is cut
and laid out in strips forming square grids. Soil is then dug from the centre of the
grid, covering the grass and leaving 30-60 cm deep and 100 cm in diameter pits.
The pits, from a distance resemble a honeycomb or chessboard. The pits control
runoff while conserving moisture simultaneously. The rainwater collected in
the pits, percolates into the soil slowly while the incorporated crop residues
improves soil fertility. The practice is fairly common in the Matengo highlands
in southern Tanzania where they are popularly known as “Ngoro”. Pits are laid
even on steep slopes ranging from 10-60% (Temu and Bisanda, 1996).
Earth bunds: This is essentially a soil and water harvesting technique. Earth
bunds are used mainly for water harvesting in rice production in the drier parts
such as the lake zone in Tanzania. Earth bunds about 0.5m high are constructed
around rice fields in order to collect runoff water from the higher slopes. In
some other parts like Ethiopia, earth bunds are used for slowing down runoff in
maize and sorghum fields where they are usually constructed along the contour
after planting the crop.
Stone bunds: These are barriers of stones placed at regular intervals along the
contour. They have been used for generations in Ethiopia where they are locally
known as “dhagga” and in some parts of South Africa. Stone bunds retain or
slow down run off and hence control erosion. They also allow the accumulation
of soil, which may be redistributed after the bunds are dismantled.
Ridges: Ridges have traditionally been associated with the growing of specific
crops such as beans, groundnuts, sweet potatoes and cassava. Ordinary ridges
are 20-50 cm high and are usually spaced 60-80cm apart. When they are laid
across the slope they control the soil erosion. Ridges also improve the soil
fertility through in situ composting of vegetation that is buried under during
ridge formation. The system is commonly practiced in Tanzania and Zambia.
Mulching: Mulch farming maintains surface residues on tilled land. Crop
residues are useful in conserving the soil, controlling water runoff, improving
soil physical conditions and increasing soil fertility. In situ mulching was fairly
practiced in the region. Mulching however is still practiced in banana and coffee
areas and in horticultural crops, in areas of high rainfall.
Lameo: An indigenous method of soil conservation
The sediment trapping technique, lameo, is a low-cost technology that only
needs labour and local material, and it avoids the major investment needed
to buy inputs. There is no doubt that this technique affects the soil’s height,
fertility, moisture content and mineral salt content. Another important aspect
is that lameo helps to improve the health of the potato plant, by decreasing the
amount of nematodes. In some valleys of the Department of Cochabamba in
181
Indigenous Knowledge the central part of Bolivia, farmers still practice the technique of lameo. To trap
and Natural Resource the sediment carried along by the rivers, flowing water is captured by altering
Management
the river’s course allowing it to flood the fields. In this way, farmers create their
own soil. In the fields located further away from the river, they enrich the soil
by mixing the sediments carried by the river with the existing soil. In order to
alter the course of the river, so that it can flood the land, bocatomas (man-made
openings or inlets) are made. Every time the river floods, the farmers have to
rebuild these bocatomas. In the final stage of the lameo, water inlets are closed
off so that the excess moisture can be drained, enabling the farmers to prepare
the land for planting and sowing. The drainage takes about one month.
Activity
Discuss some of the soil conservation methods practiced among the Indian
tribes.
Check Your Progress
2) What are the physical tillage techniques commonly used for soil
conservation?
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12.3.3 Mineral
Earth’s supply of raw mineral resources is in danger. Many mineral deposits
that have been located and mapped have been depleted. Many mining methods,
such as mountaintop removal mining (MTR), devastate the environment. They
destroy soil, plants, and animal habitats. Many mining methods also pollute water
and air, as toxic chemicals leak into the surrounding ecosystem. Conservation
efforts in areas like Chile and the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United
States often promote more sustainable mining methods. Less wasteful mining
methods and the recycling of materials will help conserve mineral resources.
In Japan, for example, car manufacturers recycle many raw materials used in
making automobiles. In the United States, nearly one-third of the iron produced
comes from recycled automobiles. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) estimates that Americans generated more than 3 million tons of e-waste
in 2007. Electronic products contain minerals as well as petroleum-based
plastics. Many of them also contain hazardous materials that can leach out of
landfills into the soil and water supply. Many governments are passing laws
requiring manufacturers to recycle used electronics. Countries rich in mineral
resources such as Australia and Canada finally recognized the concern that
mining activities have generated within their Indigenous communities. Also,
in the case of the developing world for example in Latin America, the impact
of mining activities has focussed the attention of the world, because they are
attracting the greatest share of investment in exploration.
182
12.3.4 Water Indigenous Methods
of Conservation of
Water is a renewable resource. The amount of water on Earth always remains Natural Resources
the same. However, most of the planet’s water is unavailable for human use.
While more than 70 per cent of the Earth’s surface is covered by water, only
2.5 per cent of it is fresh-water. Out of that freshwater, almost 70 per cent is
permanently frozen in the ice caps covering Antarctica and Greenland. Only
about 1 per cent of the freshwater on Earth is available for people to use for
drinking, bathing, and irrigating crops. People can conserve and protect water
supplies in many ways. Farmers can change some of their practices to reduce
polluted runoff. This includes limiting overgrazing, avoiding over-irrigation, and
using alternatives to chemical pesticides whenever possible. Water conservation
encompasses the policies, strategies and activities to manage fresh water as
a sustainable resource, to protect the water environment, and to meet current
and future human demand.[1] The goals of water conservation efforts includes
ensuring the availability of water for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh
water from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.
Humans have virtually appropriated fresh water. Humanity now uses 26 per
cent of total terrestrial evapo-transpiration and 54 per cent of runoff that is
geographically and temporally accessible (Postel et al, 1996). For centuries,
nature’s various products and women’s knowledge of their properties have
provided the basis for making water safe for drinking in every home and village
of India. The seeds of the nirmali tree are used to clear muddy water by rubbing
them on the insides of vessels. The drumstick tree also produces seeds which
are used for water purification. Moringa seeds inhibit the growth of bacteria
and fungi. Tulasi is a water purifier with antibacterial an insecticidal properties.
Copper or brass pots are what Indian women use to carry and store water; and
unlike plastic, they do not breed bacteria. The technologies women have used
for water purification are based on locally available natural products and locally
and commonly available knowledge (Shiva 1988).
Rainwater harvesting in South Asia is different from other parts of the wor-ld
in that it has a continued history of practice for at least over 5000 years (Falvo
2000). Revival of local rainwater harvesting globally could provide substantial
amounts of water for nature and society. For example, a hectare of land in
Jaisalmer, one of India’s driest places with 100 millimeters of rainfall per year,
could yield 1 million liters of water from harvesting rainwater. Even with the
simple technology such as ponds and earthen embankments called tanks, at
least half a million liters a year can be harvested from rain falling over one
hectare of land, as is being done in the Thar desert, making it the most densely
populated desert in the world. Indeed, there are 1.5 million village tanks in use
and sustaining everyday life in the 660,000 villages in India (Pandey, 2001).
Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should be
primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation accounts for
70% of the world’s fresh water use. The agricultural sector of most countries is
important both economically and politically, and water subsidies are common.
Conservation advocates have urged removal of all subsidies to force farmers to
grow more water-efficient crops and adopt less wasteful irrigation techniques.
183
Indigenous Knowledge As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservation efforts
and Natural Resource often concentrate on maximizing the efficiency of the existing system. This may
Management
include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrow dikes to prevent runoff, and
using soil moisture and rainfall sensors to optimize irrigation schedules. The
2011 UNEP Green Economy Report notes that “improved soil organic matter
from the use of green manures, mulching, and recycling of crop residues and
animal manure increases the water holding capacity of soils and their ability
to absorb water during torrential rains,” which is a way to optimize the use of
rainfall and irrigation during dry periods in the season.
Activity
Demonstrate some of the water conservation techniques practiced by tribes
in your State.
12.3.5 Forest
A forest is a large area covered with trees grouped so their foliage shades the
ground. Every continent except Antarctica has forests, from the evergreen-filled
boreal forests of the north to mangrove forests in tropical wetlands. Forests
provide habitats for animals and plants. They store carbon, helping reduce
global warming. They protect soil by reducing runoff. They add nutrients to the
soil through leaf litter. They provide people with timber and firewood. About
half of all the forests on Earth are in the tropics — an area that circles the
globe near the Equator. Although tropical forests cover fewer than 6 per cent
of the world’s land area, they are home to about 80 per cent of the world’s
documented species. For example, more than 500 different species of trees live
in the forests on the small island of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea. Tropical
forests give us many valuable products, including woods like mahogany and
teak, rubber, fruits, nuts, and flowers. Many of the medicines we use today
come from plants found only in tropical rain forests. These include quinine, a
malaria drug; curare, an anesthetic used in surgery; and rosy periwinkle, which
is used to treat certain types of cancer.
Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring we have these resources
well into the future. One of these practices is leaving some trees to die and
decay naturally in the forest. This “deadwood” builds up soil. Other sustainable
forestry methods include using low-impact logging practices, harvesting with
natural regeneration in mind, and avoiding certain logging techniques, such as
removing all the high-value trees or all the largest trees from a forest. Trees
can also be conserved if consumers recycle. People in China and Mexico, for
example, reuse much of their wastepaper, including writing paper, wrapping
paper, and cardboard. If half the world’s paper were recycled, much of the
worldwide demand for new paper would be fulfilled, saving many of the Earth’s
trees. We can also replace some wood products with alternatives like bamboo,
which is actually a type of grass.
There is a global coalition, especially within the UN system, to effectively and
sustainably manage the tropical forests ecosystems in the world. All the forests
are maintained through century old traditional ecological knowledge of resource
management practices, which is sustainable. These forests are maintained not
184
only to meet the fuelwood, fodder, food, and timber need of the community but Indigenous Methods
also for socio-cultural and ritualistic purpose. Bamboo and pine groves meet the of Conservation of
Natural Resources
requirement of timber for house construction, edible bamboo shoots, fencing,
erosion control, fuelwood, handicrafts and materials for ritual ceremonies. The
Sansung (individual forest) are managed for fuelwood and material source
for ritual ceremonies such as Myoko, Murung, Subu, etc. In addition, it has
an ethno-medico-botanical resource centre for the community. The bamboo
plantations are dominated with a single species Phyllostachys bambusoides,
though the community uses other bamboo species mainly collected from
primary forest. Maintenance and plantation of bamboo is done with utmost
care. Pine seedlings are planted during February and looping of branch is
done after third year of plantation. It is believed that proper looping enhances
growth and straightness of plants, beside it supplies fuelwood requirement.
Castanopsis spp., Alnus nepalensis,Prunus sp., Prunus nepalensis, Pyrus sp.
Quercus spp. etc. are managed through cutting at the height of 3-8 m. This
helps to promote large scale emergence of branches (coppices) and is believed
that such type of management gives faster growth of plant in comparison to
seedling plantation. In his research on traditional and indigenous methods of
conserving biodiversity, Environmental Protection Council, (1976) identified
four indigenous methods for conserving biodiversity in Ghana and other West
African sub region, (Nigeria inclusive), these methods include:
• Religious traditions: temple forests, monastery forests, sanctified and
deitified trees.
• Traditional tribal traditions: sacred forests, sacred groves and sacred
trees.
• Royal traditions: royal hunting preserves, elephant forests, royal gardens
etc.
• Livelihood traditions: forests and groves serving as cultural and social
space and source of livelihood products and services (Simberloff & Abele,
1976; Silori & Badola, 2000).
An example of natural resource conservation is at the village of Mendha in
Gadhchiroli district of Maharashtra. In 1987, the villagers renewed their efforts
at biodiversity conservation. It was decided that no commercial exploitation of
the forests, except for Non-Timber Forest Produce, would be allowed. Further,
villagers would themselves regulate the amount of resources they could extract
from the forests and undertake measures to tackle soil erosion. Forests would
not be set on fire. Encroachment would not be allowed. The important aspect of
this community is that the villagers decide for themselves, yet they are open to
information from the outside world.
A case study is that of the North-Eastern region of India which is home to diverse
tribal and other ethnic groups. They live in complete harmony with nature. For
example, the Meetei communities in the States of Manipur and Assam. Sacred
groves, or Umang Lais, as they are called in the Meetei language, form an integral
part of the Manipuri tradition of nature worship. Several species of plants are
protected in these groves, which also offer protection to birds and animals.
185
Indigenous Knowledge These include teak, several fruit trees like lemon, plants of medicinal value such
and Natural Resource as ginger, eucalyptus and bamboo. 2 Thus, in this case certain religious beliefs
Management
and practices help in the conservation of nature and its biodiversity.
Check Your Progress
3) Discuss various indigenous methods of conservation of Natural
Resources.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
4) By giving examples discuss various ways of forest conservation among
the tribes?
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12.4 SUMMARY
Indigenous peoples’ relationship with their traditional lands and territories
is said to form a core part of their identity and spirituality and to be deeply
rooted in their culture and history. The natural environment and resources are
under serious threat and at least cultural taboos and their sanctions have helped
to check abuse of the environment at least among the local people. Religious
beliefs, cultural mores and practices are often aligned with today’s conservation
ethics, and it is imperative that they are upheld as they are critical in the wise
conservation and management of natural resources.
12.5 REFERENCES
Anoliefo, G.O., Isikhuemhen, O.S., & Ochije, N.R. (2003). Environmental
implications of the erosion of cultural taboo practices in Awka-South local
government area of Anambra state, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural &
Environmental Ethics, 16, 281-296
Appiah-Opoku, S. (2007). Indigenous beliefs and environmental stewardship:
A rural Ghana experience. Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor,
7(3), 15-17
Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Folke, C. (2000). Rediscovery of traditional ecological
knowledge as adaptive management. Ecological Applications, 10, 1251-1262
Falvo, D.J. (2000). On modeling Balinese water temple networks as complex
adaptive systems. Human Ecology, 28, 641-649
186
Fonjong, L.N. (2008). Gender roles and practices in natural resource management Indigenous Methods
in the North West province of Cameroon. Local Environment, 13(5), 461-475 of Conservation of
Natural Resources
Lingard, M., Raharison, N., Rabakonandrianina, E., Rakotoarisoa J.A., &
Elmqvist, T. (2003). The role of local taboos in conservation and management
of species: The radiated tortoise in southern Madagascar. Conservation and
Society, 1, 223-246
Mapara, J. (2009). Indigenous knowledge systems in Zimbabwe: Juxtaposing
postcolonial theory. The Journal of Pan African Studies, 3, 139-155
Pandey, D.N. (2001a). A bountiful harvest of rainwater. Science, 293, 1763-
1763
Pimentel et al (2004). Water resources: Agricultural and environmental issues.
BioScience, 54 (10), 909
Postel, S.L., Daily, G.C., & Ehrlich, P.R. (1996). Human appropriation of
renewable fresh water. Science, 271, 785-788
Sasaki, K., Sasaki, Y., & Fox, S.F. (2010). Endangered traditional beliefs in
Japan: Influences on snake conservation. Herpetological Conservation and
Biology, 5(3), 474-485
Shetto, R.M. (1999). Indigenous soil conservation tillage systems and risks
of animal traction on land degradation in Eastern and Southern Africa. P.G.,
Kaumbutho & T.E., Simalenga (Eds.). Conservation tillage with animal
traction (173p). A resource book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern
and Southern Africa (ATNESA). Harare, Zimbabwe.
Shiva, V. (1988). Women and environment: Case studies from selected villages
of Orissa. New Delhi: Council of Professional Social Workers.
Simberloff, D.S., & Abele, L.G. (1976). Island biogeography theory and
conservation practice. Science, 191, 285-286
Smith, E.A., & Wishnie, M. (2000). Conservation and subsistence in small-
scale societies. Ann. Rev. Anthropol, 29, 493–524
Taylor, P.D. (2002). Fragmentation and cultural landscapes: Tightening the
relationship between human beings and the environment. Landscape and Urban
Planning, 58, 93-99
Temu, A.E.M., & Bisanda, S. (1996). Pit cultivation in the Matengo Highlands
of Tanzania. C., Reij, I., Scoones, & C., Toulimn. (1996). Sustaining the soil
– Indigenous soil and water conservation in Africa. International Institute for
Environment and Development.
Toledo, V.M. (2000). Indigenous knowledge on soils: An ethnoecological
conceptualization. N., Barrera-Bassols & J.A., Zinck (Eds.). Ethnopedology in
a worldwide perspective: An annotated bibliography. ITC Publication (77).
Vickers, A. (2002). Water use and conservation (p. 434). Amherst, MA: Water
Plow Press.
187
Management 1) Refer to section 12.1.
2) Refer to sub-section 12.3.2.
3) Refer to section 12.3.
4) Refer to section 12.3.
188
UNIT 13 FOREST POLICY AND TRIBAL Indigenous Methods
of Conservation of
RIGHTS* Natural Resources
Contents
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Forest Policy since Colonial Time and Conflict with Tribal Interest
13.2 PESA: Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas Act
13.3 Forest Rights Act-FRA
13.4 The Rights Issues of Tribal Communities
13.5 Summary
13.6 References
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 understand the nature of association of tribal with forest;
 know about tribal livelihood based on forest and forest based occupation;
 understand about forest policy and conflict with tribal rights and interests
since colonial time; and
 realise the nature of transformation in policy from antithetical to progressive
and welfare approach for tribal development.
13.0 INTRODUCTION
Forest is an integral part of the tribal way of life. The social, cultural and
economic system of the tribal communities is closely connected with nature
in which forest is a vital component. Tribal derive their means of livelihood
directly from forest or forest based occupations. Therefore, forest continues to
be the single most important means of livelihood of the tribal population. More
than two-thirds of the tribal population in India lives in or in close proximity to
forests. Tribal depend on forest for food, fuel and fodder.
In the report of the Sub-Group-II on NTFP and their Sustainable Management
in the 12th Five Year Plan, it is estimated that 275 million poor rural people in
India- twenty-seven percent of the total population depend on non-timber forest
produce (NTFP), for at least part of their subsistence.
NTFP, which is otherwise known as minor forest produce(MFP), contributes
about twenty percent to forty percent of the annual income of forest dwellers
who are mostly disadvantageous and landless communities with a dominant
population of tribal. It provides critical subsistence support to the communities,
particularly belonging to vulnerable tribes during lean season. Further, women
189
*
Contributor: Dr. Hari Charan Behera, Assistant Professor, Indian Statistical Institute Giridih, Jharkhand
Indigenous Knowledge have a significant role in collection, use and marketing of NTFP1. Anthropologists
and Natural Resource have studied the symbiotic relations between forest and tribal communities.
Management
Tribal communities have cultural mechanism and indigenous practices that
help conservation and restoration of forest and natural resource. Traditionally,
they use resource that is essential for their survival but they have never been
greed to exploit forest resource.
Anthropology has been able to highlight many complex issues of the
tribal communities amongst which livelihood issues remain most crucial.
Anthropologists have classified tribes based on their economy and livelihood as
hunter-gatherers or foragers, pastoralists, shifting cultivators, settled cultivators,
artisan tribes, folk artists, agricultural and non agricultural labour oriented tribes,
and service groups. The first category, hunter-gatherer, includes particularly
vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs), earlier called, primitive tribal groups (PTGs)
such as the Bondas of Odisha, the Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh, the Birhors
of Jharkhand, and the Jarawas and the Sentinelese of Andaman and Islands
amongst others. Of a total of seventy-five PTGs, forty one PTGs from Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh (including Chhattisgarh)
are complete dependents of forest. Pastoralist community like the Todas in
the Niligiri district of Tamil Nadu and the Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu & Kashmir live in hill belts and practice rearing cattle as main source of
livelihood. Among the prominent tribes as shifting cultivators, are included the
Kondhs and the Juangs of Odisha, the Maria Gonds of Chhattisgarh, and some
north eastern state tribes, etc. These tribes also live in forest and hill regions.
The other category includes the Bhil, the Mina, the Kondh, the Santhal and the
Munda tribes in Jharkhand amongst others who follow subsistence agriculture
practice. The artisan groups such as the Kolam of Maharashtra, the Irulas of
Tamil Nadu, and the Agariya of Madhya Pradesh amongst others engage in
bamboo and related cottage works with very fine artisan skills (Hasnain, 1991).
This activity is completely based on available forest resource. Therefore, forest
is intrinsically but very intimately connected to the life of individuals and
individual tribe in carrying significant cultural, social and economic values.
There is a significant contribution in anthropology on the holistic studying of
such values. Vidyarthi’s theoretical contribution to Nature-Man-Spirit complex,
potential contribution in animism and animistic theory, theory of totemism,
and a view on sacred groves amongst others are sufficient to prove cultural
values of tribal associated with forest. A community culture is exhibited more
prominently with close connection to the nature. Tribal are peace lover by
nature. Until the region was annexed by the outsiders, particularly by agents
of colonial administration, the tribal had abundant forest resource for their
survival. Peaceful life existed without any fear of loose or gain from property.
Natural resource including forest was treated as community property. Therefore,
it was the utmost responsibility of the community to protect and preserve the
forest besides its cautious use. The resource was managed based on customary
practices. Therefore, excess and over exploitation of resource was not practiced
in any form. It was the colonial practice that began to control over the natural
resources by imposing new legislations. The statutory practice to control the
1
Report of the Sub-Group-II on NTFP and their Sustainable Management in the 12th five year Plan,
September 2011, submitted under Planning Commission’s Working Group on Forests and Natural
190 Resource Management, Government of India.
resources for protection, preservation and promotion started with repercussions Forest Policy and
on tribal rights. The rights extended from a basic means of livelihood to cultural Tribal Rights
rights and social network. The stringent forest policy has both directly and
indirectly affected all these rights over the years. Considering the nature of
involvement of tribal communities with forest, the rights issues of tribals have
often been discussed by experts of tribal studies and anthropologists. Among
the rights include, right to survive, right to live in dignity, right to preserve
culture, and indigenous rights. Since colonial time, these rights of the tribal
communities have been ignored with imposition of stringent forest laws. To
help students better understand the above issues, this unit highlights the forest
policy and rights issues in very simple description.
In the next paragraph, an effort has been made to discuss briefly about the forest
policies that ‘emerged since colonial administration. There is no doubt about the
good intentions to protect, conserve and restore ecological balance by enacting
new forest legislations. But the early policy makers’ attempts underscoring the
values of tribal livelihood associated with forest and forest based occupation
has been criticised. The focus on contemporary forest policy further views
the positive side of collective ownership, joint management and livelihood
consideration for ethnic community alongside ecological restoration.
Check Your Progress
1) Describe the nature of association between forests and the tribal
communities.
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13.1 FOREST POLICY SINCE COLONIAL TIME

AND CONFLICT WITH TRIBAL INTEREST
Forest policy was introduced during colonial regime to restrict unauthorised
private access to forest resources by individuals or communities both within and
outside the localities. It was the forest policy through which the state exerted
its control over vast forest resource in wide ranging geographical masses. In
addition to economic interest of the state, the vested colonial expansion for
administrative control over tribal areas through forest policy cannot be completely
denied. Forest policy is not entirely anti-welfare or anti-development approach.
Forest conservation for ecological restoration and development of biosphere
was also the important objective of forest policy. In the following paragraphs
there is a discussion on forest policies since their formal launch in India with
implications for livelihood and other rights of the tribal communities.
Forest Act-1865 provided the legal sanction to the forest administration in various
provinces of India and empowered the colonial state to acquire monopolistic
control over the country2. It was first formal step to regulate the collection of
forest resource by the forest dwellers. Guha (1983: 1940) noted that the first
191
Indigenous Knowledge Forest Act was enacted mainly to facilitate the acquisition of such forest areas as
and Natural Resource could supply timber to the railways. Forest Act-1878 was more comprehensive
Management
than earlier ones. Forests were categorised as (1) reserved forests (2) protected
forests and (3) village forests.
Certain acts like grazing of cattle were prohibited with some provisions
for private forest. Provision was made to impose a duty on timber.
Certain acts were declared as forest offences and imprisonment and fines
were also prescribed (Kulkarni, 1987). Forest Policy resolution-1894 was
administered for better financial implications and the forests were classified
further into: (1) forests the preservation of which was essential on climatic
or physical ground (2) forests which afforded a supply of valuable timber for
commercial purposes (3) minor forests, and (4) pasture lands. But this policy
resolution had some provision for cultivation and cultivators’ claim from
forest land. The demands were ordinarily accepted without hesitation for such
cultivation. However, in this grant there was state vested interest to collect rent by
imposing tax. Indian Forest Act 1927 exerted state’s greater control over forest
resource to increase its revenue. It was an attempt through elaborate provisions
to further regulate people’s rights over forest land and produce. Kulkarni (ibid:
2143) cited the nature of exploitation by the state. Massive deforestation took
place due to large scale cutting down of trees through this Act. Meanwhile, ethnic
communities’ rights over resources were curtailed. The tribal communities
were even physically harassed. Many reported that this Act came as a nightmare
for the tribal and indigenous communities living in and around the forest for
their survival.
N.C. Saxena, a leading scholar and former bureaucrat writes,
The British presence from the late 18th century onwards started making a
difference to land and forest usage in India. Guided by commercial interests,
the British viewed forests as crown lands, limiting private property rights
only to continuously cultivated lands. On forest lands, ‘human resource-use
practices such as grazing, product collection, and temporary or rotational
swidden farming were rejected as a basis for ownership, even when taxes were
paid’ ((Poffenberger and McGean, 1996: 59). Often such forests were under
community management, and their annexation by government alienated the
tribals from their erstwhile common resources, leading to their overuse by the
same tribals. Although the colonial forest policy provided that declaration of
an area as government forest should not abridge or affect any existing rights or
practices of individuals and communities, who were given three months time to
contest reservation, in actual practice the illiterate communities were hardly able
to do so, and thus by the turn of the present century some 20 million hectares
(m ha) of land was brought under a category of forests called reserve forests
(Stebbing, 1926). These were exclusively for use of the Forest Department
(FD) and the surrounding villagers had no rights other than the ones explicitly
permitted by the State.
National Forest Policy 1952, the first such policy after India’s independence,
Cited from Arun Bandopadhyay’s article on The Colonial Legacy of Forest Policies in India, Vol. 38/
2
192 Nos. 1-2 (Jan-Feb), 2010.

recognised tribal’s symbiotic relationship with the forests. Therefore, policy Forest Policy and
allowed former for the protection, preservation and development forests and Tribal Rights
envisaged customary rights of the communities3. However, the Policy could
not provide much respite to the local communities due to strong bias towards
development projects such as mining, industries, hydro projects, etc. According
to 1952 policy, the national interest was composed of numerous elements
and forest policy was intended to protect these interests. Yet, the new policy
explicitly maintained the colonial emphasis on precedence of national interest
over local demand’ (Haeuber, 1993, p.59). The tribal rights over resources were
grossly sidelined. Adivasis living near forests were discouraged from using the
forests. The government tried to obtain more and more revenue from the forest
(Kulkarni, 1987: 2144).
Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 empowered government to declare any area to
be constituted as a “protected area”, namely a national park, wildlife sanctuary
or tiger reserve. This Act prohibits unauthorised access to plants, animals of
any species of whatsoever purpose by any individuals, groups and institutions.
It also strictly imposes restrictions on trespassing by outsiders, banning hunting
of wild animal and use of any species, etc. largely affecting the foragers.
There is not much sympathy even for the tribal communities who had been
traditionally living in or depending on such species for their survival. Since
the settlement officers have been authorized for settlement of disputes in these
areas, several studies have reported that many of such areas are not surveyed
(Yadagiri, 2013). In connection to settlement of reserved forest, a World Bank
study noted, settlement of reserved forest is a controversial issue, because of
the wide powers granted to forest departments and the historical conflict it
created over traditional land rights. Following the 1878 Forest Act, large scale
declaration of reserved forests took place through the settlement process in
many states. Informal systems of land rights and forest use privileges that had
existed between rural communities and the government for centuries were often
rescinded (World Bank, n.d.: 15).
National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) 1976 was an additional restrictive
measure to discourage tribal communities’ access to the forest.
The NCA had recommended regularisation of the rights of forest dwellers
over forest produce in order to reduce their access over forest produce. The
Commission stated, “free supply of forest produce to the rural population and
their rights and privileges have brought destruction to the forests and so it is
necessary to reverse the process. The rural people have not contributed much
towards the maintenance or regeneration of forests. Having over exploited the
resources they cannot, in all fairness, except that somebody else will take the
trouble of providing them with forest produce, free of charge” (Karmakar,
2002).
In the following paragraphs, focus is on a brief account of forest policy and
participatory initiatives.
3
Draft National Policy on tribals was prepared by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs. Retrieved from http://
www.prsindia.org/uploads/media/1167469383/bill53_2007010353_Draft_National_Policy_on_Tribals.
pdf 193
Indigenous Knowledge After many successive forests laws passed with all having no sense of respite
and Natural Resource for the tribal communities, the government realised if people’s demands are not
Management
met forest cannot be effectively saved (Misra, 2006). The idea of Joint Forest
Management (JFM) was informed by the notion of inclusion of tribal into the
forest management (ibid.). The Indian Forest Policy of 1988 and the subsequent
government resolution on participatory forest management (MoEF, 1990)
emphasise the need for people’s participation in natural resource management.
The new forest Policy 1988 gave higher priority to environmental stability
than to earning revenue. It encouraged mixed cropping over mono cropping. It
further advocated about to protect about the rights and concessions enjoyed by
the communities (Saxena, 2002). Under JFM, village communities are entrusted
with the protection and management of nearby forests. The areas concerned
are usually degraded or even deforested areas and in some states like Madhya
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh all village fringe forest come under this (Prasad,
1999). JFM has been a successful approach for management of forest jointly
by communities and the forest department. Thousands of forest protection
committees (FPCs) have been formed under JFM for restoration of ecology by
conserving forest.
The National Forest Policy 1988 included for the first time the elements of
community ownership of resources and addressed the important relationship
between tribal and forest. One of the basic objectives of the National Forest
Policy 1988 is meeting the requirements for fuel wood, fodder, minor forest
produce, and small timber of the rural and tribal populations. National Forest
Policy emphasised afforestation, social forestry, and farm forestry. The Policy
further became soft in recognising the needs of the local tribal communities.
Therefore, it laid down the provision to protect the rights and concessions
enjoyed by them. The policy recognised the symbiotic relation between the
tribal people and forests. Therefore, emphasis was given on involvement of
tribal people in the protection, regeneration, and development of forests as well
to provide gainful employment to people living in and around the forest (NFP,
1988). The NFP 1988 also assures that the customary rights and concessions
are fully protected.
Activity
Write about the National Forest Policy.
Check Your Progress
2) Discuss about non recognition of tribal rights and livelihood issues under
early forest policies.
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194
13.2 PESA: PANCHAYAT EXTENSION TO Forest Policy and
Tribal Rights
SCHEDULED AREAS ACT
Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas Act 1996 is a forward looking
optimistic approach to empower Gram Sabhas in the fifth scheduled areas on
decision making over planning and management. The Gram Sabhas were further
leveraged with multiple decision making authority with regard to management
of local resources. Non timber forest produce (NTFP) remains a main source of
income support for the tribal communities living in the forested region. After
successive forest policies since colonial administration denied their rights to
free access to NTFP, the Gram Sabhas were empowered to access ownership of
NTFP. PESA recognised traditional rights of tribals to community resources
(land, water and forest) and decentralised existing approaches to forest
governance by bringing Gram Sabha at the centre stage for managing MFPs
and social forestry (SAMARTHAN and UNDP report, 2011). Report of the
Expert Group on Prevention of Alienation of Tribal Land and Its Restoration
(PATLR) noted that the ‘the issue of ownership of NTFP has been resolved by
the PESA 1996, which legislates that the ownership of NTFP is with the Gram
Sabha, but its implementation in letter and spirit still leaves to be desired’. Still
there are instances of meager price fetched by NTFP collected by the tribal.
After nationalization of some important NTFPs, the produce can only be sold
to the government agencies (Saxena, 2002). Therefore, there is no open sale or
purchase of NTFP. But the practice of middlemen still continues in the tribal
areas to collect produce in very less price from the primary NTFP collectors
and sale later in the actual price at government outlets. The Expert Group on
PATLR noticed discrepancy in marketing of NTFP. There is no price fixation
based on minimum support price (MSP) on the real value of NTFP. Therefore,
the Expert suggested for fixation and enforcement of MSP on the real value of
NTFP.
13.3 FOREST RIGHTS ACT-FRA

‘The Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (Recognition of
Forest Rights) Act, 2006 which is popularly known as Forest Rights Act or FRA
is a result of the protracted struggle by the marginal and tribal communities of
our country to assert their rights over the forest land over which they were
traditionally dependent’. After all previous forest policies which assumed to be
exploitative, the emergence of FRA brought by and large a greater respite to the
tribal communities. As per the preamble of Forest Rights Act, forest dwellers
are ‘integral to the very survival and sustainability of the ecosystem’ (Saxena,
et al, 2010). The FRA does not allow compromise of the rights other than for
conservation of critical wild life habitats (ibid). Since its implementation in
2008, FRA has provided a mixed response to its delivery of promises. Among
the major promises that were made during its initial period was to empower
and strengthen the local self - governance, to provide livelihood security and to
address the issues of conservation and management of natural resources. Section
5(c) has authorized the Gram Sabha to ensure that their habitat is preserved from
4
Guidelines on Process of Claim, Verification and Submission of Claims to SDLC. This is prepared by
Vasundhara, an NGO in Odisha working on Natural Resource Management. Retrieved from http://fra.org.
in/document/Guideline%20on%20Process%20of%20Claim%20Verification.pdf 195
any form of destructive practices affecting their cultural and natural heritage.
Management Section 6(1) of FRA empowers gram sabha/ palli sabha to initiate the process
for determining the nature and extent of individual and community forest rights
of the forest dwelling tribes or other traditional forest dwellers. There are many
other provisions under different sections to ensure rights of the communities.
This local committee at the grass root level is considered as Forest Rights
Committee (FRC)4.
Activity
Distinguish between PESA and FRA
Thousands of land titles in forest areas (Record of rights) have been issued
with involvement of multiple institutions. Many evaluation studies have
however found that not all promises been kept with utmost care due to lack of
seriousness and authoritative approaches at various levels. Despite that, FRA
is still instrumental in providing social support. Local political institutions are
empowered to identify and recommend for granting of pattas.
13.4 THE RIGHTS ISSUES OF TRIBAL

COMMUNITIES
The rights issues of the communities living in and around forest became the
matter of anthropological discourse since beginning of forest policy. These
rights can range from cultural to social and economic rights of the communities
due to over restriction of access to the forest resources. As already discussed,
the tribal derive the basic economic necessities from forest. According to
Ramachandra Guha, a noted historian, the progressive diminution of ‘rights’,
and consequent loss of control over natural resources evoked a sharp reaction
from the forest communities (EPW, October 29, 1983). The forest has provided
raw materials for industrial needs. Increasing access to forest by state and non-
tribal agents have resulted in over exploitation of forest resource. This has lead
to a progressive loss of control over forest resource by tribal. This deprivation
has been manifested in a series of movements (Guha, 1983). Many forest
policies were passed through but none could meet the basic demand of tribal
on forest and forest produce by providing appropriate provisions through the
Acts and the legislations. No policy could either completely deny access of the
tribal communities to forest resource. Tribal despite difficulties from imposed
restriction through laws, had to survive under stress. State takes over as the
supreme administrator of forest and its machinery functions as both protector
(conservator) and exploiter of forest resource and tribal communities). Tribals
have been restricted from access to forest resource, by laws and legislations. The
customary norms have been overlooked, the forest land has been taken away for
the sake of development, and the middlemen have been facilitated encroachment
of the forest land for private purpose and so on. This has subsequently threatened
livelihood of the forest dwelling tribal communities. The history of Indian forest
policy has been marked by increasing exertion of state authority and restriction
of popular access. All these policies have left with difficulties for survival of the
indigenous communities due to latter’s primary dependence on forest economy
(Hauber, 1993). The fundamental right to live in dignity is questioned under
different forest policy regime. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
196
Indigenous People (UNDRIP) Article 26(2) defines, ‘indigenous peoples have Forest Policy and
the right to own, use, develop, and control the lands, territories and resources that Tribal Rights
they possess by reason of traditional ownership or other traditional occupation
or use, as well as those which they have otherwise acquired’. Most of the
tribal or indigenous communities inherited customary rights of land and forest
resource for generations. These rights are not even well recognized by many
forest policies. The statutory provision and recognition of land rights remains in
critical conjecture ever since colonial administration. Further, UNDRIP under
Article 31(1) declares the rights of indigenous people ‘to maintain, control,
protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional
cultural expressions, as well as manifestations of their sciences, technologies and
cultures, including human and genetic resources, seeds, medicines, knowledge
of the properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literatures, designs, sports
and traditional games and visual and performing arts. They also have the right
to maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such
cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions.’
Article 3(2) declares ‘in conjunction with indigenous peoples, states shall take
effective measures to recognise and protect the exercise of these rights’. However,
state’s restriction of indigenous communities to access forest and forest based
practices through forest policies seems to be contradicting the indigenous rights
vision. The restriction on forest access under the early forest laws had forced
to dissociate from the practice of totemism, forest based cultural norms and
other indigenous practices. The traditional knowledge over medicine, fauna and
flora and conservation of biodiversity could be affected due to severe restriction
in early policies. Forest serves valuable functions in addition to a variety of
aesthetic, moral and ethical considerations. They are: store houses of biological
diversity with plants, animals and other species; regulation of soil and water;
benefits to tribal and rural economy, industrial raw material. The Forest Policy
of 1982 and the Forest Conservation of 1980 reflected these functions (Gadgil,
Prasad and Ali, 1983).
The Directive Principles of State Policy under Article 46 of the Constitutional
Provision highlights rights on promotion of social and economic interests of
scheduled caste and scheduled tribes and other weaker section. The Article
refers protection from social injustice and all forms of exploitation under
special care of weaker sections by State. However, colonial forest policies
seem to have rendered social injustice to the communities depended on forest.
There was amendment of the laws to provide scope for social and economic
justice of the communities. Subsequent welfare policies and Acts such as PESA
and FRA have provided some scope for protection of communities’ interests.
However, the property rights of the communities are conflicted. The tribal
communities inherently lack records of their rights on land and other resources.
Majority of tribal areas are even without proper forest survey or cadastral
survey to demarcate boundary of possession and rights of usages. The colonial
administration did not bother to extend cadastral survey for settlement of land
records in many tribal areas due to difficult terrains. Even after six and half
decades of independence, the tribal areas by and large un-surveyed and the
records are yet to be created. Majority of the northeastern states having large
chunk of tribal population are not surveyed for creation of record of rights.
The innocent tribals without understanding the apathy of forest policies have
197
Indigenous Knowledge got trapped by law and have faced legal actions. They have been punished just
and Natural Resource for collection of forest resource from the forest which was under their control
Management
since generations. Not making much effort to promote social and economic
interest of the forest based communities was an act of gross negligence of the
state apparatus and subsequent underming of constitutional provisions. Since
colonial administration, the state on the other hand has conveniently annexed
tribal territory for mining, and industries. Vast chunk of forest land has been
acquired to accommodate both mining and industrial demands, which itself
contradict the environmental ethics. The issue of non-settlement of forest
rights could have continued indefinitely but for the enactment of the Forest
Rights Act. The most recent issue of Dongria Kondhs strong protest against
establishment of Bauxite mining in Niyamagiri Hill had nationally awaken the
issue of indigenous rights. The Report of the Four Members Committee for
investigation into the proposal submitted by the Orissa Mining Company for
bauxite mining in Niyamgiri headed by N.C. Saxena is an important document
of forest and indigenous community interface, an account of rich biodiversity,
culture and social resources. The Committee noted number of issues and
violation of rights of the communities in the proposed mining lease (PML).
Forest Rights Act (FRA) has certain provision to allow communities to fight
for their rights over the community forest resource. Despite the FRA, and other
constitutional safeguards for tribals, the tribal rights are not always protected.
They are prone to vagaries of state policies and other development intervention
in forest areas.
Activity
List out the rights of tribal people
Check Your Progress
3) How have the community rights over forest resources been protected
under the recent enactments?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
13.5 SUMMARY
The forest plays a very important role in the life of tribal and rural poor. The
relationship between tribals and forests is very intimate. Since most of the tribals
have traditionally depended on forest for their livelihood, their entire social
and cultural life revolves around the forest. For thousands of years, forest and
indigenous populations have evolved in symbiosis and try to recreate the forest
with their traditional conservation systems. From time to time policies were
made and legislation enacted to regulate the relationship between the tribals, the
forest and government. Forest policies got transformed due to the progressive
assertion of state monopoly rights over large areas of forest. It has resulted in
large scale eviction and the uprooting of tribal people from the forest.
198
India’s forest policy and legislation has contributed significantly to the process of Forest Policy and
deforestation. Forests in India are state-owned. The assertion of state monopoly Tribal Rights
right and the exclusion of forest communities have marked the organising
principles of forest administration, since its inception in 1864. On one side is the
‘state’, which views forests as an important source of revenue and hence argues
the need to manage them scientifically. On the other are the forest dependent
communities who are antagonistic to state control, and to whom management
of forests essentially forms a part of lifestyle and cosmology. And thus it is
that conflicts between the communities and the forest department have been
a constant factor ever since the first legislation in 1965 promulgated by the
British.
The conflict of interest and issues of survival provide space for debate that is
challenged and counter challenged since colonial time. Both new and modified
policies have been formulated to protect interest of the society. Protection,
preservation and conservation of natural resource and restoration of ecology
are often encountered with development vision, i.e., key area of development,
infrastructure and economic growth. More importantly, the protection of
interest of indigenous communities, their cultural continuity, livelihood and
growth remain significant in the whole discourse of forest policy. The policies
formulated in initial period are often clashed with the local communities’
interest and very basis of survival. Therefore, the rights issues were brought
into forefront in the modern anthropological discourse. Many scholars of tribal
studies and anthropology have challenged the non-balanced vision of earlier
forest policies. Scholars have viewed some policies, namely Indian Forest Act-
1927 and even the first National forest Policy in 1952 lack welfare vision for
indigenous communities. However, one can judge that since colonial time, there
is shift in focus from very basis of macro development with focus on growth
to inclusive growth with micro level arrangement. The origin of joint forest
management took place in 1970s. Forest protection committees were set up to
jointly work with the forest department to take care of the forest management
while safeguarding primary livelihood interest of the communities. National
Forest Policy-1988 could help restoring confidence of the communities to
some extent. But it could not live with better impression as a policy to meet
with communities’ interest. PESA Act 1996 and the Forest Rights Act are
a sharp departure from the earlier ones. These two contemporary Acts have
often been considered as revolutionary paradigm shift of policy in prioritizing
and safeguarding interest of the local communities while not diminishing the
environmental interest. Therefore, it is often looked upon as transformation
from antithetical to progressive and welfare approach for tribal development.
13.6 REFERENCES
Gadgil, M., Prasad S.N., & Ali, R. (1983). Forest management and forest policy
in India: A critical review. Social Action, 33 (2).
Guha, R. (1983). Forestry in British and Post- British India: A historical analysis.
Economic and Political Weekly, 18 (44), 1882-1896
Guha, R. (1983). Forestry in British and Post-British India: A historical analysis.
Economic and Political Weekly, 18 (45/46), 1940-47
199
Indigenous Knowledge Haeuber, R. (1993 Spring). Indian forest policy in two eras: Continuity or
and Natural Resource change? Environmental History Review, 17(1), 49-76
Management
Hasnain, N. (1991). Tribal India today. Harnam Publications.
Karmakar, K.G. (2002). The silenced drums: A review of tribal economic
development. Northern Book Centre.
Kulkarni, S. (1987). Forest legislation and tribals comments on forest policy
resolution, Economic and Political Weekly, 22 (50), 2143-2148
Misra, T.K. (2006). Forest policy and deprivation of forest dwellers in
independent India: The story of the Baidharas and other forest dependent
communities. Social Scientist, 34, (7/8), 20-32
National Forest Policy (NFP). (1988). Government of India. MoEF, Government
of India.
Saxena, N.C. (2002). Forests and the people: Policy issues in Madhya Pradesh.
P.K., Jha (Ed.). Land reforms in India: Issues of equity in rural Madhya Pradesh
(Vol. 7, pp. 337-359). New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Saxena, N.C. (n.d.). Forest in tribal lives. Retrieved from http://
planningcommission.nic.in/reports/articles/ncsxna/index.php?repts=ft.htm
Saxena, N.C., Parasuraman, S., Kante, P., & Baviskar, A. (2010). Report of
the four member committee for investigation into the proposal submitted by the
Orissa Mining Company for bauxite mining in Niyamgiri. MoEF, New Delhi.
Retrieved from http://envfor.nic.in/sites/default/files/Saxena_Vedanta-1.pdf
World Bank (n.d.). Evolving legal and policy environment. Retrieved
from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INDIAEXTN/Resources/Reports-
Publications/366387-1143196617295/chapter-3.pdf
Yadagiri, B. (2013). Forest policy and tribals. Retrieved from http://yadagiriirs.
blogspot.in/2013/09/forest-policy-and-tribals.html
Recognition of community rights under forest rights act in Madhya Pradesh
and Chhatisgarh: Challenges and way forward. (2012). UNDP. Retrieved from
http://fra.org.in/document/Recognition-of-community-rights-under-forest-
rights-act-in-madhya-pradesh-and-chhattisgarh-challenges-and-way-forward.
pdf
Report of the expert group on prevention of alienation of tribal land and
its restoration (PATLR). (2004, 2006). Ministry of Rural Development,
Government of India.

1) Refer to section 13.0
200
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bijoy, C.R. (2001). The Adivasis of India- A History of Discrimination, Conflict,
and Resistance, Indigenous Affairs, Racism, IWGIA, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Bicker, A., Ellen, R., & Parkes, P. (Eds.) (2003) Indigenous environmental
knowledge and its transformations: Critical anthropological perspectives.
Routledge.
Cæcilie Mikkelsen (2015) The Indigenous World The authors and The
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), Copenhagen,
Denmark, www.iwgia.org
Bhasin, M. K. (2009) Morphology to Molecular Anthropology: Castes and
Tribes of India. International Journal of Human Genetics, 9: 145-230.
ILO. (1994) Indigenous and Tribal Peoples and the ILO; Geneva: The
International Labour Office
The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) (2014) The
Indigenous World 2014, Copenhagen Denmark, www.iwgia.org
Ministry of Tribal Affairs Government of India May (2014). Report of the High
Level Committee on Socioeconomic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal
Communities of India
Ministry of Tribal Affairs (2013). Statistical Profile of Scheduled Tribes in
India, Statistical Division, Government of India
Roy Burman, B. K. (2003). Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in World System
Perspective, Journal of Studies of Tribes and Tribals, 1 (1):7-27.
Roy Burman, B.K. (2000). Tribal peoples of India emerging heritage, Keynote
Address in ICSSR Seminar held on February 1.
Roy Burman B.K. (1994). Indigenous and Tribal Peoples gathering Mist and
New Horizon, New Delhi: Mittal Publications.
United Nations (2010) State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, ST/ESA/328,
p. 89.
Virginius Xaxa (1999). Tribes as Indigenous People of India, Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. 34, No. 51 (Dec. 18-24, 1999), pp. 3589-3595.
Walter Fernandes (2013). Tribal or Indigenous? The Indian Dilemma, The
Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 102:4, 381-
389, DOI.
201
Indigenous Knowledge NOTES
Management
202
NOTES Forest Policy and
Tribal Rights
203
Indigenous Knowledge NOTES
Management
204

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Tribe-Caste

11.1.2 Pattern and Difference between Indigenous Knowledge and Western

11.1.3 Transmission of Indigenous Knowledge

11.2 Indigenous Knowledge, Flora and Forest

11.2.2 Need and Priorities

11.3 Indigenous Knowledge and Soil

11.3.2 Methodological Approaches

11.3.2.2 Comparative Approach

11.3.2.3 Integrated Approach

11.3.3 Dominant Research Themes

11.4 Indigenous Knowledge and Water

11.4.2 Traditional System of Water Management

11.4.3 Traditional System of Terracing

11.4.4 Traditional System of Tank Management

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

11.1 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE (IK)

11.1.1 What is Indigenous Knowledge?

11.1.2 Pattern and Difference between Indigenous Knowledge

11.1.3 Transmission of Indigenous Knowledge

11.2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and End-users

End-Users Components of ITK

Benefits to indigenous knowledge holders may be in the form of award to

11.2.2 Need and Priorities

11.3 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND SOIL

11.3.1 Indigenous Knowledge, Ethnopedology, Conceptual

11.3.2 Methodological Approaches

11.4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND WATER

11.4.2 Traditional System of Water Management

11.4.3 Traditional System of Terracing

11.4.4 Traditional System of Tank Management

11.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

12.2 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL

12.3 INDIGENOUS METHODS OF

13.1 FOREST POLICY SINCE COLONIAL TIME

192 Nos. 1-2 (Jan-Feb), 2010.

13.3 FOREST RIGHTS ACT-FRA

13.4 THE RIGHTS ISSUES OF TRIBAL

13.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

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