JOURNAL OF RESEARCH TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING, VOL 1, ISSUE 3, JULY 2020 ISSN 2714-1837

Overview of Alternative Energy Storage Systems

K.A.L. Udayanga
Faculty of Computing and Technology, University of Kelaniya

Udara S.P.R. Arachchige

Faculty of Technology, University of Sri Jayewardenepura

Abstract — This article presents an overview of alternative energy storage systems in different energy systems. Alternative
energy storage is a crucial factor in the integration of energy sources and plays a credible role in maintaining a modern
electrical system. It can reduce power fluctuations, increase the flexibility of the power system, and store and transmit
electricity generated by variable alternative energy sources. Various alternative energy storage technologies are used in
electrical power systems. That can be categorized as chemical, electrochemical, mechanical, electrical or thermal. The
alternative energy storage facility consists of a storage medium, a power conversion system, and a power plant balance.
This overview report focuses on Redox flow battery, Flywheel energy storage, Compressed air energy storage, pumped
hydroelectric storage, Hydrogen, Super-capacitors and Batteries used in energy systems. It involves studying certain
economic aspects of different alternative energy storage technologies and concluded the best alternative energy storage
systems and techniques in the modern world. Also, the best few alternative energy storage systems exist nowadays.

Index Terms — Alternative

Energy Storage System, Compressed Air Energy Storage, Flywheel Energy Storage, Hydrogen,
Photovoltaics, Pumped Hydro Energy Storage, Redox Flow Battery, Super Capacitor.

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1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most widely discussed research topics is considered as energy management since man began to use a
variety of energy for his own comfort and needs. The term energy management refers to energy production and
energy-efficient use and storage of energy for future consumption. Alternative energy can be used effectively by
incorporating proper storage methods.

Fossil fuels have been the dominant source of electricity generation over the past decade. However,
environmental pollutions and the scarcity of the available resources tend to search for alternative fuel resources.
The widely speaking renewable energy sources are solar, hydro, wind and biomass. However, totally adapted
with renewable energy also not a feasible option due to various issues including weather conditions, cost, the
difficulty of the storing produced energy for future requirement.

These problems can be avoided by implementing proper alternative energy storage technologies. Alternative
energy storage can meet the grid requirements of many countries to bridge the gap between generation and
consumer weights as a system resource at the peak of the system and on the customer side of the meter.

This article discusses alternative energy storage systems such as Redox flow batteries, Flywheel energy storage,
Compressed air energy storage, pumped hydropower storage, Super capacitors and Hydrogen [1].

2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
2.1 General Classification of Alternative Energy Storage Systems
Alternative-energy-storage technologies are involved in the conversion of energy that is difficult to store
more easily or economically. The efficiency of the system depends on several factors, such as storage capacity,
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cost, reliability, size and lifetime. The environmental impact of the proposed system also plays a major role in
the selection process. Depending on the storage time, the energy storage system can be classified as follows,

• Long-term energy storage system,

1) Compressed air energy storage
2) Redox Flow Battery
3) Hydrogen storage
4) Pumped Hydro power storage

• Short-term energy storage system,

5) Super capacitor
6) Flywheel energy storage

Each of the technologies has its attributes regarding storage capacity, power, response time and cost [1].

2.2 Alternative Energy Storage Systems

1) Compressed air energy storage (CAE)

The development and use of renewable energy are an important remedy for the worldwide fossil energy crisis
and pollution prevention. Due to the volatility and randomness of renewable energy such as wind and solar, the
integration into the power grid poses serious challenges to the safety and efficiency of modern energy systems.
There has been increasing concern about process optimization of renewable energy in a safe, efficient, and
economical way [2]. The main drawback of renewable energy, which is storing capability for future
requirements, is become a prominent factor for implementation.

One of the best methods for store energy as compressed air. It uses caverns and large spaces among rock
layers underground. The three main types of caverns are salt dome, hard rock and aquifers.

Aquifers are usually hollow underground areas with sandstones or broken rocks used to store water, oil and
natural gas. A salt pond is a cavity created by salt excavation, where water is pumped into the rock and
dissolved in salt. The water is then pumped out, leaving a space in the layers of rock formation which is
available to be used for storing compressed air. Finally, the cavern is the hard rock-cave which is created by
using traditional mining tools such as a drill, picks and mining carts [1].

CAES refers to the storage of high-pressure compressed air in the form of a Various form of energy converted
from compressed air. In order to support power network operation, the storage of compressed air is operated by
pressurizing the air using compressors. The stored compressed air is released for running an amplifier for power
generation during the low power generation periods to meet heavy load demand during peak periods. The sketch
of the operating process is shown in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Illustration of a compressed air energy storage

CAES technology is based on the principle of conventional gas turbine power plants. A gas turbine plant using
air and gas as the working medium consists mainly of three parts Gas Turbine, compressor and combustion
(Fig. 2). In the combustion chamber, high temperature and pressured gas react with the compressed air. Gas
with high temperature and high pressure is combining compressed air and fuel in the combustion chamber
drives the turbine and thus, Generator to generate electricity.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of gas turbine plant (C—Compressor, G-T—Gas turbine, G—Generator, P—Pump)

Compressors and expanders are designed, according to the applications and the designed storage pressure of
the air. The pressure used for a large scale CAES system is about 8 MPa, for which multi-stage compressors are
used, and normally combined axial flow compressors and centrifugal compressors are selected. Similarly, the
steam turbines in Huntorf are used for the first-level expansion from 4.6MPa to 1.1 MPa; and gas turbines are
utilized for the second-level expansion from 1.1MPa to atmospheric pressure, in which the working medium is a
flue gas generated from the combustion of the air and fuel. [3]
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2) Redox Flow Battery (RFB)

A rechargeable battery is an electric battery made of vertical electrochemical cells. Rechargeable batteries
have a higher starting cost but can be recharged and reused at a low price. Batteries are modular and non-
polluting and have a less environmental impact during the operating period. The power conversion of the
secondary battery is reversible.
The energy flow of a battery energy storage system is based on the charge and discharge process. Grid power
storage applications are used for rechargeable battery weight levels. Batteries are stored in unused surplus
power during low demand periods and are supplied to the grid during peak load periods such as storing power
generated by photovoltaic. Some available battery technologies include lead-acid batteries, nickel-cadmium,
sodium-ion batteries, sodium-sulfur batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and hydrogen vanadium Redox and reagent
Redox [1].
In RFB, soluble Redox couples of electrolytes are used, storing and releasing energy during battery charge
and discharge, respectively. Fig. 3a shows a typical Redox flow cell, Positive and negative electrodes are
separated by an ion transfer membrane. The membrane transport ions and it helps to prevent the mixing of the
two cellular electrolytes store in separate tanks and circulate using batteries pump. Fig. 3b shows a membrane-
free system.
It is currently in the early stages of developing practical applications that require high current Voltage. To
achieve this, several unit cells can be placed vertically. There may be electrical grades and stocks that increase
Voltage electrically connected in parallel to provide high current.

a) b)

Fig. 3. The principle of (a) a divided and (b) an undivided Redox flow battery.

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In order to reduce weight, volume, and cost, bipolar electrodes are often used. In many reactor designs, cells
are nourished Diffusion of the electrolyte into each cell. Fig. 4 is representing a Redox bipolar electrode
carrying Four-unit cells.

Fig. 4. A stack design for a four-cell stack with bipolar connection of electrodes

The benefits of RFB can be considered as the relatively low cost, multi-functionality, flexibility while
compared with the lead-acid batteries. As a result of the modular design and long-term performance, RFB tends
to build and maintain the lowest cost among all other energy storage systems. Also, in many cases, flow
batteries can be disposed of without damaging the electrodes [4].

The power and energy capacity of RFBs can be easily changed. Hence, the flexibility of the energy storage is
enhanced. A scale-up of the battery storage can be achieved by increasing the electrode size or by adding more
electrodes in each stack with either mono-polar or bipolar connections. The energy storage capacity depends on
the concentration of electro active species and the volume of the electrolytes [4].

3) Hydrogen storage
Hydrogen based energy storage systems are the best electronic energy storage medium. The hydrogen energy
system can be easily integrated with renewable energy sources such as solar and wind. Although the efficiency
of hydrogen energy is not very high, their required storage space is less compared to other energy storage
systems. Therefore, hydrogen energy is economically preferable when the total amount of energy stored is
worth more than efficiency.
Their essential components include a hydrogen energy conversion system such as an electrolytic unit for
converting electrical energy into hydrogen, a reservoir of chemical energy stored, and a fuel cell for converting
stored chemical energy into electrical energy. The produced hydrogen compressed or melted, stored and
converted back into electrical energy or thermal energy. The main advantage of hydrogen is that it can replace
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all fossil fuel inputs without emitting harmful gases. The various hydrogen storage mechanisms are as follows.
a) Liquid hydrogen storage
The liquid hydrogen storage system is one of the bulk storing mechanism. However, the expensive cryogenic
storage has become the issue with implementing.

b) Compressed and stored in a pressure tank

Compressed-gaseous hydrogen storage is suitable for long-term storage applications to avoid the failures of
the expensive liquid process.

c) Physical adsorption in carbon

Through the adsorption process, hydrogen can be stored in gaseous carbon. Gaseous hydrogen can be
adsorbed onto the carbon surface to achieve a more volumetric densities’ appearance than liquid hydrogen.
Carbon nanofibers are used as an adsorbent surface to enhance the storing capacity.

d) Complex compounds - Micro sphere hydrogen storage

Micro sphere Hydrogen Storage is well suited for automobile applications. The system consists of the hollow
glass spheres which are charged with hydrogen and released by heating and reduction of pressure.

e) Metal hydrides
Metal hydride generates by reacting with metal or alloy with hydrogen. Formation of metal hydride is an
external heating process. When enough heat is provided, hydrogen is releasing back from the metal hydride.
Metal hydride is having higher safety precautions and having high storage density [1].

4) Pumped Hydro power storage

Combining renewable resources with energy storage becomes an advanced energy storage solution. The
pumped hydropower station is one of the best available energy storage mechanism. It consists of two water
storage reservoirs in the two different elevations. The excess solar energy generated during the sunlight is used
to operate the pumps to pump water from the lower reservoir to upper-level reservoir. During nighttime, water
from the upper reservoir is using as a normal hydropower plant to generate energy. After generating
hydropower, that water collected in the lower reservoir for nighttime pumping back (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 5. Operation of pumped hydro electric energy storage with photovoltaics power system

5) Super Capacitor (SC)

Super Capacitor (SC) is one of the emerging technology currently discussing as an energy storage device
which can be used to store higher energy compared to traditional storage devices.
The energy storage mechanism for SC having the functional properties, such as low energy density to unit
weight, handle very high current rates, extremely high price for unit energy [6].

MODEL OF SUPER CAPACITORS

• Electrical double layer model
• Porous electrode model
• Equivalent Circuit Model
i. Simple Model of Super capacitors
ii. Model based on kinetic parameters
iii. Transmission Line Model
iv. Model based on the structure features
• Intelligent Model [7].

6) Flywheel energy storage

The concept of a flywheel energy storage system (FES) is to store electrical energy as kinetic energy by
rotating a mass that is mechanically connected to the motor/generator combination. When there is excess energy
in the grid, the motor is forced to rotate at a high-speed. When the stored energy is needed, the motor/generator
operates by rotating mass, as a generator. In this way, the kinetic energy is converted back into electrical energy,
and the flying wheel acts as a mechanical battery. Often, the mass used in the flywheel is shaped like a hollow
cylinder [8].
Fig. 6 shows the configuration of the prototype FES using a conventional induction motor and ball bearings.
In this system, the kinetic energy of 3.0 MJ can be stored at 2900 r/min. In such a low rotational speed zone, a
normal ball-bearing and general-purpose motor can be used. Besides, the flywheel vacuum case and the motor
are separated by magnetic coupling. Therefore, the vacuum pump can reduce the pressure in a vacuum case,
thus greatly reducing wind loss.

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Fig. 6. Configuration of a flywheel system that employs an induction motor and ball bearings

Also, the vacuum in the vacuum case does not affect the thermal vapor of the motor. Therefore, a general-
purpose motor can be used to operate the flywheel without adding a special cooling mechanism. In the flywheel
system, the actuator-motor acts as a generator during degradation; Kinetic energy is converted to electrical
energy. On the other hand, electrical energy is stored as kinetic energy during acceleration. This system
therefore uses a regenerative converter. Also, the high temperature of the bearings and mortar can be prevented
by the oil cooler [9]. Flywheel batteries can be used as a replacement. Although the initial cost of installing the
flywheel is high. It has no environmental impacts such as battery power storage [1].

3 CONCLUSION

The efficient storage of energy produced can be improved by implementing a proper alternative energy
storage system. Several alternative energy storage systems have been discussed and the summary is given
below. Table 1 shows the general characteristics of the alternative energy storage system discussed. Alternative
Energy storage systems can be properly used to select the best one for the specific application. It is clear from
the table that the Super Capacitors and Redox Flow Battery are suitable for small-scale alternative energy
storage applications and the Fly wheels are suitable for large-scale alternative energy storage applications.
Compressed air energy storage and pumped water energy storage are well suited for central alternative energy
storage due to their high energy storage capacity. Hydrogen energy storage systems are best suited for
distributed energy storage. Batteries today are a long-term energy storage system that is widely used due to its
low maintenance and efficiency.

Table 1. Comparison of different alternative energy storage technologies [1]

Energy Power Discharge Deployment Lifetime

Storage System Rating Time time Efficiency
Compressed air 50-300 MW 1hr - 24hr 30 Years 70-80%
energy storage
Redox flow Battery <50 MW Sec-hours 5-10 years 80-90%
Hydrogen storage <250 KW 14hr - 24hr 10-20 Years 20-50%
Pumped hydro 100-4000 MW 1hr - 24hr 30 years 70-85%
energy storage
Supercapacitor <100 KW Milliseconds 10,000 Cycles 90-95%
to minute
Flywheel energy <750 KW milliseconds to 20 years 90-95%
storage 40 Min

4 REFERENCES
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Energy 4, 529–541, 2016.
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Technology Development, energies, Voul. 10, 991, 2017.
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applications, RSC Advances, Issue. 27, 2012.

[5] Swe. W, Application of Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage for Photovoltaic, International Journal for Innovative Research in
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[6] Raza, W, Ali, F, Raza, N, Luo, Y, Kim, KH, Yang, J, Kumar, S, Mehmood, A & Kwon, EE 2018, 'Recent advancements in
supercapacitor technology', Nano Energy, vol. 52, pp. 441-473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.08.013.

[7] Kai. W, Baosen. R, Liwei.L,Yuhao.L, Hongwei.Z and Zongqiang.S, A review of modeling research on supercapacitor, Chinese
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