Faculty Development Programme

on
Pavement Design: Principles and Practice
May 15-20, 2023

Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview

M.V.L.R. Anjaneyulu
mvlr@nitc.ac.in, 9447282115

Centre for Transportation Research (CTR)

Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Calicut
 Outline
• Role of transportation
• Modes of transportation
• Road development schemes and funding
• Road transport
• Functions of pavements
• Requirements of pavements
• Pavement types
• Flexible pavements
• Pavement design
• Pavement components
• Serviceability

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 2

 Role of Transportation
Economic development Social development
• Supply • People settled along transportation routes
• Demand • Ribbon development
• Production stage • Suburban living
• Distribution stage • Satellite towns
• Cost of transportation & cost of goods • Commercial hubs
• Efficient transportation lowers the cost of • Mixed land use
goods

Cultural development
Rural development • Cultural exchange
Concentration of population in urban areas • Reduced sectionalism
Safety, law & order • Knowledge of other people
Strategic movement • Increased trade
• Increased peace

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 Transportation Media
• Land – roadway & railway
• Water - waterway
• Air - airway

People travel to participate in activities Goods are transported from places of production
Traveller decides to consumption
• When to travel Shipper decides
• Where to travel • When to send
• By what mode to travel • Where to send
• By what route • By what mode to send
Considers • By what route
• Cost Considers
• Speed • Cost
• Comfort • Speed
• Flexibility • Flexibility
• Safety • Safety

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 Modes of Transportation
• Road Aspects for comparison
• Rail
• Flexibility • Loss & damage • Directness
• Water
• Speed • Energy • Equality
• Air
• Pipeline • Cost • Investment • Shipment size
Road Rail Water Air
Flexibility High Low Low Moderate
Speed Moderate Slow Slow Fast
Cost Moderate Moderate Low High
Loss & damage Low High Moderate Low
Energy Moderate Moderate Low High
Investment Low Moderate Moderate High
Directness Yes No No Yes
Equality Yes No No No
Shipment size Small & medium High High Small
CTR Capacity Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 5
 Road Network in India
• India has a network of over 63,31,757 kilometres of roads on 31.03.2019
• The second largest in the world.
• National Highways constitutes 2.09 % of total road network in the country
• The total length of National Highways as on 31.03.2019 was at 1,32,499
• Maharashtra has the largest network of National Highways with 17,757 km (13.4%)
• The State Highways constitutes 2.8 percent of total road network in the country and the
total length of State Highways as on 31.03.2019 was at 1,79,535. Maharashtra has the
largest State Highways network in the country 17.83 % (32005 Km)
• Rural Roads (including JRY roads) constitute 71.4 % of total road network in the country and
its length rose to 45,22,228 km on 31st March, 2019
• Maharashtra accounted for the largest network of Rural Roads with 4,26,327 km (11.7%)

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 Bharatmala Pariyojana

• The development of any nation depends on the transportation networks and the ways
in which they are being maintained.
• For connecting the areas and maintaining smooth flow of traffic, the construction of
new and developed roads is a must.
• Bharatmala project envisions the achievement of the same.
• Bharatmala Pariyojana is a new umbrella program for the highways sector envisaged by
the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) that focuses on optimising the
efficiency of freight and passenger movement across the country.
• Efficiency is enhanced by bridging critical infrastructure gaps through effective
interventions like development of Economic Corridors, Inter Corridors and Feeder
Routes, National Corridor Efficiency Improvement, Border and International
connectivity roads, Coastal and Port connectivity roads and Green-field expressways.
• The announcement of the mammoth scheme was done by Shri Nitin Gadkari, in the
presence of the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi
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 Key Features of Bharatmala
• Improving the quality of roads - to bring a new wave of development in the nation in
the form of well-maintained and developed roads. Under this project, the construction
of roads, in all parts of the nation will be undertaken.
• Total road construction - Length of new roads is 34,800 kms (10,000 kms of balance
road works under NHDP) under Phase I.
• Integrated scheme - The Bharatmala is the name that is given to the road development
and it will include many other related schemes as well. With the completion of all the
schemes, the overall success of the scheme will be guaranteed.
• Total tenure of the program - Tenure of Phase I is five years. Phase I is expected to be
completed before the end of 2022.
• Cost of Phase I: Rs 5.35 Lakh Crore (has increased to Rs 8.5 lakh crores)

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 Key Features of Bharatmala
• Segmentation in phases - Due to the sheer magnitude and spread of the scheme, it will
be divided into seven distinct phases. As of now, the first phase in under construction.
• Construction on a daily basis - To finish the first phase in time, efforts are made to
construct at least 18 km on a daily basis. To beat the clock, continued efforts are being
made to raise it to 30 km/day.
• Different categories of road construction - to provide better connectivity, the
construction of various categories of roads will be undertaken.
• Multi-source of finding - One source will not be enough for funding a mammoth
project. Thus, the government will have to depend on other sources for generating
adequate money to meet the expenses.

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 Key Features of Bharatmala
• The Bharatmala project envisions improving the efficiency of the National Corridors including
the Golden-Quadrilateral and North-South, East-West corridors by decongesting the choke points
through the construction of elevated corridors, bypasses, ring roads, lane expansion, and logistics
parks at identified points.
• The project plan includes the construction of Border Roads of strategic importance along
international boundaries and International Connectivity roads to promote trade with Myanmar,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal.
• The program has planned to develop the identified Economic Corridors, with heavy freight traffic,
end to end to ensure seamless, speedy travel and uniformity in standards.
• Feeder Corridors will be developed to address the infrastructure asymmetry that exists in many
places.
• All projects implemented under Bharatmala are to be technically, financially, and economically
appraised by an empowered Committee
• Emphasis on the use of scientific and technological planning for Project Preparation and Asset
Monitoring.
• Satellite mapping of corridors to identify up-gradation requirements.
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 Bharatmala Project Category
• Economic Corridor - As per the guidelines of the road construction project, the construction
of 9000kms of Economic Corridors will be undertaken by the central government.
• Feeder Route or Inter Corridor - The total length of the roads, which fall under the Feeder
Route or Inter Corridor category, is a whopping 6000kms.
• National Corridor Efficiency Improvement - 5000kms of roads, constructed under the
scheme will fall in the category of National Corridor for the better connection between roads.
• Border Road and International Connectivity - Connecting the cities and remote areas, which
are situated in the border regions, the project has kept provision for constructing 2000kms
roads that fall in the Border Road or International Connectivity category.
• Port Connectivity and Coastal Road - To connect the areas that are dotted along the
shorelines and important ports, the scheme included the construction of 2000km of roads.
• Green Field Expressway - The main stress will be given on the construction and development
of Green Field Expressway for better management of traffic and freight.
• Balance NHDP Works - Under the last segment, the project will see a construction and
maintenance of about 10,000kms of new roads.
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 Bharatmala Project
• The Bharatmala project will connect over 550 International Connectivity to
districts headquarters of India through a Bharatmala Project
minimum 4-lane highway. To improve the connectivity to
• Currently, only around 300 districts are neighbouring countries, the authorities
connected with national highways. plan to do the following:-
• The Bharatmala project envisages a network of •Create 24 Integrated Check Posts (ICPs)
83,677 km of roads. • Integrating Bangladesh–Bhutan–Nepal-
• It includes the decongestion of 185 choke points, Myanmar–Thailand BIMSTEC corridors.
45 bypasses and 30 ring roads development. •Connectivity to Bangladesh will also be
• Interconnect 26 logistics parks, 66 inter corridors improved
and 116 feeder routes and seven northeast multi-
modal waterway ports.
• Development of 44 Economic Corridors
• Construction of 24 Expressways
• Development of 50 Logistics Parks
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 Central Road & Infrastructure Fund
• Central Road Fund (CRF) is a non-lapsable fund created under Central Road Fund Act 2000.
• It is procured out of the cess/tax imposed by the Union Government on the consumption of
Petrol and Diesel.
• Under the control of Central Government
• An Added Customs Duty (Import Tax) and an Added Excise Duty (Production Tax) are
imposed and obtained as a cess on Motor Spirit, generally regarded as petrol and High-
Speed Diesel Oil.
• Currently, Government is accumulating Additional Excise Duty (Road Cess) on Petrol and
Diesel at 8.00 Rs per litre.
• Additionally, Education Cess @ 2% and higher Education Cess @ 1% (total 3%) also applies
to excise duties and customs duties imposed on petroleum products.
• Funds with commercial/professional control, budgetary stability, and negligible detrimental
effect on the spending of the government (generally off-budget) are considered second-
generation funds.
• CRIF is a second-generation fund in India.
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 Central Road & Infrastructure Fund
Act Number: 54
Enactment Date: 27-12-2000
Act Year: 2000
Short Title: The Central Road and Infrastructure Fund Act, 2000
Long Title: An Act to give statutory status to the existing Central Road Fund
governed by the Resolution of Parliament passed in 1988, for
development and maintenance of national highways and
improvement of safety at railway crossings, and for these purposes
to levy and collect by way of cess, a duty of excise and duty of
customs on motor spirit commonly known as petrol, high speed
diesel oil and for other matters connected therewith.
Ministry: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
Enforcement Date: 01-11-2000
Central Road Fund (Amendment) Bill, 2017, 2019

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 Central Road & Infrastructure Fund
No road and infrastructure taxes shall be imposed on the following items where
appropriate excise duties & GST for the mixing of such products have been paid:
5% ethanol blended petrol,
10% ethanol blended petrol and
Bio-diesel, up to 20% by amount.
CRF shall be utilized for
• development and maintenance of national highways;
• development of the rural roads;
• development and maintenance of other State roads including roads of inter-State and
economic importance;
• construction of roads either under or over the railways by means of a bridge and
erection of safety works at unmanned rail-road crossings; and
• undertaking other infrastructure projects.

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 Salient Features of Fund Allocation Criteria
• Allocation of funds based on 30 percentage weightage to fuel consumption and 70
percentage weightage to geographical area of the State/UT.
• Total cost of the schemes to be approved to be limited to the bank of sanctions of
generally three times of the annual accrual/allocation, except for hill States and North-
East States (where working season is limited) for which this is to be generally four times
of the annual accrual/ allocation for the year for the State/UT.
• Permissible excess cost of up to 10 percentage over administratively approved cost.
• Maintaining a revolving balance of one third of accrual/allocation for the States/UT for
the year with State/UT while releasing funds.
• Release of funds to States/UTs in Quarterly instalments linked to submission of
Utilization Certificates (UCs).
• Further release of funds by State Governments/UTs to concerned executive agencies
(e.g. PWDs, Road Construction Department/ Corporation, etc.) within 7 days of release
of funds by the Ministry.
• Finalization of list of projects by the Ministry in consultation with State
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 Salient Features of Fund Allocation Criteria
• Administrative Approval of projects (included under finalized lists) by concerned State
Governments/UTs.
• Technical Approval and Financial Sanction (TA&FS) of projects administratively approved
by State/ UT Public Works Departments (PWDs), Road Construction
Departments/Corporations, etc.
• Design of projects to be as per relevant Central Government codes and guidelines.
• Project monitoring and quality control of works to be done at regular intervals.
• Quality monitoring system at State / UT level Comprising experts and supporting staff
appointed by State Govt. / UT including State Quality Monitor.
• Quality monitoring system at State / UT level by suitable Quality Assurance System
delineating requirements of quality, responsibility of officers and contractors, conduct
independent tests, examine Quality Assurance documentation, responsibility of training
PWD staff and recommending laboratory and field testing facilities.

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 Salient Features of Fund Allocation Criteria
• Inspection of works by civil engineer(s) having degree in civil engineering and 10 years’
experience / Inspection of works by an independent impartial agency/ firm.
• Ministry of Rural Development for development of Rural Roads (PMGSY) - 33.50% of
Cess of both Diesel and Petrol
• National Highways (MORT&H) - 41.50% of Cess of both Diesel and Petrol
• Railways - 14% of Cess of both Diesel and Petrol
• State Roads under CRF and EI and ISC (MORTH) - 10% of Cess of both Diesel and Petrol
• Border Roads Organization - 1% of Cess of both Diesel and Petrol

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 18

 Road
• Vehicles of various sizes • High fuel consumption
• Truck • High pollution
• Has experienced maximum growth • Traffic congestion
• Uses public roads • Difficult to operate heavy trucks on narrow
• Low initial cost urban roads
• Flexibility in route selection • Bigger size and greater distance causes
• Road based transport industry is very more casualties
competitive, so lower prices • Increase in loss and liability due to increase
• Door to door service in accidents
• Truck shipments are timely and consistent • Restriction with respect to weight
• Provide first/last mile connectivity to other • Regulation with respect to dimension
modes • Restriction with respect time of operation
• Dispatched at very short notice • Limits on driver working times
• Delivery instructions • High road user charge (toll)
• Remain as backbone of intermodal • Serious weather conditions put drivers at
transport risk
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 Functions of Pavement
• to withstand the wheel load under different seasonal environmental conditions, without
deformation or cracking
• to transfer the load stresses through a wider area on the sub-grade
• to allow the heavy wheel loads of road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance
• to provide a surface of
• acceptable riding quality,
• adequate skid resistance,
• favorable light reflecting characteristics, and
• low noise pollution
• to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that
they will not exceed bearing capacity of the subgrade.

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 Requirements of a Good Pavement

• Sufficient thickness

• Structurally strong

• Adequate coefficient of friction

• Smooth surface

• Dust proof surface

• Produce least noise

• Long design life with low maintenance cost

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 Requirements of a Good Pavement

Sufficient Stiffness (Structurally Strong)to reduce stresses

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 Requirements of a Good Pavement

Sufficient coefficient of friction

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 Pavement types
• Pavements are broadly divided into two
categories as
– Flexible pavements and
– Rigid pavements
• Flexible pavement may consist of a relatively
thin wearing surface built over a base course
and subbase course and they rest upon the
compacted subgrade.
• Rigid pavements are made up of cement
concrete and may or may not have a base
course between the pavement and subgrade.
• Semi-rigid pavements
• Interlocking cement concrete block pavement
(ICBP)
CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 24
 Flexible pavements
• Flexible pavements have low or negligible flexural strength
• They are flexible under wheel loads
• Vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface and the compressive
stresses decrease at the lower layers.
• Flexible pavement consists of a number of layers; layer system concept
• Pavement layers distribute the stresses to a larger area in the shape of a truncated cone

• Top layer has to be the strongest to sustain

high compressive stresses
– to sustain wear and tear due to moving
traffic and
– to sustain the varying factors due to the
weather

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 Flexible pavements
• Top layer has to be the strongest
– to sustain high compressive stresses
– to sustain wear and tear due to moving traffic and
– to sustain the varying factors due to the weather
• Lower layers have
– to take lesser magnitudes of stresses
– no direct wearing action due to moving traffic and
– no weathering action due to environmental factors
– can be made of inferior materials to reduce the cost
• Lowest layer, called as subgrade, is the compacted soil.
• Pavement layers may reflect the non-recoverable and the recoverable deformations of the
lower layers on to the upper layers including surface layer
• Design life is 15 years
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 Flexible pavement

Typical cross section of flexible pavement

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 Flexible pavement

Stress Distributions with Depth in a Flexible pavement. a. High Stress Area Directly
under Wheel Load. b. Reduced Load at Subgrade Level
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 Advantages of Flexible Pavement
• With flexible pavement, the subgrade beneath is less likely to deform than with rigid
pavement.
• Repairs are easy and inexpensive with flexible pavement.
• The installation process does not require joints
• Materials are cheaper.
• Its short curation time (typically less than 24 hours) makes for quick installations, reducing
traffic disruption.
• Black ice is less likely to form on the surface of flexible pavement.
• Water is unable to rise up through the lower layers, preventing the pavement from
becoming weakened.

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 Rigid pavement
• Rigid pavements possess flexural strength
• Generally made of cement concrete, hence known as cement concrete pavements
• High quality concrete, pavement quality concrete (PQC), is used
• Rigid pavement, because of its rigidity and high modulus of elasticity, tends to distribute the
load over a relatively wide area of soil (slab action)
• Major portion of structural capacity is supplied by the slab itself.
• Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural capacity of the
pavement
• Rigid pavement does not get deformed to the shape of the supporting layer.
• CC slab made of PQC serve as a good wearing surface as well an effective base course.
• Critical combination of wheel load and temperature stresses at critical locations of CC slab
• Stresses in rigid pavements are analysed using elastic theory

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 30

 Rigid pavement
• CC slab is not laid directly over the soil subgrade to provide long life
• A good base or subbase course under CC slab along with a good drainage layer underneath
is provided
• Subgrade, drainage layer, base or subbase course and CC slab
• Design life of 30 years or more

Typical cross section of rigid pavement

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 31

 Flexible Pavement

• Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure
• The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth
• Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the surface layer
• the design is based on overall performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced
should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 32

 Wheel Load Distribution

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 33

 Flexible Pavement

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 34

 Flexible pavement composition

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 Pavement Design
• Two broad categories
– Design of paving mix

– Structural design of pavement components

• Structural design of pavement components

Pavement Thickness Design is the determination of thickness of various pavement

layers (various paving materials) for a given soil condition and the predicted design
traffic in terms of equivalent standard axle load that will provide the desired
structural and functional performance over the selected pavement design life.

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 36

 Challenges in pavement design
• Pavement structure lies exposed on ground surface
• Greatly influenced by environmental factors
• Road/highway cross many different soil deposits with varying properties
• Strength of soil if affected by many factors
– Density
– Moisture content
– Soil texture
– Soil structure
– Rate of load application
– Degree of confinement

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 37

 Subgrade
• The finished and compacted surface of earthwork on which a road pavement rests is called
sub-grade or formation.
• The soil sub-grade of a pavement may be provided either on embankment or in cutting or
directly over the natural ground level depending upon the topography of the area
concerned and the final formation level of the road.
• Functions of sub-grade
– To provide an adequate and uniform support to the road pavement.
– To bear ultimately the entire load of pavement including the load of traffic transmitted through
the pavement and to distribute this load on a larger area below it.
– To behave elastically and adjust itself to the excessive stress condition.

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 38

 Desirable properties of subgrade soil

• Stability

• Incompressibility

• Permanency of strength

• Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground
water

• Good drainage, and

• Ease of compaction

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 39

 Effects of poor subgrade

Flexible pavements

• The formation of waves

• Corrugations

• rutting and shoving in black top pavements

Rigid pavements

• the phenomena of pumping

• blowing and

• consequent cracking

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 40

 Subbase
• A layer of granular material provided in between the sub-grade and base course in a road
pavement is called sub-base.
• The subbase layer of a flexible pavement will usually be a higher quality, well-graded
aggregate.
• The grading may be designed to provide a drainage function, carrying water that may
ingress the surface to the side of the pavement.
• It consists of a layer of comparatively cheaper material like natural gravel, quarry waste,
cinders, sand, stabilized soil.
• For cement concrete roads, sub-base layer is not provided. It is usually needed on flexible
pavements built on fine grained soils.
• Functions of sub-base course
– To improve the bearing capacity of the sub-grade.
– To improve the drainage conditions and to check capillary rise of sub-soil water.
– To eliminate frost heave in frost affected area by preventing capillary rise of water.
– To act as filler material and increase the thickness of pavement at a low cost.
CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 41
 Base course
• It is the primary load-spreading layer – the backbone of the flexible pavement.
• This layer is the major component of road pavement and is provided over the subbase
course or immediately above the good quality subgrade layer in the absence of subbase
course.
• The base layer's function is to distribute the traffic-induced stresses at the bottom of the
surfacing layers widely and evenly onto the foundation section.
• It can be formed from either compacted, high-quality unbound aggregate, or a bitumen
bound aggregate layer.
• This course is to bear the impact of traffic transferred through the wearing course. In case
of rocky sub-grade, this layer is not provided.
• Functions of base course
– It acts as foundation for road pavement and transfers the load to the sub-base course.
– It withstands the higher shearing stress imposed upon it due to impact of traffic on the wearing
course.

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 42

 Binder Course
• The binder course is an intermediate layer placed between the base layer and the surface
course
• It is made of bitumen bound aggregate
• Sometimes referred to as a levelling course.
• Functions
– to distribute the load from the surfacing into the base course,
– to strengthen the pavement.

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 43

 Wearing course
• The topmost layer of the road pavement which is directly in contact with the traffic is called
wearing course.
• The surfacing course (layer) is the upper layer of the flexible pavement and provides the
smooth, durable, abrasion-resistant characteristics of a good roadway, retaining adequate
friction for road safety.
• It is normally made from bitumen bound aggregate – asphalt concrete.
• It may consist of one or more number of layers in case of flexible pavement. A good wearing
course should be impervious from weather resisting
• Functions of wearing course
– To distribute the traffic load safely to the base course.
– To provided a smooth surface for the safe and comfortable movement of traffic.
– To provided a water tight layer against infiltration.
– To resist abrasion or destructive pressure exerted by wheel loads.
– To prevent dust nuisance.
CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 44
 Wearing course

• It will be waterproof and prevent ingress of water into the lower pavement layers, which
would adversely affect their strength.
• These layers must be strong enough not to rut under the action of traffic.
• The surfacing may be susceptible to cracking due to fatigue or from cracks reflecting upward
from cracked base layers.

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 45

 Factors to be considered

• Location (Rural/Urban/ Mountain)

• Subgrade (CBR/Resilient Modulus)

• Traffic (ADT/AADT/Growth Factor)

• Traffic load (ESWL/ESAL/VDF)

• Environment (Rainfall/Temperature)

• Design Life (Age/ESAL)

• Performance Life (till first maintenance)

• Cost (Initial cost/life cycle cost)

CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 46

 Factors considered for the Design

• Design wheel load

• Climatic factors
• Static load on wheels • Pavement component materials
• Contact Pressure • Environment factors
• Load Repetition • Traffic Characteristics

• Subgrade soil • Required Cross sectional elements of

the alignment
• Thickness of pavement required

• Stress- strain behaviour under load

• Moisture variation
CTR Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 47
 Choice of pavement type

• Initial cost

• Maintenance cost

• Total transportation cost

• Availability of funds

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 Factors influencing performance

• Design Wheel Load

• Sub-grade Soil
• Climatic Factors
• Pavement Component
• Special Factors

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 Load

• Gross load, ‘P’

• Contact pressure, ‘p’ or the area of contact, A
• Multiple wheel load and ESWL
• Repetition of wheel load and EWL factors
• Cumulative standard axles, CSA in msa
• Other factors - pavement width and coverage or lane distribution factor, speed etc.

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 Subgrade

• Soil type and index properties

• Strength properties (CBR, K - value or E-

value)

• Drainage characteristics

Accumulated axle loads (log scale)

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 Climatic and environmental factors
• Rain fall
• Depth of water table and relative height of formation
• Sub-grade moisture content for design
• Temperature variations - daily and seasonal
• Frost action

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 Pavement materials

• Materials characteristics in different layers

• (Stress distribution, drainage, strength factor etc)

• Durability

• Fatigue effects

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 Serviceability

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 Serviceability

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 Serviceability

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 Serviceability

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 Vehicle Types

CTR
 Dimensions of Road Vehicles

Maximum Width – 2.5 m

Maximum Height – Single deck – 3.8 m
Freight container – 4.2 m 4.52 m
Double decker – 4.00 m
Maximum length –
Truck – 12.00 25.25 m
Bus – 12.0 to 25.00 m
Truck tractor semi-trailer – 16.0 m
Truck – trailer – 18.0 m

CTR
CTR
THANK YOU
Principles of Pavement Design: An Overview 60