FCE 346 - 2017 (2014) - Unit - 2.1-2.2-1 PDF

University of Nairobi
Department of Civil & Construction Engineering
FCE 346 - Transportation Engineering I
PM Osano
2016/2017 SEMESTER II-[2014]
Unit Outline
Unit 2: Traffic Engineering
2.1 Introduction to Traffic Engineering
2.2 Traffic Volume, Speed and Concentration
2.3 Traffic Survey Procedures and Data Collection
2.4 Traffic Regulations
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346-Transportation Engineering I
Introduction to Traffic Engineering
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Introduction to Traffic Engineering
- Meaning of Traffic
- Definition of Traffic Engineering
- How Much Traffic?
- Objective of Traffic Engineering
- Responsibility, Ethics, and Liability in Traffic Engineering
- Elements of Traffic Engineering
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Meaning of Traffic
 Traffic can be defined as the movement of people and goods along a route,
 The biggest challenge for the traffic engineer is often the imbalance between the
amount of traffic and the capacity of the route, leading to congestion.
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Definition of Traffic Engineering
That part of engineering which deals with traffic planning and design of roads, of
frontage development and of parking facilities and with the control of traffic to provide
safe, convenient and economic movement of vehicles and pedestrians.
…………. Institution of Civil Engineers
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How much traffic?
Registered Motor Vehicles in Kenya 1998-2011
700.000
600.000
Motor Cars
500.000
Number of Vehicles
Utilities, Panel Vans, Pick-ups,

etc
400.000 Lorries, Trucks and Heavy Vans
Buses and Mini-buses
300.000
Motor and Auto Cycles
Trailers
200.000
Other Vehicles**
100.000
Source: Statistical Abstract,

Year 2008, 2012
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Objective of Traffic Engineering
Primary Objective of Traffic Engineering: Safety
 The principal goal of the traffic engineer remains the provision of a safe system for
highway traffic.
 This is no small concern.
Other Objectives:
 Speed
 Comfort
 Convenience
 Economy
 Environmental compatibility
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Responsibility, Ethics, Liability in Traffic Engineering
 The traffic engineer has a very special relationship with the public at large; deals
with the daily safety of a large segment of the public.
 The traffic engineer has a special obligation to employ the available knowledge and
state of the art within existing resources to enhance public safety.
 The traffic engineer must deal productively with problems associated with naïve
assumptions, plans and designs that are oblivious to transportation and traffic needs,
oversimplified analyses, and understated impacts.
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 Like all engineers, traffic engineers must understand and comply with professional
ethics codes.
 Good professional ethics requires that traffic engineers work only in their areas of
expertise; do all work completely and thoroughly; be completely honest with the
general public, employers, and clients; comply with all applicable codes and
standards; and work to the best of their ability.
 The traffic engineer also has a responsibility to protect the community from liability
by good practice.
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 The fundamental ethical issue for traffic engineers is to provide for the public safety
through positive programs, good practice, knowledge, and proper procedure.
 The negative side of this is the avoidance of liability problems.
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Elements of Traffic Engineering
 Traffic Studies and Characteristics
 Performance Evaluation
 Facility Design
 Traffic Control
 Traffic Operations
 Transportation Systems Management
 Integration of Intelligent Transportation System technologies
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Traffic studies and characteristics involve measuring and quantifying various aspect
of highway traffic; data collection and analysis that is used to characterize traffic such
as volume and accident studies
Performance evaluation is a means by which traffic engineers can rate the operating
characteristics of individual sections of facilities and facilities as a whole in relative
terms and is often stated in terms of “levels of service.”
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Facility design involves traffic engineers in the functional and geometric design of
highways and other traffic facilities.
Traffic control is a central function of traffic engineers and involves the establishment
of traffic regulations and their communication to the driver through the use of traffic
control devices, such as signs, markings, and signals.
Traffic operations involves measures that influence overall operation of traffic

facilities, such as one-way street systems, transit operations, curb management, and
surveillance and network control systems.
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Transportation systems management (TSM) involves virtually all aspects of traffic

engineering in a focus on optimizing system capacity and operations such as high-
occupancy vehicle priority systems
Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) refers to the application of modern

telecommunications technology to the operation and control of transportation
systems.
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Traffic Volume, Speed and Concentration
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Traffic Volume, Speed and Concentration
- Introduction to Traffic Flow Theory
- Types of Traffic Facilities
- Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow
- Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
- Fundamental Diagrams of Traffic Flow
- Greenshield's Macroscopic Traffic Stream Model
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Introduction to Traffic Flow Theory
 Road space is a scarce resource,
 The road capacity needs to be maximised; to accommodate as much traffic as

possible, subject to safety and environmental constraints,
 The study of the capacity, its measurement and the factors influencing it forms the
core of traffic flow theory,
 They are intended to provide understanding of phenomena related to the

movement of individual vehicles along a highway as they interact with neighbouring
vehicles, and
 It is the consequences of such interactions that determine the fundamental

characteristics of highways, such as their capacity and their ability to sustain various
levels of traffic flow.
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 Traffic streams are made up of individual drivers and vehicles interacting with each
other and with the physical elements of the roadway and its general environment.
 Because both driver behavior and vehicle characteristics vary with local
characteristics, individual vehicles within the traffic stream do not behave in exactly
the same manner.
 Traffic flow involves an element of variability; with both time and location.
 Thus, the critical challenge of traffic engineering is to plan and design for a medium
that is not predictable in exact terms-one that involves both physical constraints and
the complex behavioral characteristics of human beings.
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 Fortunately, while exact characteristics vary, there is a reasonably consistent range

of driver and, therefore, traffic stream behavior.
 In describing traffic streams in quantitative terms, the purpose is to both understand

the inherent variability in their characteristics and to define normal ranges of behavior.
 To do so, key parameters such as volume, speed and concentration must be

defined and measured.
 Traffic engineers will analyze, evaluate, and ultimately plan improvements in traffic
facilities based on such parameters and their knowledge of normal ranges of behavior.
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Types of Traffic Facilities
 Traffic facilities are broadly separated into two principal categories:
 Uninterrupted flow facilities
 Interrupted flow facilities
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Uninterrupted flow
 The term “uninterrupted flow” refers to a type of facility, not the quality of operations
on that facility.
 Have no external interruptions to the traffic stream.
 Pure uninterrupted flow exists primarily on freeways, where there are no

intersections at grade, traffic signals, STOP or YIELD signs for example
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Uninterrupted flow
 The characteristics of the traffic stream are based solely on the interactions among
vehicles and with the roadway and the general environment.
 Examples; Thika Road and sections of Mombasa Road
 It can also exist on sections of surface highway, most often in rural areas, where
there are long distances between fixed interruptions.
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Interrupted flow
 Interrupted flow facilities are those that incorporate fixed external interruptions into
their design and operation.
 The most frequent and operationally significant external interruption is the traffic
signal.
 Virtually all urban surface streets and highways are interrupted flow facilities.
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Differences
 The major difference between uninterrupted and interrupted flow facilities is the
impact of time.
 On uninterrupted facilities, the physical facility is available to drivers and vehicles at

all times.
 On a given interrupted flow facility, movement is periodically barred by “red”

signals, the signal timing limits access to particular segments of the facility in time.
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Fundamental/Principal Parameters of Traffic Flow
 Fall into two broad categories:
- Macroscopic parameters describe the traffic stream as a whole; views traffic as a

continuum akin to a fluid moving along a duct which is the highway;
- Microscopic parameters describe the behavior of individual vehicles or pairs of

vehicles within the traffic stream; the movement of individual vehicles as they interact
with each other..
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 The principal macroscopic parameters that describe a traffic stream are:
Volume or rate of flow,

Speed, and
Density.
 Microscopic parameters include:
Speed of individual vehicles,

Headway, Spacing and Gap
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Microscopic parameters
Spacing
Spacing is defined as the distance between successive vehicles in a traffic lane,

measured from some common reference point on the vehicles, such as the front
bumper or front wheels
Spacing is usually reported in units of feet or meters.
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Headway
Headway is defined as the time interval between successive vehicles as they pass a
point along the lane, also measured between common reference points on the
vehicles.
Headway is a measure of the temporal space between two vehicles, or, more
specifically, the time that elapses between the arrival of the leading vehicle and the
following vehicle at the designated test point along the lane.
Headway is usually reported in units of seconds
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Gap
Gap is very similar to headway, except that it is a measure of the time that elapses
between the departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the second at the
designated test point.
Gap is a measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first vehicle and the
front bumper of the second vehicle, where headway focuses on front-to-front times.
Gap is also reported in units of seconds.
Illustration of gap and headway definition.

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Measures of Quantity of Traffic in a Lane
 How much traffic a road is handling-affects capacity
 The number of vehicles on the road can be counted using two ways:
- Concentration/Density of traffic, k(vehicles/kilometer)
- Flow/Volume of traffic, q(vehicles/hour);
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Measures of Quality of Traffic in a Lane
 Individual drivers will be most concerned about the quality of their journeys; the
individual travel speeds
 But traffic engineers will be more concerned with the average speeds
 There are two ways of measuring speed:
- Space mean speed, (Kilometer/hour)
- Time mean speed, (Kilometer/hour)
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Volume and Rate of Flow
 Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles passing a point on a highway,

or a given lane or direction of a highway, during a specified time interval.
 The unit of measurement for volume is simply “vehicles,” although it is often

expressed as “vehicles per unit time.”
 Units of time used most often are “per day” or “per hour.”
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 Daily volumes are used to establish trends over time, and for general planning
purposes.
 Detailed design or control decisions require knowledge of hourly volumes for the
peak hour(s) of the day.
 Rates of flow are generally stated in units of “vehicles per hour,” but represent
flows that exist for periods of time less than one hour.
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 A volume of 200 vehicles observed over a 15-minute period may be expressed as a

rate of 200 X 4 = 800 vehicles/hour, even though 800 vehicles would not be observed
if the full hour were counted.
 The 800 vehicles/hour becomes a rate of flow that exists for a 15-minute interval.
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Types of Volume Measurements
 Since there is considerable variation in the volume of traffic, several types of

measurements of volume are commonly adopted which will average these variations
into a single volume count to be used in many design purposes.
 Daily Volumes
 Hourly Volumes
 Subhourly Volumes and Rates of Flow
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Types of Volume Measurements-Daily Volumes
 Daily volumes are used to document annual trends in highway usage.
 Forecasts based upon observed trends can be used to help plan improved or new
facilities to accommodate increasing demand.
 Four daily volume parameters that are widely used in traffic engineering:
 Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT)
 Average Annual Weekday Traffic(AAWT)
 Average Daily Traffic(ADT)
 Average Weekday Traffic(AWT)
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Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT): The average 24-hour volume at a given

location over a full 365-day year; the number of vehicles passing a site in a year
divided by 365 days (366 days in a leap year).
Average annual weekday traffic (AAWT). The average 24-hour volume occurring on
weekdays over a full 365-day year; the number of vehicles passing a site on
weekdays in a year divided by the number of weekdays (usually 260).
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Average Daily Traffic (ADT). The average 24-hour volume at a given location over a
defined time period less than one year; a common application is to measure an ADT
for each month of the year.
It may be measured for six months, a season, a month, a week, or as little as two
days.
An ADT is a valid number only for the period over which it was measured.
Average Weekday Traffic (AWT). The average 24-hour weekday volume at a given
location over a defined time period less than one year; a common application is to
measure an AWT for each month of the year.
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 All of these volumes are stated in terms of vehicles per day (veh/day).
 Daily volumes are generally not differentiated by direction or lane but are totals for
an entire facility at the designated location.
 Mainly the volume study establishes;
the importance of a particular route with respect to the other routes,

the distribution of traffic on road, and
the fluctuations in flow.
 Thus, volume is treated as the most important of all the parameters of traffic
stream.
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Tutorial 2.1 : Types of Volume Measurements- Daily Volumes
Calculation of the daily volumes based upon one year of count data at a sample
location.
Date: 10-April-2016 , Time: 1400-1600 HRS
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Table 2.1 Calculation of Daily Traffic Volume Parameters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Month No. of Total Total Total AWT ADT
Weekdays Days Monthly Weekely 5/2 4/3
In Month In Month Volumes Volumes (veh/day) (veh/day)
(days) (days) (vehs) (vehs)
January 22 31 440.000 213.000 9.682 14.194
February 20 28 425.000 225.000 11.250 15.179
March 22 31 400.000 190.000 8.636 12.903
April 22 30 415.000 205.000 9.318 13.833
May 21 31 465.000 220.000 10.476 15.000
June 22 30 515.000 235.000 10.682 17.167
July 23 31 595.000 265.000 11.522 19.194
August 21 31 585.000 265.000 12.619 18.871
September 22 30 505.000 210.000 9.545 16.833
October 22 31 435.000 195.000 8.864 14.032
November 21 30 430.000 205.000 9.762 14.333
December 22 31 415.000 215.000 9.773 13.387
Total 260 365 5.625.000 2.643.000 - -
AADT = 5.625.000/365 = 15.411 veh/day

AAWT = 2.643.000/260 = 10.165 veh/day
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Types of Volume Measurements- Hourly Volumes
 Daily volumes cannot be used alone for design or operational analysis purposes.
 Volume varies considerably over the 24 hours of the day, with periods of maximum
flow occurring during the morning and evening commuter “rush hours.”
 The single hour of the day that has the highest hourly volume is referred to as the
peak hour.
 The traffic volume within this hour is of greatest interest to traffic engineers for
design and operational analysis usage.
 The peak-hour volume is generally stated as a directional volume (i.e., each

direction of flow is counted separately).
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 Highways and controls must be designed to adequately serve the peak-hour traffic
volume in the peak direction of flow.
 Since traffic going one way during the morning peak is going the opposite way
during the evening peak, both sides of a facility must generally be designed to
accommodate the peak directional flow during the peak hour.
 Where the directional disparity is significant, the concept of reversible lanes is

useful.
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 In design, peak-hour volumes are sometimes estimated from projections of the

AADT.
 Traffic forecasts are most often cast in terms of AADTs based on documented
trends and/or forecasting models.
 Because daily volumes, such as the AADT, are more stable than hourly volumes,
projections can be more confidently made using them.
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 AADTs are converted to a peak-hour volume in the peak direction of flow.
 This is referred to as the “directional design hour volume” (DDHV):
DDHV = AADT*K*D Equation 1
where: K = proportion of daily traffic occurring during the peak hour
D = proportion of peak hour traffic traveling in the peak direction of flow.
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 For design, the K factor often represents the proportion of AADT occurring during
the 30th peak hour of the year.
 If the 365 peak hour volumes of the year at a given location are listed in
descending order, the 30th peak hour is 30th on the list and represents a volume that
is exceeded in only 29 hours of the year.
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 For rural facilities, the 30th peak hour may have a significantly lower volume than
the worst hour of the year, as critical peaks may occur only infrequently.
 In such cases, it is not considered economically feasible to invest large amounts of

capital in providing additional capacity that will be used in only 29 hours of the year.
 In urban cases, where traffic is frequently at capacity levels during the daily
commuter peaks, the 30th peak hour is often not substantially different from the
highest peak hour of the year.
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 Factors K and D are based upon local or regional characteristics at existing

locations.
 Continuous monitoring is required
 The K factor decreases with increasing development density in the areas served by
the facility. In high-density areas, substantial demand during off-peak periods exists.
 This effectively lowers the proportion of traffic occurring during the peak hour of the
day. The volume generated by high-density development is generally larger than that
generated by lower density areas.
 Thus, it is important to remember that a high proportions of traffic occurring in the

peak hour does not suggest that the peak-hour volume is large.
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 The D factor tends to be more variable and is influenced by a number of factors.
 As development density increases, the D factor tends to decrease.
 As density increases, it is more likely to have substantial bi-directional demands.
 Radial routes (i.e., those serving movements into and out of central cities or other
areas of activity), will have stronger directional distributions (higher D values) than
those that are circumferential, (i.e.., going around areas of central activity).
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Types of Volume Measurements- Subhourly Volumes and Rates of Flow
 While hourly traffic volumes form the basis for many forms of traffic design and
analysis, the variation of traffic within a given hour is also of considerable interest.
 The quality of traffic flow is often related to short-term fluctuations in traffic demand.
 A facility may have sufficient capacity to serve the peak-hour demand, but short-
term peaks of flow within the hour may exceed capacity and create a breakdown.
 Volumes observed for periods of less than one hour are generally expressed as
equivalent hourly rates of flow.
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For example,
1,000 vehicles counted over a 15-minute interval could be expressed as
1,000 veh/0.25 h =4,000 veh/h.
The rate of flow of 4,000 veh/h is valid for the 15-minute period in which the volume
of 1,000 vehs was observed.
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Peak Hour Factor
 The relationship between the hourly volume and the maximum rate of flow within
the hour is defined by the peak hour factor, as follows:
Equation 2
 For standard 15-minute analysis period, this becomes:
Equation 3
where:
V = hourly volume, vehs the hour, vehs
Vm15 = maximum 15-minute volume within
PHF = peak-hour factor

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Peak Hour Factor
 The maximum possible value for the PHF is 1.00, which (occurs when the volume
in each interval is constant.
 The minimum value occurs when the entire hourly volume occurs in a single 15-
minute interval.
 In this case, the PHF becomes 0.25, and represents the most extreme case of
volume variation within the hour.
 In practical terms, the PHF generally varies between a low of 0.70 for rural and
sparsely developed areas to 0.98 in dense urban areas.
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Peak Hour Factor
 The peak-hour factor is descriptive of trip generation patterns and may apply to an
area or portion of a street and highway system.
 When the value is known, it can be used to estimate a maximum flow rate within an
hour based on the full-hour volume:
Equation 4
where:
v = maximum rate of flow within the hour, veh/h
V = hourly volume, veh/h
PHF = peak-hour factor.
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Tutorial 2.2 : Types of Volume Measurements- Subhourly, Hourly Volumes and
Rates of Flow
Directional design hour volume
Calculation of the Hourly, Subhourly Volumes and rates of flow.
Calculation of Peak Hourly Factor.
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Rates of Flow
Consider the case of a suburban highway that has a 20-year forecast of AADT of
50,000 veh/day. Based upon the data of 'Table 2.2, what range of directional design
hour volumes might be expected for this situation?
Table 2.2 General Ranges for K and D Factors
Normal Range of Values

Facility Type K-Factor D-Factor
Rural 0,15-0,25 0,65-0,80
Suburban 0,12-0,15 0,55-0,65
Urban:
Radial Route 0,07-0,12 0,55-0,60
Circumferential Route 0,07-0,12 0,50-0,55
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Rates of Flow
The range of directional design hour volumes is, therefore:
DDHV = AADT*K*D Equation 1
where: K = proportion of daily traffic occurring during the peak hour

D = proportion of peak hour traffic traveling in the peak direction of flow.
DDHVLow = 50,000 * 0.12 * 0.55 = 3,300 veh/h
DDHVHIGH = 50,000 * 0.15 * 0.65 = 4,875 veh/h
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Rates of Flow
Table 2.3 Calculation of the Hourly, Subhourly Volumes and Rates of Flow
Volume for Time Rate of Flow for Time

Time Interval Interval (vehs) Interval (vehs/h)
6:00-6:15 AM 1.500 1.500/0,25 = 6.000
6:15-6:30 AM 1.600 1.600/0,25 = 6.400
6:30-6:45 AM 1.700 1.700/0,25 = 6.800
6:45-7:00 AM 1.400 1.400/0,25 = 5.600
6:00-7:00 AM Sum = 6.200
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Rates of Flow
Table 2.4 Queuing Analysis for the Data of Table 2.3

Arriving
Vehicles Departing Queue Size at End of
Time Interval (vehs) Vehicles (vehs) Period (vehs)
6:00-6:15 AM 1.500 1.550 0
6:15-6:30 AM 1.600 1.550 0 + 1.600 -1.550 = 50
6:30-6:45 AM 1.700 1.550 50 + 1.700 - 1.550 = 200
6:45-7:00 AM 1.400 1.550 200 + 1.400 - 1.550 = 50
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Rates of Flow
For the illustrative data in Tables 2-3
Equation 2
Equation 3
where:
V = hourly volume, vehs the hour, vehs
Vm15 = maximum 15-minute volume within
PHF = peak-hour factor
PHF = 6, 200/ 4*1,700= 0.912
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Rates of Flow
Calculation of Maximum Rate of Flow within the Hour
Equation 4
where:
v = maximum rate of flow within the hour, veh/h
V = hourly volume, veh/h; 6.200 veh/h
PHF = peak-hour factor; 0,912
v = 6.200/0,912 = 6.798= 6.800 veh/h
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Speeds and Travel Times
 Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and

passengers will be concerned more about the speed of the journey than the design
aspects of the traffic.
 Speed is defined as a rate of motion in distance per unit time.
 Travel time is the time taken to traverse a defined section of roadway.
 Speed and travel time are inversely related
 Mathematically, speed or velocity, s/v, is given by:
Equation 5
where: S = speed, m/s or km/h
d = distance traversed, m or km
t = time to traverse distance d, s or h

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 Speed of different vehicles will vary with respect to time and space.
 To represent these variation, several types of speed can be defined:
- Spot Speed,
- Running Speed,
- Journey Speed,
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Spot Speed: Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified

location.
 Spot speed can be used to design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical
curves, super elevation etc.
 Location and size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone
determination, require the spot speed data.
 Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion analysis use spot speed data
as the basic input.
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Running Speed: Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular
course while the vehicle is moving and is found by dividing the length of the course
by the time duration the vehicle was in motion.
Journey Speed: Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey
between two points and is the distance between the two points divided by the total
time taken for the vehicle to complete the journey including any stopped time.
 A uniformity between journey and running speeds denotes comfortable travel

conditions.
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 In a moving traffic stream, each vehicle travels at a different speed.
 Thus, the traffic stream does not have a single characteristic value, but rather a
distribution of individual speeds.
 The traffic stream, taken as a whole, can be characterized using an average or

typical speed.
 There are two ways in which an average speed for a traffic stream can be
computed:
 Time mean speed, and
 Space mean speed
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Time mean speed (TMS). The average speed of all vehicles passing a point on a
highway or lane over some specified time period.
Space mean speed (SMS). The average speed of all vehicles occupying a given
section of highway or lane over some specified time period.
 Time mean speed is a point measure, while space mean speed describes a length
of highway or lane.
Equation 6 Equation 7
where: TMS = time mean speed, m/s

SMS = space mean speed, m/s
d = distance traversed, m
n = number of observed vehicles
ti = time for vehicle ‘‘i” to traverse the section, s
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 TMS is computed by finding each individual vehicle speed and taking a simple
average of the results.
 SMS is computed by finding the average travel time for a vehicle to traverse the
section and using the average travel time to compute a speed.
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Tutorial 2.3 : Speeds and Travel Times
Illustration of the difference between TMS and SMS
Computation of Time Mean and Space Mean Speeds.
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Figure 2.1 Space Mean and Time Mean Speed Illustrated
TMS = (100n + 50n)/2n = 75m/s
SMS = {(100n) + (50*2n)}/3n = 66,7m/s
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To measure time mean speed (TMS), an observer would stand by the side of
the road and record the speed of each vehicle as it passes.
Given the speeds and the spacing shown in Figure 2.1, a vehicle will pass the
observer in lane A every 200/100 = 2.0 s.
Similarly, a vehicle will pass the observer in lane B every 100/50 = 2.0 s.
Thus, as long as the traffic stream maintains the conditions shown, for every n
vehicles traveling at 100m/s, the observer will also observe n vehicles traveling at
50m/s.
The TMS may then be computed as:
TMS = (100n + 50n)/2n = 75m/s
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To measure space mean speed (SMS), an observer would need an elevated

location from which the full extent of the section may be viewed.
Again, however, as long as the traffic stream remains stable and uniform, as
shown, there will be twice as many vehicles in lane B as there are in lane A.
Therefore, the SMS is computed as:
SMS = {(100n) + (50*2n)}/3n = 66,7m/s
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Table 2.5 Computation of TMS and SMS
Distance, d
Vehicle No. (m) Travel Time, t (s) Speed (m/s)
1 1.200 20 1.200/20 = 60,0
2 1.200 22 1.200/22 = 54,5
3 1.200 24 1.200/24 = 50,0
4 1.200 21 1.200/21 = 57,1
5 1.200 22 1.200/22 = 54,5
6 1.200 22 1.200/22 = 54,5
7 1.200 20 1.200/20 = 60,0
8 1.200 21 1.200/21 = 57,1
Total 9.600 172 448
Average 9.600/8 172/8 448/8
= 1200 21,5 56,0
TMS = 56,0 m/s

SMS = 1.200/21,5 = 55,8 m/s
PM Osano FCE 346-

Density
 Density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of highway

or lane and is generally expressed as vehicles per km.
 One can photograph a length of road x, count the number of vehicles, nx, in one
lane of the road at that point of time and derive the density k as,
Equation 8
 It measures the proximity of vehicles which in turn measures the freedom to

maneuver and comfort of drivers.
 Density is difficult to measure directly, as an elevated vantage point from which the
highway section under study may be observed is required.
 It is often computed from speed and flow rate measurements.
PM Osano FCE 346-

Density
 Density is important because it is the measure most directly related to traffic

demand.
 Traffic is generated from various land uses, injecting a number of vehicles into a
confined roadway space. This process creates a density of vehicles.
 Drivers select speeds that are consistent with how close they are to other vehicles.
 The speed and density combine to give the observed rate of flow.
 Density is also an important measure of the quality of traffic flow, as it is a measure

of the proximity of other vehicles, a factor which influences freedom to maneuver and
the psychological comfort of drivers.
PM Osano FCE 346-

Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
 The three principal macroscopic parameters that describe a traffic stream are:
 Volume or rate of flow,

 Speed, and
 Density
 They are related as follows:
q=v*k
Equation 9
Where:
q = rate of flow, veh/h
v = space mean speed, km/h
k = density, veh/km
PM Osano FCE 346-

Fundamental Diagrams of Traffic Flow
 The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow, can be
represented with the help of some curves.
 They are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
 These curves consist of :
Speed-flow diagram
Speed-density diagram, and
Density-flow diagram
 The exact shape and calibration of these relationships depends upon prevailing
conditions, which vary from location to location and even over time at the same
location.
PM Osano FCE 346-

Speed-Flow Diagram
 The flow is zero either because there is
no vehicles or there are too many vehicles
so that they cannot move.
 At maximum flow, the speed will be in

Stable Domain/ between zero and free flow speed. The
Stable Flow
maximum flow Qmax occurs at speed u.
 It is possible to have two different

Unstable Domain/ speeds ( u1 and u2) for a given flow, q.
Forced Flow
PM Osano FCE 346-

Speed-Density Diagram
 Speed will be maximum, referred to as the free

flow speed when the density is zero, and when the
density is maximum, the speed will be zero.
 The most simple assumption is that this variation of speed with density is linear
as shown by the solid line. Corresponding to the zero density, vehicles will be
flowing with their desire speed, or free flow speed.
 When the density is jam density, the speed of the vehicles becomes zero. It is
also possible to have non-linear relationships as shown by the dotted lines.
PM Osano FCE 346-
Flow-Density Diagram
 O-zero density and zero flow.
 B-maximum flow, corresponding density is kmax
 C-maximum density kjam, corresponding flow is

zero.
 OA-tangent drawn to the parabola at O, slope of the line OA gives the mean
free flow speed
 D and E correspond to same flow but has two different densities.
 Slope of the line OD gives the mean speed at density k1

 Slope of the line OE will give mean speed at density k2.
PM Osano FCE 346-
Flow-Density Diagram
 The flow and density varies with time and location.
 When the density is zero, flow will also be zero, since there is no vehicles on the
road.
 When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as flow
increases.
 When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation where vehicles
can't move. This is referred to as the jam density or the maximum density.
 At jam density, flow will be zero because the vehicles are not moving.
 There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the flow is
maximum.
PM Osano FCE 346-

 Note that a flow rate of “0 veh/h” occurs under two very different conditions.
 When there are no vehicles on the highway, density is “0 veh/km“ and no vehicles
can be observed passing a point.
Under this condition, speed is un-measurable and is referred to as “free-flow speed,”

a theoretical value that exists as a mathematical extension of the relationship
between speed and flow (or speed and density).
 A flow of “0 veh/h” also occurs when there are so many vehicles on the road that
all motion stops.
This occurs at a very high density, called the “jam density,” and no flow is observed,
as no vehicle can pass a point to be counted when all vehicles are stopped.
PM Osano FCE 346-

Combined Diagram
Density-Flow Diagram
=kxv
Flow-Speed Diagram Density-Speed

Diagram
PM Osano FCE 346-

Derivation
A
 The relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow, namely speed,
volume, and density is called the fundamental relations of traffic flow.
 Let there be a road with length v km, and assume all the vehicles are moving with v
km/hr
 Let the number of vehicles counted by an observer at A for one hour be n1.
 By definition, the number of vehicles counted in one hour is flow(q). Therefore,
Equation 10
PM Osano FCE 346-

Derivation
 Similarly, by definition, density is the number of vehicles in unit distance. Therefore

number of vehicles n2 in a road stretch of distance v1 will be density x distance.
Therefore,
Equation 11
 Since all the vehicles have speed v, the number of vehicles counted in 1 hour and
the number of vehicles in the stretch of distance v will also be same.(i.e. n1 = n2).
 Therefore, Equation 12
 This is the fundamental equation of traffic flow.
 Note that, v in the above equation refers to the space mean speed.
PM Osano FCE 346-

 Space mean speed and density are measures that refer to a specific section of a
lane or highway, while flow rate is a point measure.
 The space mean speed and density measures must apply to the same defined
section of roadway.
 Under stable flow conditions (i.e., the flow entering and leaving the section are the
same; no queues are forming within the section), the rate of flow computed applies to
any point within the section.
 Where unstable operations exist (a queue is forming within the section), the
computed flow rate represents an average for all points within the section.
PM Osano FCE 346-

Greenshield's Macroscopic Traffic Stream Model
Equation of Traffic State
 Over the years, various researchers have studied speed-flow-density relationships

and have attempted to develop many mathematical descriptions for these curves.
 In the 1930s, Bruce Greenshields conducted the first formal studies of traffic flow.
 He hypothesized that the speed-density relationship was linear
 Others are Ellis, Greenberg, Underwood, Edie and May
PM Osano FCE 346-

 All of these historic studies focused on calibration of the speed-density relationship.
 This is considered to be the basic behavioral relationship; drivers selecting speeds

based on their proximity to other vehicles (and the geometric and general
environment of the roadway).
 Mathematically, once the speed-density relationship has been established, the

speed-flow ,and flow-density relationships may be derived.
PM Osano FCE 346-

 As mentioned earlier, the relation between the three macroscopic variables traffic
volume q, traffic density k and speed v is described by the following equation:
q=k*v Equation 12
PM Osano FCE 346-

 One of the first models to describe traffic flow on free roadways results from
observations by GREENSHIELDS who investigated the relation between speed v and
the traffic density k.
 With the help of the regression calculation he discovered a linear relation for v =
v(k), where a vf is the free-flow speed and kjam the maximum traffic density.
Equation 13
 This equation is defined as traffic state equation and its form as fundamental
diagram.
PM Osano FCE 346-

Tutorial 2.4 : Greenshield's Macroscopic Traffic Stream Model/
Equation of Traffic State (Home Work/Reading-Not to be Submitted)
Derivation of the equation of the relationship speed and density under assumption of
Linear speed-density relationship by Greenshield's
PM Osano FCE 346-

Course Work-Assignment : Greenshield's Macroscopic Traffic Stream Model
Determination of the parameters of the Greenshield’s Macroscopic Traffic Stream

Model; Capacity, Average Speed, Density
Question: Given - Free flow speed, vf =80km/h

- Optimal traffic flow, qo= 2400veh/h
- Current traffic flow, q= 1200veh/h
a) Draw the fundamental diagrams of flow (speed-flow, speed-density and flow-

density diagrams)
b) What is the space mean speed (s) of the vehicles(two possible values)
c) Draw the combined fundamental diagram of flow
Submission Date: 27-April-2017
PM Osano FCE 346-

End of Unit 2.1-2.2:
FCE 346, 2016/2017 SEMESTER II-[2014]

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University of Nairobi

Department of Civil & Construction Engineering

FCE 346 - Transportation Engineering I

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

…………. Institution of Civil Engineers

PM Osano FCE 346-

Utilities, Panel Vans, Pick-ups,

Source: Statistical Abstract,

PM Osano FCE 346-

 This is no small concern.

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

 The negative side of this is the avoidance of liability problems.

PM Osano FCE 346-

 Traffic Studies and Characteristics

 Transportation Systems Management

 Integration of Intelligent Transportation System technologies

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

Traffic operations involves measures that influence overall operation of traffic

PM Osano FCE 346-

Transportation systems management (TSM) involves virtually all aspects of traffic

Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) refers to the application of modern

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

 Road space is a scarce resource,

 The road capacity needs to be maximised; to accommodate as much traffic as

 They are intended to provide understanding of phenomena related to the

 It is the consequences of such interactions that determine the fundamental

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

 Fortunately, while exact characteristics vary, there is a reasonably consistent range

 In describing traffic streams in quantitative terms, the purpose is to both understand

 To do so, key parameters such as volume, speed and concentration must be

PM Osano FCE 346-

 Traffic facilities are broadly separated into two principal categories:

 Uninterrupted flow facilities

 Interrupted flow facilities

PM Osano FCE 346-

 Have no external interruptions to the traffic stream.

 Pure uninterrupted flow exists primarily on freeways, where there are no

PM Osano FCE 346-

 Examples; Thika Road and sections of Mombasa Road

PM Osano FCE 346-

PM Osano FCE 346-

 On uninterrupted facilities, the physical facility is available to drivers and vehicles at

 On a given interrupted flow facility, movement is periodically barred by “red”

PM Osano FCE 346-

 Fall into two broad categories:

- Macroscopic parameters describe the traffic stream as a whole; views traffic as a

- Microscopic parameters describe the behavior of individual vehicles or pairs of

PM Osano FCE 346-

 The principal macroscopic parameters that describe a traffic stream are:

Volume or rate of flow,

DDHV = AADTKD Equation 1