FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON

INVESTIGATION
Module 1

WHAT IS FIRE?

Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel and an oxidizer-
typically the oxygen in the air. Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and
light.

Fire is heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of oxygen, or in some cases gaseous
chlorine, with other materials. The light is in the form of a flame, which is composed of glowing particles
of the burning material and certain gaseous products that are luminous at the temperature of the
burning material.

THE START OF FIRE

All matters exist of one of the three states – solid, liquid and gas (vapor). The atoms or molecules
of a solid are packed closely together, and that of a liquid is packed loosely, the molecules of a vapor
are not packed together at all, they are free to move about. In order for a substance to oxidize, its
molecules must be pretty well surrounded by oxygen molecules. The molecules of solids or liquids are
too tightly packed to be surrounded. Thus, only vapors can burn.

However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its molecules move about rapidly. If enough heat is
applied, some molecules break away from the surface to form a vapor just above the substance.
This vapor can now mixed with oxygen. If there is enough heat to raise the vapor to its ignition
temperature (temperature needed to burn), and if there is enough oxygen present, the vapor will oxidize
rapidly – it will start to burn.

The start of burning is the start of a Chain Reaction (the burning process). Vapor from heated
fuel rises, mixes with air and burns. It produces enough heat to release more vapor and to draw in air
to burn that vapor. As more vapor burns, flame production increases. More heat is produced, more
vapor released, more air drawn into the flames and more vapor burns, the chain reaction keeps
increasing – the size of the fire increases until fuel is consumed.

CHEMISTRY OF FIRE

Obviously, three things are required for combustion or fire: FUEL (Combustible materials to
vaporize and burn), OXYGEN (Oxygen in air is the common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel vapor,
air contains 28% O, 78 N, 1% inert gas), and HEAT (to raise the temperature of the fuel vapor to its
ignition temperature). The combinations of these three elements form the so-called Fire Triangle.

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 Figure 1 will show that if any side of the fire triangle is missing, a fire can not start or if any side
of the fire triangle is removed, the fire will go off.

With the presence of the elements of fire, combustion may take place. Before a fuel will burn, it
must be changed to its vapor state. In a fire situation, this change usually results from the initial
application of heat. The process is known as PYROLYSIS. Pyrolysis (also known as thermal
decomposition) is defined as the “chemical decomposition of matter through the action of heat”. In this
case, the decomposition causes a change from a solid state to vapor state. If the vapor mixes
sufficiently with air and heated to high temperature, combustion results.

The combustion process is better represented by the fire tetrahedron.

The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the combustion process because
it has room for the chain reaction and because each face touches the other three faces.

The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron
illustrates how flaming combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction. In this sense,
the chain reaction face keeps the other three faces from falling apart.

The fire tetrahedron also explains the flaming mode of combustion. The modes of combustion
are either Flaming mode or Surface mode (Glowing– represented by the fire triangle).

A condensed phased combustion is called glowing combustion

A gas-phased combustion is known as flame
If the process is confined with pressure it is called explosion
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it produced a detonation

PROPERTIES OF FIRE

A. The Physical properties

1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal
volume of water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of dry air at the
same temperature and pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.

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 4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at which the substance must be
heated in order to initiate combustion.
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are evolved
fast enough to support combustion.
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid forms a vapor-air mixture that ignites
(mixture with in the explosive range).

To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature must be raised until ignition point is
reached. Thus, before a fuel start to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain
degree of temperature. When the temperature of a certain substance is very high, it releases highly
combustible vapors known as FREE RADICALS (combustible vapors such as hydrogen gas, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen).

During the process of pyrolysis, the following are involved:

 the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point,
 decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor,
 decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel (free radicals)
 free radicals undergo combustion.

B. The Chemical Properties

1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before

the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce
substances with less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which combustible material
(fuel) and an oxidizing agent (air), react. Example of oxidation is combustion which is the
same as actual burning (rapid oxidation)
4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a
combustion product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased combustion.

Types of Flames

a. Based on Color and Completeness of Combustibility of Fuel

1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red, deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated due to
incomplete combustion and has a low temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is complete combustion of fuel and has relatively high
temperature.

b. Based on Fuel and Air Mixture

1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a Bunsen-type laboratory burner where hydrocarbon

(any substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly mixed with air before
reaching the flame zone.
2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas (fuel) alone is forced through a nozzle into the
atmosphere which diffuses in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable
mixture. The candle flame is an example of diffusion flame governed purely by molecular
diffusion, and the flame of the oxyacetylene torch. (diffused – dispersed, widely spread)

c. Based on Smoothness

1. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent Flame – are those having unsteady, irregular flows. As physical size, gas density
or velocity is increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.
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FIRE ELEMENTS

As mentioned in part one, fire has been described as having three components: fuel, heat, and
oxygen. This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle, which symbolized, in the most basic terms, a
chemical relationship. The additional component needed to explain flaming combustion is a chemical
chain reaction shown in the fire tetrahedron.

FUEL

FUELS (Combustible Materials)– fuel is matter and matter exist in three physical states: solid,
liquid and gas. Solids melt to become liquids, and these may vaporize and become gases. The basic
rule is that at high enough temperature all fuels can be converted to gases. And each of the physical
states exhibits different physical and chemical properties that directly affect a fuel’s combustibility. For
example, gasoline as a liquid does not burn, it is the vapors rising from the liquid that burn. Likewise,
wood, the most common solid fuel, is not flammable, but gives of flammable vapors (free radicals).

FUEL is also a material that provides useful energy. Fuels are used to heat and cook food, power
engines, and produce electricity. Some fuels occur naturally and others are artificially created. Such
natural fuels are coals, petroleum, and natural gases obtained from underground deposits that were
formed million years ago from the remains of plants and animals. They are called fossil fuels, which
account for about 90% of the energy people use today.

Synthetic fuels can be made from fossil fuels, certain types of rock and sand, and biomass.

Most fuels release energy by burning with oxygen in the air. But some – especially chemical
fuels used in rockets – need special oxidizers in order to burn. Nuclear fuels do not burn but release
energy through the fission (splitting) of fusion (joining together) of atoms.

Classification of Combustible Materials

1. Class A Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic
substances such as wood and wood-based products. It includes some synthetic or inorganic
materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.
2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic
solutions, oil, liquid petroleum products, etc.
3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such as materials used on electrical
wiring and other electrical appliances.
4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium and potassium.

General Categories of Fuel

1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic, and
metallic solid materials.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.

The Solid Fuels

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 The most obvious solid fuels are wood, paper and cloth. Its burning rate depends on its
configuration. For example, solid fuels in the form of dust will burn faster than bulky materials.

Types of Flammable solids

a. Pyrolyzable solid fuels – include many of the ordinary accepted combustibles: wood, paper
and so on. The vapors released by their chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This
exemplifies a gas-to-gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with oxygen in the air to produce a flame.

b. Non-pyrolyzable solid fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A common example is
charcoal. Chemical decomposition does not occur because there are no pyrolyzable elements present.
No vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is an example of a gas-to-solid reaction.

The following are group of solid fuels

1. Biomass – it is the name given to such replaceable organic matters like wood, garbage and
animal manure that can be use to produce energy. For example, heat produced by burning nutshells,
rice and oat hulls, and other by-products of food processing. They are often used to operate plant
equipment.

Factors affecting the combustibility of wood and wood-based products

a. Physical form – the smaller the piece of wood, the easier it is to burn.
b. Moisture content (water content) – the freshly cut wood is more difficult to ignite and burn
than dry wood.
c. Heat conductivity - a poor conductor of heat takes a longer time to ignite than those materials
that are good conductors of heat.
d. Rate and period of heating – less flammable materials don’t easily ignite and needs direct
contact with flame than highly combustible materials.
e. Rate of combustion – with an unlimited supply of oxygen, the rate of burns increases, more
heat is produced and fuel is consumed more completely.
f. Ignition temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster it reaches ignition point and it
varies depending on the other factors above.

2. Fabrics and Textiles – almost all fibers and textiles are combustible. A fiber is a very fine
thin strand or thread like object. Fabrics are twisted or woven fibers. And textiles are machine woven
or knitted fabric.

Classification of Fibers

a. Natural Fibers – they come from plants (Coir – coconut fiber, Cotton – seed fiber, pulp –
wood fiber) , from animals (wool, silk, protein fibers – leather), from minerals (asbestos)

b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers – organic fibers, cellulose fibers, cellulose acetate, non-cellulose,

and inorganic fibers like fiber glass, steel

Factors affecting the combustibility of fibers

a. Chemical composition – natural and synthetic organic fibers are generally highly combustible
materials especially if they are dry. Mineral fibers and synthetic inorganic fibers are normally
fire resistant materials.
b. Fiber finish or coating – fiber coating combined with organic fibers are supportive to continued
burning of fabric.
c. Fabric weight – the heavier the fabric, the greater its resistance to ignition, thus delaying its
ignition.
d. Tightness of weave – the closer the fiber are woven, the smaller the space it contains, thus
it takes a longer period to ignite it.
e. Flame retardant treatment – fabric treated with flame retardant have higher resistance to
ignition.
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 Fabric Ignition

Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is a numerical basis of measuring the tendency of a fabric to
continuously burn once source of ignition is removed. If the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that
it will cease to burn once the flame is removed is also high. Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition
temperature are safer for clothing and furnishing because they do not ignite easily. Also, they do not
continue burning after the source of heat or flame is removed.

3. Plastics – plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class A except those materials of or
containing cellulose nitrate. Cellulose Nitrate is a chemical powder used in bombs, they are also called
pyroxylin.

Plastics comprise a group of materials consisting mainly of organic substances or high molecular
substances. They are solid in the finished state although at some stage of manufacture plastics can be
made to flow into a desired shape, usually through the application of heat or pressure or both.

4. Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting from the partial decomposition of matter
under varying degrees of temperature. They are used as fuels in the production of coal gas, water gas,
and many coal compounds. They are also used to heat buildings and to provide energy for industrial
machinery.

The forms of coal are: lignite or brown coal, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite

Bituminous coal is the most plentiful and important coal used by industry. It contains more carbon
and produces more heat than either lignite or sub-bituminous coal. It is also the coal best suited for
making coke. Antracite is the least plentiful and hardest coal. It contains more carbon and produces
more heat than other coals. However, antracite is difficult to ignite and burns slowly.

5. Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called bags and used as a fuel
chiefly in areas where coal and oil are scarce. In Ireland and Scotland, for example, peat is cut formed
in blocks, and dried; the dried bloks are then burned to heat homes.

The Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, but some synthetic liquids are also produced.
Petroleum is also called crude oil. They may be refined to produce gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene.
Other fuel oils obtained by refining petroleum to distillate oil and residual oils. Distillate oils are light oils,
which are used chiefly to heat homes and small buildings. Residual oils are heavy, and used to provide
energy to power utilities, factories and large ships.

Oil-based paint products are also highly flammable liquids. In the process of vaporization,
flammable liquids release vapor in much the same way as solid fuels. The rate of vapor is greater for
liquids than solids, since liquids have less closely packed molecules. In addition, liquids can release
vapor over a wide range, example, gasoline starts to give vapor at –40C (-45 F). This makes gasoline
a continuous fire hazard; it produces flammable vapor at normal temperature.

General Characteristics of Liquids

1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite shape.

2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free movement of molecules.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of indefinite expansion, unlike gas.

2 General Groups of Liquid Fuels

1. Flammable liquids – they are liquids having a flash point of 37.8 C (100F) and a vapor
pressure not exceeding 40 psia (2068.6 um) at 37.8 C.

2. Combustible Liquids – these liquids have flash point at or above 37.8 C (100F).
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 Burning Characteristics of Liquids

Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquid which burn, the case of ignition as well as the
rate of burning can be related to the physical properties such as vapor pressure, flash point, boiling
point, and evaporation rate.

1. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range above the liquid surface at the stored
temperature have rapid rate of flame propagation.
2. Liquids having flash points above stored temperature have slower rate of flame propagation.
The chemical explanation is, it is necessary for the fire to heat sufficiently the liquid surface
to form flammable vapor-air moisture before the flame will spread through the vapor.

Factors affecting the Rate of Flame Propagation and Burning of Liquids

 wind velocity
 temperature
 heat of combustion
 latent heat of evaporation
 atmospheric pressure

Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a liquid and from a
liquid to gas. Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to a solid.

The Gas Fuels

Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movement and random motion. They
have no definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and volume of their container. There are both
natural and manufactured flammable gases. Gas fuels flow easily through pipes and are used to provide
energy for homes, businesses, and industries. Examples of gas fuels are acetylene, propane, and
butanes.

Some properties of gas fuels are:

 compressibility
 expandability
 permeability (open to passage or penetration)
 diffusion (intermingling of molecules)

Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential in changes in volume. Diffusion is the
uniform distribution of molecules of one substance through those of another. Permeability means that
other substances may pass through or permeate a gas.

Characteristics of Gas Fuels

1. They are matters that have no definite shape.

2. They are composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at constant random motion in a straight
line
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the wall of the container and are
relatively far from one another.

Classification of Gases:

1. Based on Source

a. Natural Gas – the gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provides energy for industries.
It consists chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas. Natural gas is usually mixed with
compounds of foul-smelling elements like sulfur so gas leaks can be detected. Butane and
propane, which make up a small proportion of natural gas, become liquids when placed under
large amount of pressure. When pressure is released, they change back to gas. Such fuels,
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 often called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), are easily stored
and shipped as liquid.

b. Manufactured Gas – this gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where certain fuels are
abundant and others are scarce. Coal, petroleum, and biomass can all be converted to gas
through heating and various chemical procedures.

2. According to Physical Properties

a. Compressed Gas – gas in which at all normal temperature inside its container; exist solely in
the gaseous state under pressure. The pressure depends on the pressure to which the
container is originally charged and how much gas remains in the container. However,
temperature affects the volume and pressure of the gas.

b. Liquefied Gas – gas, which, at normal temperature inside its container, exist partly in the
liquid state and partly in gaseous state and under pressure as long as any liquid remains in
the container. The pressure basically depends on the temperature of the liquid although the
amount of liquid also affects the pressure under some condition. A liquefied gas exhibits a
more complicated behavior as the result of heating.

c. Cryogenic Gas – a liquefied gas which exists in its container at temperature far below normal
atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point and correspondingly low to
moderate pressure. Examples of this gas are air, carbon monoxide, ethylene, fluorine,
helium, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, and oxygen.

3. According to Usage

a. Fuel Gases – flammable gases usually used for burning with air to produce heat, utilize as
power, light, comfort, and process. Most commonly used gases are natural gas and the LPG
(butane and propane).

b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a large number of gases used for industrial processes
as those in welding and cutting (oxygen, acetylene); refrigeration (freon, ammonia, sulfur
dioxide); chemical processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine); water treatment
(chlorine, fluorine).

c. Medical Gases – those used for treatment such as anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous oxide);
respiratory therapy (oxygen).

Burning of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels are already in the required Vapor State. Only the proper intermixed with oxygen
and sufficient heat is needed for ignition. Gases like flammable liquids, always produce a visible flame,
they do not smolder.

Chemical Fuels

Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form, create great amounts of heat and
power. They are used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both a fuel and
an oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as
nitrogen tetroxide, that contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the oxidizer provides the
oxygen the fuel needs to burn. Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars.

Nuclear Fuels

Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms. Uranium is the most
commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear energy. When the atoms of these
elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used mainly to
generate electricity. They also power some submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be
produced through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.
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  Nuclear Fission – split of the nucleus of atoms
 Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light nuclei of atom

THE HEAT ELEMENT

HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to molecular activity.

In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another or from one
body to another by virtue of a difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit; it always flows from
substance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of
the latter and lowering that of the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains
constant. Heat does not flow from lower to a higher temperature unless another form of energy transfer
work is always present.

The study of energy is rooted in the subject of thermodynamics, a very logical science that
carefully defines energy, heat, temperature and other properties.

Heat is thermal energy in motion that travels from a hot to a cold region. Thermal energy is a
property of matter directly associated with the concept of temperature.

Heat and Temperature

Heat should not be confused with temperature, which is the measurement of the relative amount
of heat energy contained with in a given substance. Temperature is an intensity measurement, with
units in degrees on the Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin scales. Heat is the measurement of
quantity and is given in British thermal units (Btu).

Temperature is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules; the hotness
or coldness of something. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature and commonly
expressed in C, F, and K.

Although it is very easy to compare the relative temperatures of two substances by the sense of
touch, it is impossible to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the temperature by subjective reactions.
Adding heat to a substance, however, not only raises its temperature, causing it to impart a more acute
sensation of warmth, but also produces alterations in several physical properties, which may be
measured with precision.

Specific Heat

The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required raising the temperature of a unit mass
of a substance one-degree. If the heating process occurs while the substance is maintained at a
constant volume or is subjected to a constant pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at
constant volume.

Latent Heat

A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature of a substance.
Almost all substances expand in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The behavior of water
between 0 and 4C (32 and 39 F) constitutes an important exemption to this rule. The phase of a
substance refers to its occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure substances
occur at definite temperatures and pressures. The process of changing from solid to gas is referred to
as SUBLIMATION, from solid to liquid as MELTING and from liquid to vapor as VAPORIZATION. If
the pressure is constant, the process occurs at constant temperature. The amount of heat to produce
a change of phase is called LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of sublimation, melting and
vaporization exist. If water is boiled in an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atm, the temperature does not
rise above 100C (212F), no matter how much heat is added. For example, the heat that is absorbed
without changing the temperature of the water is the latent heat, it is not lost but expended in changing
the water to steam and is then stored as energy in the steam, it is again released when the steam is
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condensed to form water (CONDENSATION). Similarly, if the mixture of water and ice in a glass is
heated, its temperature will not change until all the ice is melted. The latent heat absorbed is used up
in overcoming the forces holding the particles of ice together and is stored as energy in the water.

Temperature Scales

Five different temperature scales are in use today, they are:

1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0C and a boiling point of 100C. It is widely used through
out the world, particularly for scientific works.
2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-speaking countries for purposes other than scientific
works and based on the mercury thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point of water is
32F and the boiling point is 212 F.
3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero
is defined as absolute zero of temperature that is, - 273.15 c, or –459.67 F.
4. Rankine – is another temperature scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point in which
each degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The freezing
point of water under this scale is 492 R and the boiling point is 672 R.
5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, scientist of 31 nations adopted a new
international temperature scale with additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin
scale and thermodynamic principles. The international scale is based on the property of
electrical resistively, with platinum wire as the standard for temperature between –190  and
660
6.

Heat Production

There are five ways to produce heat:

1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.

2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of two sticks together to
generate enough heat is an example.

3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical malfunction.
Poor wire connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing
through an improperly sized wire are other sources of electrical heat.

4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is greatly increased
producing heat.

5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic particles (Fission
or fusion respectively). The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear power plant produces
steam to turn steam turbines.

Heat Transfer

The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between bodies
are conduction and radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of matter, is called
convection.

Hence, there are three ways to transfer heat: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.

1. Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a material or medium, usually
a solid. Direct contact is the underlying factor in conduction. Example, if you touch a hot stove,
the pain you feel is a first result of conducted heat passing from the stove directly to your hand.
In a structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders, and other structural members such as walls
and floors may conduct enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the structure.

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 2. Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually air or liquid. Heat
transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures. The supper-
heated gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air, and consequently rise, they can and do
initiate additional damage. In large fires, the high fireball that accompanies the incident is
referred to as a firestorm and is an example of convected heat.

3. Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight. Radiated heat travels the
speed, as does visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the exposure
hazards that develop and exist during a fire. Heat waves travel in a direct or straight line from
their source until they strike an object. The heat that collects on the surface of the object or
building in the path of the heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass through conduction.

Conduction requires physical contact between bodies or portions of bodies exchanging heat, but
radiation does not require contact or the presence of any matter between the bodies. Convection occurs
when a liquid or gas is in contact with a solid body at a different temperature and is always accompanied
by the motion of the liquid or gas. The science dealing with the transfer of heat between bodies is called
heat transfer.

OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)

Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous chemical element, the
most abundant of all elements: it occurs free in the atmosphere, forming one fifth of its volume, and in
combination in water, sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active, being able to combine with nearly all
other elements, and is essential to life processes and to combustion.

The common oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air. Air composes 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen,
and 1 % inert gas (principally Argon).

Take Note: 21% normal oxygen is needed to produce fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12%
oxygen is insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen can support flash point, and 16-21% oxygen can
support fire point.
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FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and
thermal imbalance. Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the normal
behavior when the pattern is undisturbed. Thermal imbalance, on the other hand is the abnormal
movement of fire due to the interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire
investigator in determining the exact point where the fire originated.

Dangerous Behavior of Fire

Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:

1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area
that occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If a room is not
properly ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is
suddenly opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden
combustion occur, which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).

Characteristics of Backdraft

 fire gases are under pressure

 existence of black smoke that is becoming dense gray yellow
 confinement of excessive heat
 there is little flame or no visible flame
 smoke leave the building in puffs or by intervals
 windows are smoked stained
 muffled sounds are heard inside the building
 violent rushing of air inside when opened

2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is
incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark
or flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When accumulated volume of
radical gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump
at a certain distance in the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with in a few seconds.

3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations
and become stronger and bigger instead.

4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is
completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn
simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by
an explosion.

The Three Stages of Fire

1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this stage, the following characteristics are observed:

 normal room temperature

 the temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800 F
 ceiling temperature is about 200 F
 the pyrolysis products are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, small quantities of carbon
monoxide and sulfides maybe present.

2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following characteristics:

 accelerated pyrolysis process take place

 development of convection current: formation of thermal columns as heat rises

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  temperature is 800-1000 F at the base of fire, 1200-1600 F at ceiling
 pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls(crawling of the flame) leaving burnt
patterns (fire fingerprints)
 occurrence of flashover.

3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the following characteristics:

 oxygen content drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish and heat to develop in
layers,
 products of incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly carbon monoxide with an
ignition temperature of about 1125 F,
 ceiling temperature is 1000-1300 F,
 heat and pressure in the room builds up,
 building/room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but little oxygen,
 when sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, backdraft occurs.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

Based on Cause

1. Natural causes – such as

 Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous

combustion due to auto-ignition of organic materials, the gradual rising of heat in a confined
space until ignition temperature is reached.
 Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural current with a great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage. Lightning usually strikes objects that are better electrical
conductors than air. It can cause fire directly or indirectly. Indirectly when it strikes telephone
and other transmission lines, causing an induced line surge. It can also cause flash fire or
dust explosion. When lightning strikes steel or metal rod covered with dust, the dust will
suddenly burn thus resulting to an explosion.

A lightning may be in the form of:

Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible materials

Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of splintering a property or literally blowing apart an
entire structure, produces electrical current with tremendous amperage and very high temperature.

 Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a
combustible material thereby igniting it.

2. Accidental Causes – such as

 Electrical accidents in the form of:

Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections between two points at different potentials
(charge) in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
Arcing – the production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated
electrodes; an electric hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap between 2
electrical conductors.
Sparking – production of incandescent particles when two different potentials (charged
conductors) come in contact; occurs during short circuits or welding operations.
Induced Current – induced line surge – increased electrical energy flow or power voltage;
induced current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating
materials, explosion of the fuse box, or burning of electrical appliances.
Over heating of electrical appliances – the increase or rising of amperage while electric
current is flowing in a transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating
materials, maybe gradual or rapid, internal or external.

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  Purely accidental causes
 Negligence and other forms of human error

3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)

If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelerant, plants and trailers, then
the cause of fire is intentional.

 Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame propagation.
 Plant – the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials needed to start a fire.
 Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire.

Based on Burning Fuel (the classes of fire)

1. Class A Fire – Ordinary fires; they are the types of fire resulting from the burning wood,
paper, textiles, rubber and other carbonaceous materials. In short, this is the type of fire
caused by ordinary combustible materials.
2. Class B Fire – Liquid fires; they are caused by flammable and or combustible liquids such
as kerosene, gasoline, benzene, oil products, alcohol and other hydrocarbon deviations.
3. Class C Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in live electrical wires, equipment,
motors, electrical appliances and telephone switchboards.
4. Class D Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the combustion of certain metals in finely
divided forms. These combustible metals include magnesium, potassium, powdered calcium,
zinc, sodium, and titanium.

FIRE FIGTHING OPERATIONS AND EXTINGUISHMENT

Fire fighting is an activity intended to save lives and property. It is one of the most important
emergency services in a community. Fire fighters battle fires that break out in homes, factories, office
buildings, shops, and other places. Fire fighters risk their lives to save people and protect property
from fires. The people who work as fire fighters also help others who are involved in many kinds of
emergencies besides fires. For example, fire fighters rescue people who may be trapped in cars or
vehicles after an accident. They aid victims of such disasters as typhoons, floods, landslides, and
earthquakes. Before the advent of modern fire fighting techniques, fires often destroyed whole
settlements. When a fire broke but, all the people in the community rushed to the scene to help. Today,
fire fighting organizations in most industrialized nations have well-trained men and women and a variety
of modern fire fighting equipment.

The Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP)

Republic Act # 6975, the DILG Act of 1990 (Chapter 4, Section 53-59) created the Bureau of
Fire Protection (BFP) to be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires and
to enforce the laws on fire.

Fire Protection is the descriptive term referring to the various methods used by the bureau to
stop, extinguish and control destructive fire for eventual prevention of loss of life and property. It has
the following objectives:

1. To prevent destructive fire from starting

2. To extinguish (stop or put out) on going destructive fire
3. To confine a destructive fire at the place where it began
4. To prevent loss of life and property when fire starts

Fire Prevention and Suppression refers to the various safety measures utilized to stop harmful
or destructive fires from starting.

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 The laws related with the fire prevention and fire protection in the Philippine setting includes PD #

1185, Fire Code of the Philippine (26 August 1977), PD # 1096, Building Code of the Philippine (19

February 1977)

The Bureau of Fire Protection is composed of well-trained fire fighters. In fighting fires, they bring
with them ladders and pumps. Additional specialist vehicles can provide turntable ladders, hydraulic
platforms, extra water, foam, and specialist appliances for hazardous incidents.

In some countries, such as the United States, fire-fighting units are divided into engine
companies and ladder companies. Engine companies operate trucks called engines, which carry a
pump and hoses for spraying water on a fire. Ladder companies use ladder trucks, which carry ladders
of various lengths. Ladder trucks also have a hydraulically extended ladder or elevating platform to
rescue people through windows or to spray water from a raised position.

Fire fighters in the Philippines handle many types of fires. Each type requires a different plan of
action to put it out. For example, the methods used to fight a building fire differ greatly from those used
to fight a forest or grassland fire.

Factor Affecting Fire Protection and Control

Fire protection and control is affected by the accumulation of fire hazards in a building or area.

Fire Hazard is any condition or act that increases or may cause increase in the probability that
fire will occur or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the
safeguarding of life and property

Conditions of Fire Hazards

1. Existence of dangerous or unlawful amount of combustible or explosives in the building not

designed to store such materials.
2. Defective or improperly installed facilities/ equipment.
3. Lack of adequate exit facilities.
4. Obstruction at fire escapes or other designated opening for fire fighters.
5. Dangerous occumulation of rubbish waste and other highly combustible materials.
6. Accumulation of dust in ventilation system or of grease in the kitchen.
7. Building under repair
8. Very old building or building is primarily made of combustible materials

Fire Fighting Operations

Fire fighting operations refers to fire suppression activities. In general the following procedures
should be observed:

1. PRE-FIRE PLANNING - this activity involves developing and defining systematic course of
actions that maybe performed in order to realize the objectives of fire protection: involves the
process of establishing the SOP in case fire breaks out.

2. EVALUATION – SIZE – UP (on-the-spot planning or sizing-up the situation) - this is the process
knowing the emergency situation. It involves mental evaluation by the operation officer-in-charge
to determine the appropriate course of action that provides the highest probability of success.

Evaluation of the situation:

a. Learn the facts of the situation – by answering the 5 Ws – 1H

b. Understand the probabilities of fatal behavior of fire

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 c. Know your own situation or capabilities – weaknesses and
strengths: available manpower and equipment
d. Determine the specific course of action – entry or rescue

3. EVACUATION – This the activity of transferring people, livestock, and property away from the
burning area to minimize damage or destruction that the fire might incur in case it propagates to
other adjacent buildings.

4. ENTRY – This is the process of accessing the burning structure. Entry maybe done in a forcible
manner. Purposes of conducting forcible entry:

a. To provide access for fire fighters with equipment for fire extinguishments
b. To provide rescue
c. To aid in ventilation

5. RESCUE – This is the operation of removing (extricating), thus saving, people and other
livestock from the burning building and other involved properties, conveying them to a secure
place

6. EXPOSURE – also called cover exposure, this is the activity of securing other buildings near the
burning structure in order to prevent the fire from the extending to another building.

7. CONFINEMENT – This is the activity of restricting the fire at the place (room) where it started :
the process of preventing fire from extending from another section or form one section to another
section of the involved building.

8. VENTILATION – This the operation purposely conducted to displace toxic gases. It includes the
process of displacing the heated atmosphere within the involved building with normal air from
outside atmosphere.

9. SALVAGE – The activity of protecting the properties from preventable damage other than the
fire. The steps are a) remove the material outside the burning area, and b) protecting or cover
the materials by using tarpaulins (cotton canvass treated with water proofing).

10. EXTINGUISHMENT – This is the process of putting out the main body of fire by using the 4
general methods of fire extinguishments.

11. OVERHAUL – This is the complete and detailed check of the structure and all materials therein
to eliminate conditions that may cause re-flash; involves complete extinguishments of sparks or
smouldering (glowing) substances (embers) to prevent possibilities of re-ignition or rekindling.

12. FIRE SCENE INVESTIGATION - This is the final stage of fire suppression activities. It is an
inquiry conducted to know or determine the origin and cause of fire.

Objects of Fire Fighting Operations and Activities

1. Fighting a Building Fire

 After an alarm is received, fire fighters hurry to the fire.

 The officer in command quickly sizes up the situation and directs the fire fighters into
action.
 Their first and most important task is to rescue people who may be trapped in the building.
 Ladder operators search for anyone who may be trapped. In some buildings, they use
ladders to rescue people through windows. However, the ladders on most trucks extend
up to only about eight storeys.
 Fire fighters use stairs or elevators to get to people trapped on floors above the reach of
the ladders.

Meanwhile, fire fighters connect a hose from their pump to a nearby fire hydrant, or else to
water or foam stored on the fire tender. Their first concern is to keep the flames from spreading. The
16 | P a g e
fire fighters direct water on the fire until it is out. They also spray water on any nearby buildings that
are in danger of catching fire. Fire fighters sometimes ventilate the building to let out the smoke,
heat, and gases that build up during a fire. They open or break windows and sometimes cut holes in
the roof or walls. If the building were not ventilated, the heat and the pressure of the gases could
cause an explosion.

Fire fighters also try to save any furniture or other property not damaged by the fire. They
spread canvas or plastic covers over such property to prevent water damage. This process is called
salvage. Finally, in a process called overhaul, fire fighters search the building for hidden sparks that
might cause another blaze.

After the fire is out, the fire fighters try to find out exactly where and how the fire started. The
officer in charge makes out a report that gives all the important facts about the fire. The report
includes information on injuries, the cause of the fire, and the estimated cost of repairing the damage.
This is the initial investigation stage.

2. Fighting a Forest Fire

Many grassland and forest fires occur in areas that are hard to reach and far from a source of
water. Local fire brigades have trucks that carry water and can travel over rough land. Observers in
helicopters or aeroplanes may fly over the fire and report on its size and behavior. Sometimes,
helicopters or aeroplanes are also used to carry fire fighters to the fire or to drop chemicals that slow
the spread of the fire.

Grassland and forest fires often spread rapidly and are difficult to put out. Fire fighters try to
keep the fire within the smallest area possible, and so they may first create a firebreak, or fire line.
The fire fighters clear a strip of land some distance in front of the racing flames. They cut down the
grass or trees and scrape away some of the soil with shovels. The fire fighters spray water or throw
soil on the flames until the fire is out.

In some cases, fire fighters allow a grassland or forest fire to burn. They may do so if the fire
has been caused by lightning or some other natural event. Such fires are a regular part of the life cycle
of grasslands and forests. However, fire fighters do try to limit or put out all forest and grassland fires
that threaten people or property.

3. Emergency Rescue Operations

Our fire fighting organizations have rescue companies to handle non-fire emergencies. For
example, rescue workers may be called to free people trapped under the wreckage of a fallen
building or in a car after an accident. They have specialized teams to rescue people who are
stranded underwater or in swift-flowing water, or on cliffs and in other high places.
4. Emergency Medical Operations

Many fire fighters provide medical care in non-fire emergencies before the patient is taken to
the hospital. These units make up an important part of their community's Emergency Medical
Services (EMS) system. They are the so called Paramedics.

Some fire fighting services provide only a basic, "first response" service. Ambulance workers
or other emergency workers then provide more advanced treatment and transport the patient to the
hospital. Paramedic units operate ambulances and use communication equipment to stay in touch
with a nearby hospital. Under the direction of a doctor, they may use advanced medical equipment
and administer drugs. They may also transport the patient to the hospital.

5. Fire Prevention and Fire Safety

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 To help prevent fires and reduce fire losses, local fire fighting services inspect public buildings.
They also teach people about fire safety. Many have a separate division that handles fire prevention
and fire safety programmes.

6. Public Building Inspections

In consonance with the provisions of the Building Code (PD 1185), the Fire Bureau conduct
inspection buildings as theatres, stores, schools, and hospitals. The code specifies certain
requirements like portable fire extinguishers, a certain number of exits, and other fire safety features
in public buildings. Large buildings maybe required to provide built-in sprinkler systems and special
water lines to which fire hoses can be attached and to have fire alarm systems.
What is a Sprinkle System?
A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes installed throughout a building. The pipes
carry water to nozzles in the ceiling. The heat from a fire causes the nozzles directly above the fire to
open and spray water.
The Fire Bureau personnel inspect public buildings to enforce the local code. The officials
check the operating condition of the fire protection systems. They note the number and location of
exits and fire extinguishers. The inspection also covers housekeeping practices and many other
matters that affect fire safety. Fire inspectors may also review plans for a new building to make sure
it meets the safety code.

7. Public Education Program

Fire fighting services work with other local agencies to teach people how to prevent fires and
what to do during a fire. The fire fighting officials serve as instructors or advisers in fire safety
courses in schools.
They educate the public about deaths caused by fires that occur in private homes. Many
home fires are caused by leaving the kitchen when food is cooking, disposing of cigarettes
improperly, misusing portable heating equipment, and placing flammable or combustible items too
close to heat sources.
Fire fighting groups advise people to install smoke detectors in their homes.

What is a Smoke Detector?

Smoke detector is a device that sounds an alarm if a small amount of smoke enters their sensors.
Smoke detectors are attached to the ceiling or wall in several areas of the home. Fire protection experts
recommend at least one detector for each floor of a residence.

Fire fighters also recommend that people have portable fire extinguishers in their homes. A
person must be sure, however, to call the fire fighting service before trying to extinguish a fire. It is
also important to use the right kind of extinguisher for the type of fire involved.

The Fire Extinguishments Theory

The Fire Extinguishments Theory maintains that “to extinguish a fire, interrupt or eliminate the
supply of any or all of the elements of fire.” Fire can be extinguished by reducing/ lowering the
temperature, eliminating the fuel supply, or by stopping the chemical chain reaction.

4 General Methods of Fire Extinguishment

1. Extinguishment by Temperature Reduction

 Cooling the temperature of the fire environment: usually done by using water.

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  Lower down the temperature to cool the fuel to a point where it does not produce sufficient
vapors that burn.

2. Extinguishment by Fuel Removal

 Elimination of the fuel supply/ source which maybe done by:

a. stopping the flow of liquid fuel
b. preventing the production of flammable gas
c. removing the solid fuel at the fire path
d. allowing the fire to burn until the fuel is consumed

3. Extinguishment by Oxygen Dilution

a. reduction of oxygen concentration at the burning area

b. by introducing inert gases
c. by separating oxygen from the fuel

4.Extinguishment by Chemical Inhibition

 Some extinguishments agents, like dry chemical and halon, interrupt the production of
flame resulting to rapid extinguishment of the fire. This method is effective only on burning
gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in smoldering mode of combustion.

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What are the methods of extinguishing the 4 Classes of Fire?

1. CLASS A FIRES – by quenching and cooling: water is the best agent in cooling the burning solid
materials; water has a quenching effect that can reduce the temperature of a burning material
below its ignition temperature; (Fire extinguishers which have water, sand, acid, foam and
special solution containing alkali methyl dust, as found in the loaded stream extinguisher, should
be used for this type of fire.)

2. CLASS B FIRES – by smothering or blanketing (oxygen exclusion). This type of fire is put or
controlled by foam, loaded stream, carbon dioxide, dry chemical and vaporizing liquid.

3. CLASS C FIRES – controlled by a non-conducting extinguishing agent: the safest procedure is

to always de-energize the electrical circuit. Extinguishers that should be used to put out these
type of fires are Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers, Dry Chemical, Vaporizing liquids.

4. CLASS D FIRES – by using special extinguishing agents marked specifically for metals. GE
type, meth LX, Lith X, Meth L, Kyl, dry sand and dry talc can put out class D fires

5. CLASS E FIRES – only combination of the above methods.

Fire Extinguishers

A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of metal, containing chemicals,

fluids, or gasses for stopping fires, the means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting
out fire (particularly small fire ) before it propagates, and is capable of being readily moved from place
to place.

It is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited size.

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What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?

1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled with water use of fight Class A and Class B fires
except class C fires.

2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those extinguishers that contain Carbon Monoxide Gas use to
fight class A, B, and C fires

3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that contain chemical powder intended to fight all classes
of fires.

4. Foam Extinguisher– contains sodium bicarbonate and a foam-stabilizing agent in a larger

compartment and a solution of aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinder; reaction between the
two solutions forms a stabilized foam of carbon dioxide bubbles.

5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with sodium bicarbonate mixed with water; a small bottle
of sulfuric acid is suspended inside (near the top) in such a way that when the extinguisher
is turned up-side-down, the acid mixes with sodium bicarbonate; carbon dioxide is formed by
the reaction which results to the building of pressure inside the extinguisher; this pressure
forces the water solution out from the container through a hose.

6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains non-conducting liquid, generalization carbon

tetrachloride or chlorobromethane; operation is by manual pumping or using a stored
pressure; the stream of liquid that is expelled is vaporized by the heat of the fire and forms a
smothering blanket. This type is usually used in fires involving flammable liquids or electrical
equipment.

7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective against burning liquids and fires in live electrical
equipment; used mainly to put out Class C fires.

What are examples of extinguishing agents?

1. MULTI-PURPOSE DRY CHEMICALS like the Mono-Ammonium Phosphate ( NH H PO )

2. HALON 1211 or Bromochlorodifluoromethane

3. AFFF – (Aqueous Film Forming Foam), is a synthetic foam-forming liquid designed for use
with fresh water.

4. CARBON DIOXIDE – a chemical that can deliver a quick smothering action to the flames,
reducing the oxygen and suffocating the fire. Carbon dioxide dissipates without leaving any
contamination or corrosive residue.

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What are the markings required on Fire Extinguishers?

Under (Rule 37, Sec. 106 of PD 1185), all fire extinguishers manufactured or sold in the
Philippines must be labelled or marked to show at least the following:

1. Date of original filling

2. Chemical Contents
3. Type of extinguisher
4. Operating Instruction and Safe Procedure in usage
5. Name and address of the manufacturer
6. Name and address of the dealer.

What are the prohibited types of fire extinguishers?

Rule 37, Sec. 104 of IRR of PD 1185 provides that the following types of fires extinguishers
are prohibited for manufacture or sale:

1. All inverting types which make it necessary to invert the container before the extinguisher’s
operation
2. Soda-acid extinguishers
3. Stored pressure or cartridge operated foam solution, unless and air-aspiring nozzle is provided
4. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane in any
concentration of formulation
5. Vaporizing liquid extinguishers of less than one kilogram extinguishing agent
6. Glass bulb, “grenade” type, or “bomb” type of vaporizing liquid extinguishers which have to be
thrown to the fire or are mounted on specific location and which operate upon the melting of a
fusible link.
7. Thermatic special hazards single station extinguishers with extinguishing capability of less than
four and a half (4.5) cubic meters
8. Other types which maybe hereinafter prohibited.

What are the prohibited acts involving the operation of fire extinguishers?

From the same legal basis above, the following are declared prohibited acts concerning the
use of fire extinguishers:

1. Removal of inspection tags attached to fire extinguishers

2. Refilling a discharge extinguisher with a extinguishing agent other than what the unit was
designed to contain
3. Selling fire extinguishers not appropriate to the hazard
4. Selling fire extinguishers prohibited by Rule 37, Section 104
5. Selling defective or substandard extinguishers
6. Using/installing two or more thermatic special hazard vaporizing liquid units in rooms with
volume greater than the nominal capability of one unit.
7. Installing pressure gauges in fire extinguishers which do not indicate the actual pressure of the
interior of vessel such as, but not limited to use of uncalibrated gauges, not providing or blocking
the connection between the gauge and the interior, or fixing the indicator/needle to indicate a
certain pressure.

What are the General Operating Procedures in Fire Extinguishment?

The general operating procedures in using a fire extinguisher may be modified by the acronym
PASS.

P - Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being pressed. Press
the plastic or thin wire inspection band.
A– Aim the nozzle or outlet towards the fire. Some hose assemblies are dipped to the
extinguisher body. Released it and then point at the base of the fire.
22 | P a g e
 S – Squeeze the handle above carrying handle to discharge the extinguishing agent inside. The
handle can be released to stop the discharge at any time.
S – Sweep the nozzle sideways at the base of the flame to disperse the extinguishing agent.

After the fire is out, probe for remaining smouldering hot spots or possible re-flash of flammable liquids.
Make sure the fire is out before leaving the burned area.

Fire Fighting Equipment

The most important equipment for fire fighters includes:

1. Communication Systems

They are necessary to alert fire fighters to the outbreak of a fire. Most fire alarms are telephoned
to the fire department. Many countries have introduced a simple, 3-digit number as the telephone
number to call in emergencies. This number can be dialed from almost any telephone and from most
pay phones without a coin. Dialing this number is free. In the Philippines, the emergency line is 166.

2. Fire Vehicles

Fire fighters have several types of fire vehicles. The main types are (1) engines, (2) ladder
appliances, and (3) rescue vehicles.

Engines, also called water tenders, have a large pump that takes water from a fire hydrant or
other source. The pump boosts the pressure of the water and forces it through hoses. Engines carry
several sizes of hoses and nozzles. Many also have a small-diameter hose called a booster line, which
is wound on a reel. The booster line is used chiefly to put out small outdoor fires.

Ladder appliances - There are two kinds of ladder appliances--turntable ladders and hydraulic
platforms.

A turntable ladder appliance has a metal extension ladder mounted on a turntable. The ladder
can be raised as high as 30 meters, or about eight storeys.

A hydraulic platform truck has a cage-like platform that can hold several people. The platform
is attached to a lifting device that is mounted on a turntable. The lifting device consists of either a
hinged boom (long metal arm) or an extendable boom made of several sections that fit inside each
other. The boom on the largest vehicles can extend 46 meters. A built-in hose runs the length of the
23 | P a g e
boom and is used to direct water on a fire. In most cases, a pump in a nearby engine generates the
pressure needed to spray the water.

Fire Fighting Vehicles - are equipped with portable ladders of various types and sizes. They
also carry forcible entry tools, which fire fighters use to gain entry into a building and to ventilate it to
let out smoke. Common forcible entry tools include axes, power saws, and sledge hammers.

Rescue Vehicles are enclosed vehicles equipped with many of the same kinds of forcible entry
tools that ladder appliances carry. But rescue vehicles also carry additional equipment for unusual
rescues. They have such tools as oxyacetylene torches, for cutting through metal, and hydraulic jacks,
for lifting heavy objects. They may also carry other hydraulic tools. With a hydraulic rescue tool, fire
fighters can apply a large amount of pressure to two objects to squeeze them together or prise them
apart. The tool is often used to free people trapped in cars and other vehicles after an accident. Many
rescue vehicles also carry small hand tools, such as crowbars and saws, and ropes and harnesses for
rescuing people from water or high places. In addition, they carry medical supplies and equipment.

Special Fire Vehicles include airport crash tenders and hazardous materials units. Airport
crash tenders are engines that spray foam or dry chemicals on burning aircraft. Water is ineffective
against many aircraft fires, such as those that involve jet fuel or certain metals.

In addition to the above fire fighting equipment, fire fighters are also required to use protective
clothing.

Protective Clothing - clothing for protection against flames, falling objects, and other hazards.
They wear coats and trousers made of fire-resistant material. Other clothing includes special boots,
gloves, and helmets. Fire fighters also use a breathing apparatus to avoid inhaling smoke and toxic
gases.

Fire Prevention and Public Safety

As mentioned earlier, Fire Prevention is a term for the many safety measures used to keep
harmful fires from starting. Fires not only cause extensive damage to valuable property, but also
responsible for large numbers of deaths.

What are the methods of Fire Prevention?

Individuals, groups, and communities use three main methods to prevent fires:

1. Laws and Regulations - Many countries have codes and standards that require certain
types of fire retardant materials and electric wiring to be used in buildings.
2. Inspection of buildings and other property - Fire brigades and other public agencies
inspect public buildings for fire hazards and recommend corrective action. In some
communities, homeowners may agree to have their homes inspected for fire hazards.
3. Public education about fire safety and prevention - Education is a vital part of fire
prevention programmes because people cause to prevent--almost all fires. Fire brigades,
community groups, and schools teach children and adults about fire hazards and work to
reduce fires throughout the community.

FIRE INVESTIGATION

In the Philippines, the Bureau of fire Protection is the main government agency responsible for
the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on buildings, houses and other structures,
forest, land transportation vehicles and equipments, ships or vessels docked at piers or major
seaports, petroleum industry installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as the
enforcement of the Fire Code and other related laws. It has the major power to investigate all causes
of fires and necessary, file the proper complaints with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over
the case (R.A. no. 6975, sec. 54).
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Why Fires should be investigated?

The very reason why fires should be investigated is to determine the cause of the fire in order
to prevent similar occurrences. The determination of the origin and cause of fire is arrived at only after
a thorough investigation. Since basic investigation is prelude to the discovery of the true cause of the
fire, an understanding of the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior should be a concern for
successful investigation.

Who are qualified to investigate fires?

A fire investigator should have the following traits:

1. Possession of knowledge of investigational techniques.
2. He should have an insight of human behavior.
3. He should have a first hand knowledge of the chemistry of fire and its behavior
4. He should be resourceful.

Is Fire Investigation Complex and Unique?

Fire investigation is complex and unique because of the following reasons:

1. Fire destroys evidence
2. If it is Arson, it is planned, motivated and committed is discreet.
3. Rarely can there be an eyewitness in Arson.

What are the roles of the Firemen in Fire Investigation?

Firemen are usually at the crime scene ahead of the fire investigators. Hence, they are
valuable sources of information. They are the so-called “Eyes and Ears” of the police before, during
and after the fire has been placed under control. The information taken from them may be categorize
as:
1. Information attainable or developed prior to the arrival at the scene
2. Information available to the firemen at the scene
3. Information available during overhaul and thereafter.

Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation

ARSON defined

Arson is the intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.

It is the concern of fire investigation to prove malicious intent of the offender. Intent must be
proved, otherwise, no crime exist. The law presumes that a fire is accidental, hence criminal designs
must be shown. Fire cause by accident or criminal design must be shown. Fire cause by accident or
negligence does not constitute arson.

What is Destructive Arson?

Under Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code, as amended, the penalty of Reclusion Perpetua
to Death shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn:

1. One (1) or more buildings or edifices, consequent to one single act of burning, or as a result
of simultaneous burnings, or committed on several or different occasions.
2. Any building of public or private ownership, devoted to the public in general or where people
usually gather or congregate for a definite purpose such as, but not limited to official
governmental function or business, private transaction, commerce, trade workshop,
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 meetings and conferences, or merely incidental to a definite purpose such as but not limited
to hotels, motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or stops or terminals, regardless of
whether the offender had knowledge that there are persons in said building or edifice at the
time it is set on fire and regardless also of whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or airplane devoted to transportation or
conveyance, or for public use, entertainment or leisure.
4. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and any appurtenances thereto, which are
devoted to the service to public utilities.
5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealing or destroying evidence of
another violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing bankruptcy or defrauding creditors
or to collect from insurance.

Irrespective of the application of the above enumerated qualifying circumstances, the penalty of
reclusion to death shall likewise be imposed when the arson is perpetrated or committed by two or
more persons or by group of persons, regardless of whether their purpose is merely to burn or destroy
the building or the building merely constitutes an overt act in the commission or another violation of
law.

The penalty of Reclusion Perpetua to Death shall also be imposed upon any person who shall
burn:

1. any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military power or firework factory, ordinance,

storehouse, archives or general museum of the government.
2. in an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or explosives materials.

If the consequence of the commission of any of the acts penalized under this Article, death results, the
mandatory penalty of death shall be imposed (sec. 10, RA 7659).

What is the basis of criminal liability in arson?

1. Kind and character of the building burned

2. Location of the building
3. Extent or value of the damage
4. Whether inhabited or not.

What are other forms of arson?

Other forms of arson refer to those enumerated under Article 321 of the Revised Penal Code,
as amended like the following:

1. Setting fires to any building, farmhouse, warehouse, hut, shelter, or vessel in port, knowing
it to be occupied at the time by one or more person.
2. Building burned is a public building and value of damage exceeds six thousands pesos
(P6000.00).
3. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence kept therein to be
used in instituting prosecution for punishment of violators of law, irrespective of the amount
of damage.
4. Building burned is a public building and purpose is to destroy evidence kept therein to be
used in legislative, judicial or administrative proceeding, irrespective of the damage, if the
evidence is to be used against defendant of any crime punishable under existing law.

Suggested Readings:
1. U.S vs. Evangelista, 39 Phil. 825
2. People vs. Tamba, 10 SCRA 296
3. People vs. Paterno, 47 O.G 4600
4. People vs. Villarosa, 54 O.G 3482
5. People vs. Macalma, 44 Phil. 170

Arson of Property of Small Value (Art. 323, RPC)

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 Burning of any uninhabited hut, storehouse, barn, shed, or any other property, under
circumstances clearly excluding all danger of the fire spreading, value of the property not exceed 25.00
pesos.

Suggested Readings:
1. People vs. Alvarez, 52 Phil. 65
2. People vs. Herrera, (C.A) GR no. 5782-R, May 15, 1951
3. People vs. Camporedondo

Crimes Involving Destruction (Art 324, RPC)

The offender causes destruction by any of the following means:

1. explosion
2. discharge of electric current
3. inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel
4. taking up the rails from a railway track
5. malicious changing of railway signals for the safety of moving trains
6. destroying telegraph wires and telegraph post or those any other communication system
7. by using any other agency or means of destruction as effective as the above

Burning one’s own property as a means to commit arson (Read Case of U.S vs. Budiao, 4 Phil.
502) (Article 325, RPC)

Article 326, RPC – Setting Fire to Property Exclusively Owned By the Offender

This act is punished if the purpose of the offender is to:

1. Defraud or cause damage to another or
2. damaged is actually caused upon another’s property even if such purpose is absent or
3. thing burned is a building in an inhabited place.

Presidential Decree No. 1613 – Amending the Law on Arson

Special Aggravating Circumstance in Arson

1. If committed with intent to gain:

2. If committed with the benefit of another:
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property
burned:
4. If committed by a syndicate (3 or more persons).

Prima Facie Evidence of Arson

1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment
2. If substantial amounts of flammable substance or materials are stored within the building not
necessary in the business of the offender or for house hold use.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other flammable or combustible substances or materials
soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic
contrivance designed to start a fire, a fire, or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are found
in the ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of
the issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have
occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and / or
insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a building
or property had been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in exchange
for the desistance of the offender or the safety of the person or property of the victim.

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What Constitutes Arson?

1. Burning – to constitute burning, pyrolysis must takes place. In other words, there must be
burning or changing, i.e. the fibber of the wood must be destroyed, its identity changed.
2. Wilfulness – means intentional, and implies that the act was done purposely and intentionally.
3. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.
4. Motive – is the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.
5. Intent – is the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves the will.

Methods of Proof in Arson

Physical evidences in arson are often destroyed. To prove arson was committed, Corpus Delicti
must be shown and identify of the arsonist must be established. Corpus Delicti (body of the crime)
is the fact of that crime was committed. The following must show it:

1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct testimony of complaint, firemen
responding to the crime, other eyewitnesses. Burned parts of the building may also indicate
location.
2. Criminal Design – must show that it was wilfully and intentionally done. The presence of
incendiary devices, flammables such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is
not accidental.
3. Evidence of Intent – When valuables were removed from the building before the fire, ill-
feeling between the accused and the occupants of the building burned, absence of effort to
put off fire and such other indications.

What are basic lines of inquiry in Arson Investigation?

The arson investigator must have to inquire on the following a) point of origin of fire b) motives
of arsonist c) prime suspects d) the telltale signs of arson.

1. Point of origin of fire

Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of fire. In other words, at
what particular place in the building the fire started? This may be established by an examination of
the witness, by an inspection of the debris at the fire scene and by studying the fingerprint of fire. The
fingerprint of fire occurs during the free burning stage of the fire when pyrolytic decomposition moves
upward on the walls leaving a bunt pattern.

Witnesses must be questioned as to:

1. His identity
2. What attracted his attention
3. Time of observation
4. His position in relation to the fire at the time of observation
5. Exact location of the blaze
6. Size and intensity
7. Rapidity of spread
8. Color of flame and odor if he is in a position this
9. Any other person in the vicinity beside the witness

Note fire setting mechanism

1. matches
2. candles
3. electrical system
4. mechanical means
5. chemical methods

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 2. Motive of Arsonist

To understand the motives of arsonist, the arson investigator have to note the following that fires
are set by:

Persons with Motives

a. Those with desire to defraud the Insurer

b. Employees or such other person who have a grievance (Fire revenge)
c. Those with desire to conceal evidence of a crime
d. Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation

People without motives

a. Those who are mentally ill

b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros and the Psychos

Motives of Arsonist

1. Economic Gain

b. Insurance fraud – benefiting

c. Desire to dispose merchandise – lost of market value being out of season, lack of raw
materials, over supply of merchandise can be a big reason for arson.
d. Existing business transaction that the arsonist would like to avoid such as impending
liquidation, settlement of estate, need for cash, prospective business failure, and
increase rentals
e. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the Assured like insurance agents wishing business
with the assured, business competitors planning to drive others, person seeking job as
personnel protection, salvagers and contractors wishing to contact another building

2. Concealment of Crime - When the purpose of hiding a crime or committing a crime, arson
was used as means.
3. Punitive Measure - Committing arson to inflict injury to another due to hatred, jealousy and
revenge.

4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling - Arsonist as saboteurs, strikers and racketeers to

intimidate management or employer.
5. Pyromania

A pyromaniac having the uncontrollable impulse to burn anything without any motivation.
They do not run away from the fire scene since they love watching fire burning.

Types of Pyromania

a. Abnormal Youth – epileptics, imbeciles and morons

b. Hero Type – a person set a building on fire and pretends to discover it, turn on the alarm
or make some rescue works to appear as “hero”
c. Drug addicts and alcoholics
d. Sexual deviates and perverts.

3. Prime Suspects (and the Prima Facie Evidences)

The development of prime suspects - this involves identification results from the full
development of leads, clues and traces, the testimony particularly eyewitnesses and the development
of expert testimony, The following technique may serve the investigation:

1. Search of the fire scene for physical evidence:

a. Protection of the scene
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 b. Mechanics of search
c. Collection and preservation of evidences
d. Laboratory aids

2. Background study of policyholders, occupants of premises, owner of building or other person

having major interest in the fire.
3. Interviews and interrogations of persons who discovered the fire, and the one who turned the
first alarm, firemen, and eyewitnesses.
4. Surveillance

4. The Tell Tale Signs of Arson

These signs maybe obvious that the first fireman at the scene will suspects arson or they
maybe so well concealed that moths of patient investigation to show that it is set off will be required.

1. Burned Building – the type of the building may indicate a set fire under certain circumstance.
A fire of considerable size at the time the first apparatus arrive at the scene is suspicious if it
is a modern concrete or semi-concrete building.

2. Separate fires – when two or more separate fire breaks out within a building. The fire is
certainly suspicious.

3. Color of Smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but they are exception. The
observation of the smoke must be made at the start of the fire since once the fire has
assumed a major proportion, the value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will not
indicate the material used by the arsonist

a.) When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with
the fire, it indicates humid material burning. Example – burning hay, vegetable
materials, phosphorus (with garlic odor).

b.) Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing lacrymation and coughing
indicates presence of chlorine.

c.) Black smoke indicates lack of air if accompanied by large flames it indicates petroleum
products and rubber.

d.) Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04, HN03, or HCI.

e.) Meaning of color of Smoke and Fire:

 Black smoke with deep red flame – petroleum products, tar, rubber, plastics, etc.
 Heavy brown with bright red flame – nitrogen products
 White smoke with bright flame – magnesium products
 Black smoke with red and blue green flame – asphalt
 Purple-violet flame – potassium products
 Greenish-yellow flame – Chloride or Manganese products
 Bright reddish yellow flame – Calcium products

8. Color of flame – The color of the flame is a good indication of the intensity of the fire, an
important factor in determining incendiarism.
9. Amount of Heat – A reddish glow indicates heat of 5000 degrees centigrade, a real bright
read about 100 degrees centigrade. Red flames indicate of petroleum. Blue flame indicates
use of alcohol as accelerant.
10. Smoke Marks – An experience investigation will determine the volume of smoke involved at
a fire and the character as residue deposited on walls or elsewhere. Smoke in marks have
often been of assistance in determining the possibility of a fire having more than one place
of origin.

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 11. Size of Fire – This is important when correlated with the type of alarm, the time received and
the time of arrival of the first fire apparatus. Fires make what might be termed a normal
progress. Such progress can be estimated after an examination of the material burned the
building and the normal ventilation offered of the fire. The time element and the degree of
headway by the flames become important factors to determine factors to determine possible
incendiarism.
12. Direction of Travel – While it is admitted that no two fires burn in identical fashion, yet it can
be shown that fire makes normal progress through various types of building materials,
combustibility of contents, channel of ventilation and circumstances surrounding the sending
of alarm, an experienced investigator can determine whether a fire spread abnormally fast.
13. Intensity – The degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its flame oftentimes indicate
that some accelerant has been added to the material normally present in a building and the
investigator must look for further evidence pointing to use of such accelerant. Difficulty in
extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of such fluid as gasoline and
kerosene.
14. Odor – The odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other inflammable liquids which are often
used as accelerant is characteristics and oftentimes arsonist are trapped because of this
telltale sign. Most of fire – setters are inclined to use substance which will make the blaze
certain and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.
15. Condition of Content – Persons tending to set their house on fire frequently remove objects
of value either materially or sentimentally. Store and other business establishments
oftentimes remove a major portion of their content or replace valuable merchandise without
of style articles.

THE FIRE ORIGIN

One of the first things to look for is the origin of the fire. Usually, accidental fires have only one
origin; sometimes an arson fire will have several origins. That is, there will be two or more fires.
Normally, a fire burns outward laterally in all directions, the heat generated moves up, and fires seldom
burns down. Ventilation will also affects the burning pattern; but without unusual ventilation, fires burn
equally in all directions except down. It may be necessary to go to several spots and point back to the
most damaged areas; where the lines crosses probably will be the origin of the fire.

Explosions also feed in all directions; the heat effect is usually intense. The point of explosion is
usually easier to determine than the point of origin of other accelerants. Unless the investigator has ad
special training in this type investigation, it probably would be to his advantage to call in a specialist.

Alligator Pattern - The alligator pattern (checking of charred wood giving it the appearance of
alligator skin) caused by the fire often can be used to trace the fire to its origin. The pattern at the point
of origin is smaller and deeper than the rest of the areas. The pattern is also smaller and deeper at
points where flammable liquids were used.

Information from people - Many investigators have found that information from people help
them know what to look for the fire scene. The good investigator knows how to how to interview people
to get information that can help determine the origin of the fire, the cause of fire and even incendiary
origin of the fire. The owner, the family of the owner, person calling in the alarm, neighbors, witnesses,
or any person who might help in any way should be interviewed. If an investigator ever needed to be a
skilled interviewer, it is in arson investigation cases. Most people just do not like to talk about arson fire.
In general, they must be questioned as to the following.
a. His identity
b. His business in the arson of the fire.
c. What attracted his attention to it?
d. Time of observation and exact location of the blaze.
e. His position in relation to the fire at time of observation.
f. Size of intensity, rapidity of spread, and direct travel of flame.
g. Color of flame, and odor if he is in a position to observe these.
h. Other pertinent information.

METHODS OF ESTABLISHING ARSON

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 The usual methods involve examination of the fire scene. Although some of the most common
methods used are burn indicators, which are the effect on materials of heating or partial burning and
may be used to determine the point or points of origin of a fire. Fire accelerates the development of fire
and to increase the amount of devastation. If either multiple point of origin or traces of fire accelerants
are found arson is indicated.

Occasionally, detection of arson during a fire is done through a team of arson investigators in
the form of surveillance of the fire scene: suspicious behavior of spectators, an overzealous offer of
assistance by a spectator, or someone constantly driving over fire hoses are grounds for suspecting
arson. Behavior of owners, occupants, and other persons present as to their actions, excitements,
dresses, and other pertinent information are observed, which might be helpful later.

Observing people and vehicles as they approach and leave the scene. In a U.S. forest fire
scenerio, the detection of arson is aided by the practice of U.S. Forest Service firemen enroute to
configurations to take notice of the license numbers of vehicles departing from the scene, possible
incendiary fire. In at least one case, this procedure has led to the arrest of an arson suspect.

Gasoline was, by far, the most frequently found fire accelerant, possibly because it is readily
available. Its characteristic and familiar odor makes it easier to detect than most other flammable
liquids. To camouflaged the odor, incendiaries ordinarily used ammonia which has a pungent odor
easily recognized by firemen. Ammonia is also used to keep out firemen from the burning structure.
Other accelerants often used like kerosene, alcohol, firemen can easily distinguish rubber. Films have
pungent odors similar to camphor.

The size of fire, rapidity of spread and direction from the time of discovery to the arrival of the
firemen may indicate that certain flammable substance have been used to accelerate spread of fire.
Arsonist may also bore holes on walls and floors as a means for the fire to spread more rapidly.

Intensity of heat maybe an indication that flammable liquids or compounds could have been
used to spread the fire more rapidly. The firemen may experience sometimes that when a stream of
water are directed on such fire, instead of going out as might be ordinarily expected the fire will burn
with added intensity, and with a different color of flame such as red, blue, yellow or orange.

The color of the smoke, location, and size are all-valuables in determining the use of accelerant.
Although, some fires burns with little or no smoke, these are exceptions. The observation must be made
at the start of the fire, once the fire as assumed a major proportion; the value of the smoke is lost
because the smoke will not indicate the materials burning or used by the arsonist.

If white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose comes in contact with the fire, it
indicates humid materials burning, such as hay, vegetables, phosphorus (with garlic odor). Black smoke
indicates lack of air, but if accompanied by large flames it indicates petroleum and rubber.

If biting smoke is encountered causing irritation of the nose and throat, lacrimation, and
coughings, presence of chlorine is indicated. Reddish-brown smoke might indicate nitrocellulose.

Arson is often used to conceal another crime. Documents and records that found purposely
exposed during a fire should be given particular attention, including doors, windows, and ventilators
that are open and provide cross-drafts. Locked and obstructed entrances or passageways to impede
the speedy transit of firemen and equipments.

GATHERING, PRESERVING, AND ANALYZING EVIDENCES

The arsonist expects the fire to destroy all of the evidence, and sometimes it does destroy most
of it. However, the investigator who digs hard enough many times comes up with evidence where
seemingly none exist. The cause of the fire should be investigated shortly after the fire is extinguished,
otherwise, very little can be done afterwards be-map-up and salvage operation. This is a crucial stage
in the detection and investigation of arson because cases rely on evidence that is recognized and
preserved at this point.

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Finding and Preserving Evidence

As in all other investigations, only one person should pick up, mark and package all evidence,
and special care should be taken to maintain the chain of custody.

There are some special problems in arson investigation due to the types of accelerants that may
have been used. Accelerants used often are those of petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene,
mineral spirits, or anything containing volatile flammable liquid. Hydrocarbons of these products may
be found under the debris of the fire, at or near the point of the origin. These fluids, when originally
spread, flow outward and downward, hence evidence of these may be found in cracks in the floor or in
dirt under the fire. Just because the fire damage is extensive or there is no odor present does not mean
these types of accelerants were not used.

The crime lab in most cases would be needed to prove which type of accelerant was used. Wood
flooring and rugs are the most common substrates, followed by furniture and upholstery. These
materials are where the crime lab separates accelerant residues. Sections of the floors, the debris or
some dirt under the fire must be stored in glass or metal containers and sealed, to be of value to the
crime lab. Fumed from the accelerants or hydrocarbons would escape from plastic or open containers.

The predominant type of container used to preserve physical evidence from arson. Scenes are
the unused metal paint can. These containers are vapor-tight and unbreakable. Plastic bags, while
convenient and inexpensive, are easily punctured, are chemically attacked by some types of evidence,
and allow the loss of some volatile evidence by diffusing through the bag.

Time Delay Devices

Delayed action is achieved in setting incendiary fires by the used of certain mechanical, electrical
or chemical devices. They usually involve matches, candles, electric heating elements, batteries and
clock mechanisms coupled with flammable liquids, or chemicals that will spontaneously ignite after a
short delay. If none of these devices are found, the evidence, which should be the various containers
for them. The arsonist uses this delayed type of devices to establish an alibi.

Condition of Doors, Windows, Furniture

In cases where a building has burned to the ground, the hardware of doors and window remain.
They will fall straight down, unless moved by the water stream of the firemen. This may tell whether a
door or windows was opened or closed.

Metal parts of furniture may tell whether or not furniture has been moved from the building before
the fire. Ashes ay give the crime lb something to work with. For example, if extensive furniture has bee
moved from the house prior to the fire and inexpensive furniture move in, the crime lab can tell from
the ashes. Evidence of fraud fires should be carefully examined. This is tremendous problem and
should remain uppermost in the mind of the investigator.

Burn Indicator

Burn indicators are the effects on materials of heating or partial burning, which are used to
indicate various aspects of fire such as flammable liquids, and points of origin. Interpretation of burn
indicators is a principal means of determining the cause of the fire. Although burn indicators are widely
used to establish the causes of fires, they have received little scientific testing. Some of the burn
indicators used are the following:
Alligatoring effect: checking of charred wood, giving it the appearance of the alligator skin.
Large, rolling blisters indicates rapid, intense heat, while small, flat alligatoring indicates long, low heat.
Crazing of glass: formation of irregular cracks in glass due to rapid, intense heat, while small,
possible fire accelerant.
Depth of char: depth of burning wood – used to determine length of burn and thereby locate
the point of origin of the fire.

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 Line of demarcation: boundary between charred and uncharred material.On floors or rugs, a
puddle shaped line of demarcation is believed to indicate a liquid fire accelerant. In the cross section
of wood, a sharp, distinct line of demarcation indicates a rapid, intense fire.
Sagged furniture springs: because of the heat required for furniture springs to collapse from
their own weight (1150F) and because of the insulating effect of the upholstery, sagged springs are
believed to be possible only in either afire originating inside the cushions (as from a cigarette) rolling
between the cushions) or an extrnal fire intensified by a fire accelerant.
Spalling: breaking off of pieces of the surface of concrete, brick or cement due to intense heat.
Brown stains around the spall indicate the use of fire accelerant.
Freezing of leaves: drying of leaves in a forest fire into their position at the time of the fire. Since
the leaves turn during the day. “Some persons regard this evidence as unreliable because of insufficient
clinical and research conformation and the influence of the fire wind.”
One of the authority, P.L.Kirk, cautions that puddle-shaped lines of demarcation may be due
to many causes which have nothing to do with flammable liquids. He also points out that depths of char
is strongly affected by factors other than burning time (such as temperature and species of wood) and
that much greater care must be taken in its interpretations than is frequently the case.

Olfactory Detection

Gasoline is a complex mixture of chemical compounds, the proportion of which vary with the
source of the crude oil and the type of process used in its manufacture. The sensitivity of the human
nose to gasoline vapor appears to be on the order of one part per ten million. So that, the nose is not
sensitive.
Another problem, called olfactory fatigue, is the tendency of the nose to lose its sensitivity to an
odor after a prolonged or intense exposure to it. Further, the odor of fire accelerants may be masked
by other strong odor such as that of burnt debris or ammonia. In fact, in one case an arsonist attempted
to camouflage the presence of gasoline by mixing vanilla with it to mask the odor. Finally, it may be
inconvenient or impossible to search for accelerant odor with nose along with certain types of detector
equipment.

Other Types of Accelerant

Explosive types of accelerant usually leave little or no residue, but there maybesome types of
containers or parts of containers available; metal parts such as pieces of pipe, wire, batteries, and parts
of alarm clock. Evidence of forced entry, evidence of arson to cover up other crimes and evidence of
footprints or tire tracks (outside) should be carefully gathered and reserved. Do not take for granted
that fingerprints will be destroyed by the fire. Soot from the fire maybe perfect preservatives of
fingerprints.
The arsonist may use material on hand such as newspapers, overstuffed furniture, or anything
that burns easily. He may rearrange anything available to provide a quick burning situation. He may
use some type of petroleum accelerant on this material. If rearrange, fast-burning materials are use
without accelerants, a good photograph showing rearrangement may be sufficient. If some accelerant
of petroleum product is used, it will be necessary to place some of this material in glass or metal
container and sealed for the crime lab to examine.

TECHNICAL METHODS IN ARSON INVESTIGATION

The detection, recovery, and analysis of fire accelerants are of major concern to arson
investigators. The presence of flammable liquids can be used to establish that arson was committed
and can sometimes be used to link a suspect of fire. Although; objection is sometimes be raised that
identifiable amounts of liquid fire accelerants rarely survive a fire so that any effort or fund expanded
for their detection would be largely wasted. While there is not sufficient scientific investigation of this
subject, the day to day experience of arson investigation, is that accelerant residue are often found.
Furthermore, experiments have shown that accelerants can survive fires.

The areas most likely to contain residues of liquid fire accelerants are floors, carpets, and soil
since, like all liquids, they run to the lowest level. Also, these areas are likely to have the lowest
temperatures during the fire and may have insufficient oxygen to support the complete combustion of
the accelerant. Porous or cracked floors may allow accelerant to seep through the underlying earth.
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Numerous instances have been recounted of the excellent retention properties of soil for flammable
liquids. Another place where accelerants, and the equipments sensitivities, limitations, advantages and
disadvantages.

Chemical Color Test Detectors

Chemical color test maybe used to detect both liquid accelerant residues and their vapors.
Certain dyes can spread in suspected areas and will indicate the presence of hydrocarbons by turning
red. This method is less sensitive and specific to flammable liquids than other methods which are
available. Also the dye may interfere with subsequent laboratory tests intended to identify the
accelerant. Hydrocarbon vapor scan be detected by pumping a suspected sample through a glass
container of reagent, which changes color in the presence of hydrocarbons. The reported sensitivity of
this method is on the order of one part per thousand. The detector will also react to hydrocarbons,
which are not fire accelerant.

Catalytic Combustion Detector

The most common type of flammable vapor detector used by arson investigators operates on
the catalytic combustion principle and is popularly known as sniffer, combustible gas indicator,
explosimeter, or vapor detector. In operation, vapor samples are pumped over a heated, platinum
plated coil of wire, which may cause any combustible gas present to oxidize. The heat from the
oxidation raises the electrical resistance of the coil and his changes in resistance are measured
electronically. A sensitivity to hexane vapor of a few parts per million can be achieved. Since oxygen is
required for the operation, the sensitivity is reduced in oxygen-deficient areas but these are unlikely in
arson investigations. (Also, an internal source of oxygen could be fitted to the detector if it were found
to be required. The other problem is the gradual loss of sensitivity when the detector is exposed to
gasoline containing lead. Lead deposits form on the platinum catalyst and interfere with its operation.

While the detector correctly indicate the presence of the more volatile fire accelerants (gasoline,
paint thinner), it gave low readings for less volatile accelerants (fuel oil, turpentine). This situation might
cause an investigator to overlook such an accelerant while searching a fire scene.

Flame Ionization Detector

In the flame ionization detector, the sample gas is mixed with hydrogen and the mixture is
burned. Ionized molecules are produced in the flame proportion to the amount of combustible organic
gases in the sample. (Pure hydrogen, air, and water vapor produce little ionization.) the degree of
ionization is then measured by using an electrometer to determine the resulting increase in the electrical
conductivity to methane is about one part per ten million.

Gas Chromatograph

The portable gas chromatograph adapted for field use, is sometimes called the arson
chromatograph. In the gas chromatograph, the sample is first separated into components based on the
speed with which the components travel though a tube filled with a packing material. The amounts of
each of the separated components are then measured with either a catalytic combustion of flame
ionization detector. The sensitivity rangers from a few hundredths of a part per million to a few parts
per million depending on the type of detector used. The main advantage is a great enhancement in
specificity because of the preliminary separation process: the distribution in the amounts of components
with various travel times tends to be unique characteristics of chemical compounds. The principal
disadvantages are the time required for the analysis of each sample of about one-half hour, which can
be a disadvantage in some situations. In addition, there is an initial setup time of about one hour. The
operation of the gas chromatograph is considerably more complex and requires a certain amount of
the technical training.

Infrared Spectrophotometer

Infrared spectrophotometers can achieved very high specificity to flammable liquids and high
sensitivity of about hundredths of part per million. In operation, infrared light of varying wavelengths is
directed through the sample and the amount of light passing through it is plotted on a pen recorder.
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The recording can then be compared with those of known compounds determine the identity of the
sample. Since the chemical bonds in the compound determine the way in which infrared radiation,
these recording called spectrograms are unique for different compounds.

However, evidence mixed with impurities must be purified before it can be successfully identified.
In particular, since water vapor absorbs infrared light, it interferes with the identification of flammable
vapors. This is a disadvantage in arson investigation, where water is commonly present.

Ultraviolet Fluorescence

The operational procedure consists simply of illuminating the darkened fire scene with ultraviolet
lamp. Certain substances, including constituents of gasoline and its residue, absorbs the ultraviolet
light and release the energy as visible light. These substances appear to glow against the darkened
background. The color with which the substances glow is affected by exposure to heat, and thus, the
method can be used not only to locate accelerant residues but also to help locate the point of origin of
the fire. The only equipment required is an ultraviolet lamp and portable power supply.

Recovery of Fire Accelerant Residue

Accelerant residues must first be separated from the ashes, wood, carpeting, or other material
in which they are found before they can be analyzed. This extraction is usually accomplished by one of
three types. Of distillation: simple, steam, or vacuum. Both steam and vacuum distillation are capable
of extracting 64% of any gasoline from debris.

Identification of Prime Suspect

The final basic line of inquiry is the identification of the fire setters and his accomplices if any.
The identification is developed from clues, traces, testimony of persons particularly eye witnesses, and
expert testimony may be of value.

Difficulties in Investigating Arson Cases

Many fires receives only a per functionary investigation, while many others are not investigated
at all. This is true both in the case of the initial investigation of the cause of the fire and in the case of
the subsequent criminal investigation when incendiarism is known or suspected. This situation causes
the number of fires classified as incendiary or suspicious to significantly underestimate the true level of
arson and helps to cause the low arson arrest and conviction. The reasons for the low rate of
investigation of fires fall mainly into two categories.

1. Physical nature of the fire scene. No other type of crime scene except bombings is
characterized by as much destruction and disorder as arson. Investigators must search through
piles of debris and rubbles, often on their hands and knees. Ashes, soot, and char make fire
scenes filthy and malodorous. They can ruin clothes and cause personal problems for
investigators returning home from fire scenes. An investigator’s wife may be able to adjust to his
late night calls, but may find the inevitable filthy and foul-smelling clothes intolerable. For this
reasons or because he fins such conditions undignified, an investigator’s may request transfer
to other duties.

The fire scene search is further aggravated by water remaining from the extinguishments.
The scene may be a quagmire, making the rubble wet and heavy to move out the way. Plaster
fallen from walls and ceilings mixed with the water, forming a gray slush retarding the
investigator’s movements. The fire scene may be dangerous to work in because of the imminent
collapse of upper parts of the structure. It may be exposed to the elements, making work in foul
weather difficult and unpleasant.

In addition to the destruction of the fire, there are further problems caused by firefighter
mop-up process and salvage operations immediately following the fire. This involves finding and
eliminating any smoldering sports that might rekindle the fire. This involves tearing open walls,
ceilings, roofs, and other partitions, and throwing objects like mattresses and sofas out the
building. The salvage process involves removing any salvageable items, such as furnishings or
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 machinery, to a safe place and covering them from the elements. The process hampers efforts
to reconstruct the fire scene and the sequence of events that led to arson. The original positions
of objects must, as a result, usually be obtained through meticulous interviews.

The sheer physical effort involved in the investigation is usually much greater for arson
than for other crimes, and the number of man-hours required is greater. Fire scene searches
cannot be avoided, particularly in view of the general lack of witnesses in arson. The
investigato0r must often put together a complex chain of circumstantial evidence to establish
arson and implicate a suspect. Any physical evidence may be destroyed by the fire or lost in the
debris.

Securing the fire scene poses another real problems, since the investigator in most cases,
is late in arriving. In general fireman do not recognized their responsibility in arson investigation
and concentrate on suppressing the fire without regard to the suspicious fire. In the fire is
suspicious and should be investigated.

The arson investigator must assume the responsibility for educating the firemen as to
their responsibility in suspicious fires. The firemen are usually in a position to make or break an
arson case by their action in taking fire alarm, arriving at the scene, and suppressing the fire.
The firemen must understand how important their actions are to the investigator and why their
cooperation is needed.

The arson investigator could profitably use some of his time teaching the firemen to
recognize suspicious fires. The same techniques can be taught the firemen how to protect the
fire scene and to see that the investigator is notified immediately: Usually, the sooner the
investigator is notified and arrives at the fire scene, the better he is in a position to investigate.
The good investigator should closely work with firemen, encourage them to be a part of the
investigation, and keep them informed.

2. Administrative Problems

Historically, the attitude of police has often been that arson is a fire problems and that
responsibility for arson lies completely within the fire service. Arson, however, is a crime, and
firefighters are not trained to investigate criminal matters. As discussed in the previous section,
the conditions typical of fire scenes make arson investigation unpleasant and unrewarding.
Neither the police nor fire agencies are anxious to take over an area with such a low success
rate. Both want to improve their statistics in order to enhance their image and justify their budget.
When budget cut occurs arson units are often the first to go. The real winner in this dispute is
the arsonist.

Difficulties in Prosecuting Arson Cases

Legally, fires are assumed to be accidental in origin until proven otherwise. The proof that the
origin was incendiary and that a crime occurred is called the corpus delecti (body of the crime) of the
arson case. Since arson is committed surreptitiously, witnesses are rare. Arson must therefore usually
established using circumstantial evidence including physical evidence, such as fire accelerant residues
or multiple points or origin of the fire, which s difficult to find.

Once arson has been established, the prosecution centers on implicating the defendant. Again
witnesses are few (unlike, say, robbery or assault), so a complex circumstantial case must usually be
constructed. Such a case requires greater trial preparation and more experience on the part of the
fiscal: Further, the low success rate and high work demands of arson cases make them most
unattractive to prosecutors, who demands of arson cases make them most unattractive to prosecutors,
who demands of arson cases make them most unattractive to prosecutors, who are usually
overburdened with cases. One of the criteria for promotion is the number of convictions returned.
Finally, because of the heavy reliance on physical evidence, the prosecutor may feel uneasy with the
large amount of expert scientific testimony required.

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