Fire Protection and Arson Investigation LEARNING MODULE

Course Description:
This course presents the creation of the Bureau of Fire Protection, its mandate, powers, and functions. It
also covers the understanding of the behavior, characteristics, and chemistry of fire. It involved fire safety
and protection, including the conduct of arson investigation.

A bonfire which aptly describes the chemistry of fire.

Week 1 Content (Preliminary)

Overview Page

OVERVIEW
This week you will study the fundamental knowledge of fire specifically: what is fire, kinds of fire, and the
chemistry of fire.

Chapter 1: [Introduction to Fire Technology]

Objectives
By the end of this chapter/week, you will be able to:

1. Know what fire is.

2. Recognize what is fire and the chemistry that creates fire.

LOOKING AHEAD AND UNLOCKING DIFFICULTY

Before you begin your journey in understanding the basic concepts of fire, I want you to remember and
understand the following terms:

1) Fire
 a state, process, or instance of combustion in which fuel or other material is ignited and combined with
oxygen, giving off light, heat, and flame.
 a burning mass of material, as on a hearth or in a furnace.

2) Heat
 energy that is transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference in temperature.

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 3) Fuel
 Is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat
energy or to be used for work.

4) Oxygen
 is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas essential to living organisms.

5) Fire Triangle
 The fire triangle or combustion triangle is a simple model for understanding the necessary
ingredients for most fires.

6) Fire Tetrahedron
 represents the addition of a component in the chemical chain reaction, to the three already present
in the fire triangle. Once a fire has started, the resulting exothermic chain reaction sustains the fire
and allows it to continue until or unless at least one of the elements of the fire is blocked.

7) Fire Technology
 is the study of the organization and function of fire prevention and suppression
techniques; fire behavior, combustible materials, extinguishing agents, hazardous and toxic
material; fire protection techniques and systems; and fire command and fire management
(supervision).

8) Fire Behavior
 refers to the manner in which fuel ignites, flame develops and fire spreads. In wildland fires, this
behavior is influenced by how fuels (such as needles, leaves and twigs), weather and topography
interact.

9) Fire Protection
 Is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of potentially destructive fires. It
involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation
of fire and its related emergencies.

Lesson 1.1 - Basic Concepts of Fire (Fire: Composition, Chemistry and Stages)

WHAT IS FIRE?

Fire is the manifestation of rapid chemical reaction occurring between fuel and an oxidizer- typically
the oxygen in the air. Such rapid chemical reaction releases energy in the form of heat and light.

THE START OF FIRE

All matter exist to one of the 22 states of matter. For this particular subject, we will stick with the
standard states of matter – solid, liquid and gas. The atoms or molecules of a solid are packed closely
together, and that of a liquid is packed loosely, the molecules of a vapor are not packed together at all, they
are free to move about. In order for a substance to oxidize, its molecules must be pretty well surrounded by
oxygen molecules. The molecules of solids or liquids are too tightly packed to be surrounded. Thus, only
vapors can burn.

However, when a solid or a liquid is heated, its molecules move about rapidly. If enough heat is
applied, some molecules break away from the surface to form a vapor just above the substance. This
vapor can now mixed with oxygen. If there is enough heat to raise the vapor to its ignition temperature
(temperature needed to burn), and if there is enough oxygen present, the vapor will oxidize rapidly – it will
start to burn.

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 The start of burning is the start of a Chain Reaction (the burning process). Vapor from heated fuel
rises, mixes with air and burns. It produces enough heat to release more vapor and to draw in air to burn
that vapor. As more vapor burns, flame production increases. More heat is produced, more vapor released,
more air drawn into the flames and more vapor burns, the chain reaction keeps increasing – the size of the
fire increases until fuel is consumed.

CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
Obviously, three things are required for combustion or fire: FUEL (Combustible materials to
vaporize and burn), OXYGEN (Oxygen in air is the common oxidizing agent, to combine with fuel vapor, air
contains 21% Oxygen, 78% Nitrogen, 1% inert gas), and HEAT (to raise the temperature of the fuel vapor
to its ignition temperature). The combinations of these three elements form the so-called Fire Triangle.

THE FIRE TRIANGLE

The image on the left will show that if any side of the fire triangle is
missing, a fire cannot start or if any side of the fire triangle is removed,
the fire will go off.

With the presence of the elements of fire, combustion may take place.
Before a fuel will burn, it must be changed to its vapor state. In a fire
situation, this change usually results from the initial application of heat.
The process is known as PYROLYSIS. Pyrolysis (also known as
thermal decomposition) is defined as the “chemical decomposition of
matter through the action of heat”. In this case, the decomposition
causes a change from a solid state to vapor state. If the vapor mixes sufficiently with air and heated to high
temperature, combustion results.

The combustion process is better represented by the fire tetrahedron.

THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON

The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the
combustion process because it has room for the chain reaction and
because each face touches the other three faces.

The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire
tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron illustrates how flaming
combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction.
In this sense, the chain reaction face keeps the other three faces
from falling apart.

The fire tetrahedron also explains the flaming mode of combustion.

The modes of combustion are either Flaming mode or Surface mode
(Glowing– represented by the fire triangle).

A condensed phased combustion is called glowing combustion

A gas-phased combustion is known as flame
If the process is confined with pressure it is called explosion
If combustion propagates at supersonic speed, it produced a detonation

THE THREE STAGES OF FIRE

1. Incipient Phase (Initial Stage) – under this stage, the following characteristics are observed:
 normal room temperature 28C
 the temperature at the base of the fire is 400-800 F
 ceiling temperature is about 200 F
 pyrolysis products are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, small quantities of carbon
monoxide and sulfides maybe present.

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2. Free Burning Phase – it has the following characteristics:
 accelerated pyrolysis process take place
 development of convection current: formation of thermal columns as heat rises
 temperature is 800-1000 F at the base of fire, 1200-1600 F at ceiling
 pyrolytic decomposition moves upward on the walls(crawling of the flame) leaving burnt
patterns (fire fingerprints)
 Occurrence of flashover.

3. Smoldering Phase – this stage has the following characteristics:

 oxygen content drops to 13% or below causing the flame to vanish and heat to develop in
layers,
 products of incomplete combustion increase in volume, particularly carbon monoxide with an
ignition temperature of about 1125 F,
 ceiling temperature is 1000-1300 F,
 heat and pressure in the room builds up,
 building/room contains large quantities of superheated fuel under pressure but little oxygen,
 when sufficient supply of oxygen is introduced, backdraft occurs.
.

Week 2 Content (Preliminary)

Overview Page

OVERVIEW
This week you will study the basic concepts of fire which will focus on classes and its properties as well as
the types of flame.

Chapter 1: [Introduction to Fire Technology]

Objectives
By the end of this chapter/week, you will be able to:

3. Know what the physical and chemical properties of fire are.

4. Recognize the classes, properties and types of fire.

Lesson 1.2 - Basic Concepts of Fire (Classes and Properties of Fire, and Types of Flame)

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

BASED ON CAUSE
1. Natural causes – such as
 Spontaneous heating – the automatic chemical reaction that results to spontaneous
combustion due to auto-ignition of organic materials, the gradual rising of heat in a confined
space until ignition temperature is reached.
 Lightning – a form of static electricity; a natural current with a great magnitude, producing
tremendous amperage and voltage. Lightning usually strikes objects that are better electrical
conductors than air. It can cause fire directly or indirectly. Indirectly when it strikes telephone
and other transmission lines, causing an induced line surge. It can also cause flash fire or dust
explosion. When lightning strikes steel or metal rod covered with dust, the dust will suddenly
burn thus resulting to an explosion.

A lightning may be in the form of:

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 Hot Bolt – longer in duration; capable only of igniting combustible materials
Cold Bolt – shorter in duration, capable of splintering a property or literally blowing apart an entire
structure, produces electrical current with tremendous amperage and very high temperature.

 Radiation of Sunlight – when sunlight hits a concave mirror, concentrating the light on a
combustible material thereby igniting it.

2. Accidental Causes – such as

 Electrical accidents in the form of:
Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections between two points at different potentials
(charge) in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
Arcing – the production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated
electrodes; an electric hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap between 2
electrical conductors.

Sparking – production of incandescent particles when two different potentials (charged

conductors) come in contact; occurs during short circuits or welding operations.

Induced Current – induced line surge – increased electrical energy flow or power voltage;
induced current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating
materials, explosion of the fuse box, or burning of electrical appliances.
Overheating of electrical appliances – the increase or rising of amperage while electric current
is flowing in a transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating materials,
maybe gradual or rapid, internal or external.

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  Purely accidental causes
 Negligence and other forms of human error

3. Intentional causes (Incendiary)

If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelerant, plants and trailers, then the
cause of fire is intentional.
 Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame propagation.
 Plant – the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials needed to start a fire.
 Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire.

BASED ON BURNING FUEL (THE CLASSES OF FIRE)

1. Class A “Ash” Fire –
Ordinary fires; they are the
types of fire resulting from
the burning wood, paper,
textiles, rubber and other
carbonaceous materials. In
short, this is the type of fire
caused by ordinary
combustible materials.
2. Class B “Burn” Fire –
Liquid fires; they are
caused by flammable and
or combustible liquids such
as kerosene, gasoline,
benzene, oil products,
alcohol and other hydrocarbon deviations or ethers.
3. Class C “Current” Fire – Electrical fires; they are fires that starts in live electrical wires,
equipment, motors, electrical appliances and telephone switchboards.
4. Class D “Dry Powder” Fire – Metallic fires; fires that result from the combustion of certain
metals in finely divided forms. These combustible metals include magnesium, potassium,
powdered calcium, zinc, sodium, and titanium.
5. Class K “Kitchen” Fire – Cooking fires; fires that result from the combustion of certain fats, esp.
animal fats and vegetable fats. These combustible fats include common cooking oils.

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USING FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Concept of PASS
PULL the pin in the handle
AIM the nozzle at the base of the fire
SQUEEZE the lever slowly
SWEEP from side to side

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

A Fire Extinguisher is a mechanical device, usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids, or
gasses for stopping fires, the means for application of its contents for the purpose of putting out fire
(particularly small fire ) before it propagates, and is capable of being readily moved from place to place.

It is also a portable device used to put out fires of limited size.

SMOTHERING – removal of oxygen to put out fire.

COOLING – removal of heat to put out fire.
STARVATION – removal of fuel to put out fire.

 What are the types of Fire Extinguishers?

1. Water Fire Extinguisher – extinguisher filled with water use of fight Class A and Class B fires except
class C fires.
2. Liquefied Fire Extinguisher – those extinguishers that contain Carbon Monoxide Gas use to fight class
A, B, and C fires.
3. Dry Chemical Extinguisher – those that contain chemical powder intended to fight all classes of fires.
4. Foam Extinguisher – contains sodium bicarbonate and a foam-stabilizing agent in a larger
compartment and a solution of aluminum sulfate in an inner cylinder; reaction between the two
solutions forms a stabilized foam of carbon dioxide bubbles.
5. Soda-acid Fire Extinguisher – filled with sodium bicarbonate mixed with water; a small bottle of sulfuric
acid is suspended inside (near the top) in such a way that when the extinguisher is turned up-side-

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 down, the acid mixes with sodium bicarbonate; carbon dioxide is formed by the reaction which results
to the building of pressure inside the extinguisher; this pressure forces the water solution out from the
container through a hose.

6. Vaporizing Liquid Fire Extinguisher – contains non-conducting liquid, generalization carbon

tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane; operation is by manual pumping or using a stored pressure; the
stream of liquid that is expelled is vaporized by the heat of the fire and forms a smothering blanket.
This type is usually used in fires involving flammable liquids or electrical equipment.
7. Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguisher – effective against burning liquids and fires in live electrical
equipment; used mainly to put out Class C fires.
PROPERTIES OF FIRE
A. THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or liquid substance to the weight of an equal volume
of water.
2. Vapor density – the weight of a volume of pure gas composed to the volume of dry air at the same
temperature and pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.
4. Temperature – the measure of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules. Celsius, Fahrenheit and
Kelvin.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
6. Ignition/Kindling temperature – the minimum temperature at which the substance must be heated in
order to initiate combustion.
7. Fire point – the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are evolved fast
enough to support combustion.
8. Flash point – the temperature at which a flammable liquid forms a vapor-air mixture that ignites
(mixture with in the explosive range).

To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature must be raised until ignition point is reached. Thus,
before a fuel start to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain degree of
temperature. When the temperature of a certain substance is very high, it releases highly combustible
vapors known as FREE RADICALS (combustible vapors such as hydrogen gas, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen).

During the process of pyrolysis, the following are involved:

 the fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point,
 decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor,
 decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel (free radicals)
 free radicals undergo combustion.

B. THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Endothermic Reactions – changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction
takes place.
2. Exothermic Reactions – those that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce substances with
less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation – a chemical change that is exothermic, a change in which combustible material (fuel) and an
oxidizing agent (air), react. Example of oxidation is combustion which is the same as actual burning
(rapid oxidation)

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4. Flames – flames are incandescent (very bright/glowing with intense heat) gases. It is a combustion
product and a manifestation of fire when it is in its gas-phased combustion.

TYPES OF FLAMES
a. BASED ON COLOR AND COMPLETENESS OF COMBUSTIBILITY OF FUEL
1. Luminous Flame – is orange-red, deposit soot at the bottom of a vessel being heated due to
incomplete combustion and has a low temperature.
2. Non-Luminous Flame – is blue, there is complete combustion of fuel and has relatively high
temperature.

b. BASED ON FUEL AND AIR MIXTURE

1. Premixed Flame – is exemplified by a Bunsen-type laboratory burner where hydrocarbon (any
substance containing primarily carbon and hydrogen) is thoroughly mixed with air before reaching the
flame zone.

2. Diffusion Flame – is observed when gas (fuel) alone is forced through a nozzle into the atmosphere
which diffuses in the surrounding atmosphere in order to form a flammable mixture. The candle flame is
an example of diffusion flame governed purely by molecular diffusion, and the flame of the
oxyacetylene torch. (diffused – dispersed, widely spread)

c. BASED ON SMOOTHNESS
1. Laminar Flame – when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.

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2. Turbulent Flame – are those having unsteady, irregular flows. As physical size, gas density or velocity
is increased, all laminar gas flows tend to become turbulent.

Week 3 Content (Preliminary)

Overview Page

OVERVIEW
This week you will study one of the essential element of fire: fuel.

Chapter 1: [Introduction to Fire Technology]

Objectives
By the end of this chapter/week, you will be able to:

5. Know what is a fuel its properties.

6. Recognize the types of fuels as well as the classification of combustible materials

Lesson 1.3 – Fuels

FUEL
– Fuel is matter and matter exist in three physical states: solid, liquid and gas. Solids melt to become
liquids, and these may vaporize and become gases. The basic rule is that at high enough temperature all
fuels can be converted to gases. And each of the physical states exhibits different physical and chemical
properties that directly affect a fuel’s combustibility.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS

1. Class A Fuels – they are ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic
substances such as wood and wood-based products. It includes some synthetic or inorganic
materials like rubber, leather, and plastic products.
2. Class B Fuels – materials that are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic
solutions, oil, and liquid petroleum products, etc.
3. Class C Fuels – they are normally fire resistant materials such as materials used on electrical
wiring and other electrical appliances.
4. Class D Fuels – they are combustible metallic substances such as magnesium, titanium,
zirconium, sodium and potassium.
5. Class K Fire – they are animal fats and vegetable fats. These combustible fats include
common cooking oils.

GENERAL CATEGORIES OF FUEL

1. Solid Combustible Materials – includes organic and inorganic, natural or synthetic, and metallic
solid materials.
2. Liquid Combustible Materials – includes all flammable liquid fuels and chemicals.
3. Gaseous Substances – includes those toxic/hazardous gases that are capable of ignition.

THE SOLID FUELS

TYPES OF FLAMMABLE SOLIDS
a. Pyrolyzable Solid Fuels – include many of the ordinary accepted combustibles: wood, paper and
so on. The vapors released by their chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This exemplifies
a gas-to-gas reaction: the vapors released mixed with oxygen in the air to produce a flame.

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 b. Non-Pyrolyzable Solid Fuels – solid fuels that are difficult to ignite. A common example is
charcoal. Chemical decomposition does not occur because there are no pyrolyzable elements present. No
vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is an example of a gas-to-solid reaction.

THE FOLLOWING ARE GROUP OF SOLID FUELS

1. Biomass – it is the name given to such replaceable organic matters like wood, garbage and animal
manure that can be used to produce energy.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMBUSTIBILITY OF WOOD AND WOOD-BASED PRODUCTS

a. Physical form – the smaller the piece of wood, the easier it is to burn.
b. Moisture content (water content) – the freshly cut wood is more difficult to ignite and burn than
dry wood.
c. Heat conductivity - a poor conductor of heat takes a longer time to ignite than those materials
that are good conductors of heat.
d. Rate and period of heating – less flammable materials don’t easily ignite and needs direct
contact with flame than highly combustible materials.
e. Rate of combustion – with an unlimited supply of oxygen, the rate of burns increases, more
heat is produced and fuel is consumed more completely.
f. Ignition temperature – the higher the temperature, the faster it reaches ignition point and it
varies depending on the other factors above.

2. Fabrics and Textiles – almost all fibers and textiles are combustible. A fiber is a very fine thin strand or
thread like object. Fabrics are twisted or woven fibers. And textiles are machine woven or knitted fabric.

Classification of Fibers
a. Natural Fibers – they come from plants (Coir – coconut fiber, Cotton – seed fiber, pulp – wood
fiber) , from animals (wool, silk, protein fibers – leather), from minerals (asbestos)
b. Synthetic/Artificial Fibers – organic fibers, cellulose fibers, cellulose acetate, non-cellulose, and
inorganic fibers like fiber glass, steel

FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMBUSTIBILITY OF FIBERS

a. Chemical composition – natural and synthetic organic fibers are generally highly combustible
materials especially if they are dry. Mineral fibers and synthetic inorganic fibers are normally
fire resistant materials.
b. Fiber finish or coating – fiber coating combined with organic fibers are supportive to continued
burning of fabric.
c. Fabric weight – the heavier the fabric, the greater its resistance to ignition, thus delaying its
ignition.
d. Tightness of weave – the closer the fiber are woven, the smaller the space it contains, and
thus it takes a longer period to ignite it.
e. Flame retardant treatment – fabric treated with flame retardant have higher resistance to
ignition.

FABRIC IGNITION
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is a numerical basis of measuring the tendency of a fabric to continuously burn
once source of ignition is removed. If the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that it will cease to burn
once the flame is removed is also high.

3. Plastics – plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class A except those materials of or containing
cellulose nitrate. Cellulose Nitrate is a chemical powder used in bombs, they are also called pyroxylin.
Plastics comprise a group of materials consisting mainly of organic substances or high molecular
substances.

4. Coal – a black, combustible, mineral solid resulting from the partial decomposition of matter under
varying degrees of temperature. They are used as fuels in the production of coal gas, water gas, and many
coal compounds. They are also used to heat buildings and to provide energy for industrial machinery.

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The forms of coal are: lignite or brown coal, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite

Bituminous coal is the most plentiful and important coal used by industry. It contains more carbon and
produces more heat than either lignite or sub-bituminous coal. It is also the coal best suited for making
coke.

Anthracite is the least plentiful and hardest coal. It contains more carbon and produces more heat than
other coals. However, anthracite is difficult to ignite and burns slowly.

5. Peat – It is partially decayed plant matter found in swamps called bogs and used as a fuel chiefly in
areas where coal and oil are scarce. In Ireland and Scotland, for example, peat is cut formed in blocks, and
dried; the dried blocks are then burned to heat homes.

THE LIQUID FUELS

Liquid fuels are mainly made from Petroleum, but some synthetic liquids are also produced.
Petroleum is also called crude oil. They may be refined to produce gasoline, diesel oil, and kerosene. Other
fuel oils obtained by refining petroleum to distillate oil and residual oils.

General Characteristics of Liquids

1. They are matters with definite volume but no definite shape.
2. They assume the shape of their vessel because there is free movement of molecules.
3. They are slightly compressible. They are not capable of indefinite expansion, unlike gas.

2 General Groups of Liquid Fuels

1. Flammable liquids – they are liquids having a flash point of 37.8 C (100F) and a vapor
pressure not exceeding 40 psi (2068.6 um) at 37.8 C.
2. Combustible Liquids – these liquids have flash point at or above 37.8 C (100F).

BURNING CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUIDS

Since it is the vapors from the flammable liquid which burn, the case of ignition as well as the rate of
burning can be related to the physical properties such as vapor pressure, flash point, boiling point, and
evaporation rate.
1. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range above the liquid surface at the stored
temperature have rapid rate of flame propagation.
2. Liquids having flash points above stored temperature have slower rate of flame propagation.
The chemical explanation is, it is necessary for the fire to heat sufficiently the liquid surface to
form flammable vapor-air moisture before the flame will spread through the vapor.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF FLAME PROPAGATION AND BURNING OF LIQUIDS

 wind velocity
 temperature
 heat of combustion
 latent heat of evaporation
 atmospheric pressure

Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a liquid and from a liquid to gas.
Conversely, heat is released during conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to a solid.

THE GAS FUELS

Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movement and random motion. They have
no definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and volume of their container.

SOME PROPERTIES OF GAS FUELS ARE:

 compressibility
 expandability
 permeability (open to passage or penetration)

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  diffusion (intermingling of molecules)
Compressibility and expandability refer to the potential in changes in volume. Diffusion is the uniform
distribution of molecules of one substance through those of another. Permeability means that other
substances may pass through or permeate a gas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS FUELS

1. They are matters that have no definite shape.
2. They are composed of very tiny particles (molecules) at constant random motion in a straight
line
3. Gas molecules collide against one another and against the wall of the container and are
relatively far from one another.

CLASSIFICATION OF GASES:
1. BASED ON SOURCE
a. Natural Gas – the gas used to heat buildings, cook food, and provides energy for industries. It consists
chiefly of methane, a colorless and odorless gas. Natural gas is usually mixed with compounds of foul-
smelling elements like sulfur so gas leaks can be detected. Butane and propane, which make up a
small proportion of natural gas, become liquids when placed under large amount of pressure.
b. Manufactured Gas – this gas like synthetic liquid fuels is used chiefly where certain fuels are abundant
and others are scarce. Coal, petroleum, and biomass can all be converted to gas through heating and
various chemical procedures.

2. ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

a. Compressed Gas – gas in which at all normal temperature inside its container; exist solely in the
gaseous state under pressure. The pressure depends on the pressure to which the container is
originally charged and how much gas remains in the container. However, temperature affects the
volume and pressure of the gas.
b. Liquefied Gas – gas, which, at normal temperature inside its container, exist partly in the liquid state
and partly in gaseous state and under pressure as long as any liquid remains in the container. The
pressure basically depends on the temperature of the liquid although the amount of liquid also affects
the pressure under some condition. A liquefied gas exhibits a more complicated behavior as the result
of heating.
c. Cryogenic Gas – a liquefied gas which exists in its container at temperature far below normal
atmospheric temperature, usually slightly above its boiling point and correspondingly low to moderate
pressure. Examples of this gas are air, carbon monoxide, ethylene, fluorine, helium, hydrogen,
methane, nitrogen, and oxygen. -183C

3. ACCORDING TO USAGE
a. Fuel Gases – flammable gases usually used for burning with air to produce heat, utilize as power, light,
comfort, and process. Most commonly used gases are natural gas and the LPG (butane and propane).
b. Industrial Gases - This group includes a large number of gases used for industrial processes as those
in welding and cutting (oxygen, acetylene); refrigeration (freon, ammonia, sulfur dioxide); chemical
processing (hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, chlorine); water treatment (chlorine, fluorine).
c. Medical Gases – those used for treatment such as anesthesia (chloroform, nitrous oxide); respiratory
therapy (oxygen).

BURNING OF GASEOUS FUELS

Gaseous fuels are already in the required Vapor State. Only the proper intermixed with oxygen and
sufficient heat is needed for ignition. Gases like flammable liquids, always produce a visible flame, they do
not smolder.
CHEMICAL FUELS
Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form, create great amounts of heat and power. They
are used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both a fuel and an oxidizer. A
common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as nitrogen tetroxide, that
contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the oxidizer provides the oxygen the fuel needs to burn.
Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars.
NUCLEAR FUELS

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 Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms. Uranium is the most
commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear energy. When the atoms of these
elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat. Nuclear fuels are used mainly to
generate electricity. They also power some submarines and ships. Nuclear energy can also be produced
through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.

 Nuclear Fission – split of the nucleus of atoms

 Nuclear Fusion – combination of two light nuclei of atom

Week 4 Content (Preliminary)

Overview Page

OVERVIEW
This week you will study two of the important elements that creates fire: heat and oxygen as well as
ignition.

Chapter 1: [Introduction to Fire Technology]

Objectives
By the end of this chapter/week, you will be able to:

7. Know what is Heat, Oxygen and Ignition.

8. Learn about the specifics of properties of heat, oxygen requirements to start a fire as well as the
different kinds of ignition.

Lesson 1.4 – Heat, Oxygen and Ignition

THE HEAT ELEMENT

HEAT – It is the energy possessed by a material or substance due to molecular activity.

In physics, heat is the transfer of energy from one part of a substance to another or from one body
to another by virtue of a difference in temperature. Heat is energy in transit; it always flows from substance
at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower temperature, raising the temperature of the latter and
lowering that of the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains constant. Heat does not
flow from lower to a higher temperature unless another form of energy transfer work is always present.
The study of energy is rooted in the subject of thermodynamics, a very logical science that carefully
defines energy, heat, temperature and other properties.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Heat should not be confused with temperature, which is the measurement of the relative amount of
heat energy contained within a given substance. Temperature is an intensity measurement, with units in
degrees on the Celsius (centigrade), Fahrenheit, or Kelvin scales. Heat is the measurement of quantity and
is given in British thermal units (Btu).
Temperature is the measurement of the degree of thermal agitation of molecules; the hotness or
coldness of something. Thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature and commonly
expressed in C, F, and K.
.

SPECIFIC HEAT

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The heat capacity or the measure of the amount of heat required raising the temperature of a unit mass of
a substance one-degree. If the heating process occurs while the substance is maintained at a constant
volume or is subjected to a constant pressure the measure is referred to as a specific heat at constant
volume.

LATENT HEAT
A number of physical changes are associated with the change of temperature of a substance. Almost all
substances expand in volume when heated and contract when cooled. The behavior of water between 0
and 4C (32 and 39 F) constitutes an important exemption to this rule. The phase of a substance refers
to its occurrence as a solid, liquid, or gas, and phase changes in pure substances occur at definite
temperatures and pressures. The process of changing from solid to gas is referred to as SUBLIMATION,
from solid to liquid as MELTING and from liquid to vapor as VAPORIZATION. If the pressure is constant,
the process occurs at constant temperature. The amount of heat to produce a change of phase is called
LATENT HEAT, and hence, latent heats of sublimation, melting and vaporization exist. If water is boiled in
an open vessel at a pressure of 1 atmosphere (atm), the temperature does not rise above 100C (212F),
no matter how much heat is added. For example, the heat that is absorbed without changing the
temperature of the water is the latent heat, it is not lost but expended in changing the water to steam and is
then stored as energy in the steam, it is again released when the steam is condensed to form water
(CONDENSATION). Similarly, if the mixture of water and ice in a glass is heated, its temperature will not
change until all the ice is melted. The latent heat absorbed is used up in overcoming the forces holding the
particles of ice together and is stored as energy in the water.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
Five different temperature scales are in use today, they are:
1. Celsius – it has a freezing point of 0C and a boiling point of 100C. It is widely used through
out the world, particularly for scientific works.
2. Fahrenheit – it is used mostly in English-speaking countries for purposes other than scientific
works and based on the mercury thermometer. In this scale, the freezing point of water is 32F
and the boiling point is 212 F.
3. Kelvin or Absolute – it is the most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale. Zero is
defined as absolute zero of temperature that is, - 273.15 C, or –459.67 F.
4. Rankine – is another temperature scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point in which
each degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The freezing
point of water under this scale is 492 R and the boiling point is 672 R.
5. International Temperature Scale – In 1933, scientist of 31 nations adopted a new international
temperature scale with additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and
thermodynamic principles. The international scale is based on the property of electrical
resistivity, with platinum wire as the standard for temperature between –190 C and 660C.

HEAT PRODUCTION
There are five ways to produce heat:
1. Chemical – chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.
2. Mechanical – mechanical heat is the product of friction. The rubbing of two sticks together to
generate enough heat is an example.
3. Electrical – electrical heat is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical malfunction. Poor
wire connections, too much resistance, a loose ground, and too much current flowing through
an improperly sized wire are other sources of electrical heat.
4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its molecular activity is greatly increased
producing heat.
5. Nuclear – Nuclear energy is the product of the splitting or fusing of atomic particles (Fission or
fusion respectively). The tremendous heat energy in a nuclear power plant produces steam to
turn steam turbines.

HEAT TRANSFER
The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between bodies are
conduction and radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of matter, is called convection.

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 1. Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a material or medium, usually a
solid. Direct contact is the underlying factor in conduction. Example, if you touch a hot stove, the
pain you feel is a first result of conducted heat passing from the stove directly to your hand. In a
structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders, and other structural members such as walls and
floors may conduct enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the structure.
2. Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually air or liquid. Heat
transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in structures. The super-heated
gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air, and consequently rise, they can and do initiate
additional damage. In large fires, the high fireball that accompanies the incident is referred to as a
firestorm and is an example of convected heat.
3. Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight. Radiated heat travels the
speed, as does visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the exposure
hazards that develop and exist during a fire. Heat waves travel in a direct or straight line from their
source until they strike an object. The heat that collects on the surface of the object or building in
the path of the heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass through conduction.

OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)

Oxygen as defined earlier is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous chemical element, the
second most abundant of all elements: it occurs free in the atmosphere, forming one fifth of its volume, and
in combination in water, sandstone, limestone, etc.; it is very active, being able to combine with nearly all
other elements, and is essential to life processes and to combustion.
The common oxidizing agent is oxygen present in air. Air composed 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1%
inert gas (principally Argon).

TAKE NOTE: 21% normal oxygen is needed to produce fire in the presence of fuel and heat. 12% oxygen
is insufficient to produce fire, 14-15% oxygen can support flash point, and 16-21% oxygen can support fire
point.

IGNITION SOURCE
Ignition sources can become a hazard when they are brought into close proximity to flammable
substances. When this event occurs the ignition source will provide the flammable particles with enough
energy to ignite, which then causes the flammable substance to burn spontaneously.
There are 4 main categories of ignition sources. These include, Thermal, Electrical, Mechanical
and chemical.

THERMAL IGNITION SOURCES ELECTRICAL IGNITION SOURCES

Flames: 1. Electrical Current
1. Blow torch  Electric motor
2. Welding Flame  Electric Switches
3. Cigarette lighter  Cable Break
4. Stove  Spark produced under short circuit or
5. Pilot Light other fault conditions
2. Electrostatic Charge
Hot Surfaces  Pneumatic Conveying of Solid Flow of
 Soldering Iron liquid in pipeline
 Electric Lamp  Rubbing of plastic or rubber
 Cigarette butt  Liquid spray generator
 Hot slag  Powder flow
 Glowing ember 3. Lightning
 Direct strike
 Induced Voltage
4. Stray current
 Arc Weld

MECHANICAL IGNITION SOURCES CHEMICAL IGNITION SOURCES

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 1. Friction heat 1. Exothermic reactions
 Abrasive wheel  Vigorous oxidizing reactions
 Bearing  Exothermic Polymerisation (material giving
 Jamming of material off heat)
 Piston movement  Exposing pyrophoric Substances (sodium
metal) to air.
2. Materials Fracture
 Cracking of metal

Week 5 Content (Preliminary)

Overview Page

OVERVIEW
This week you will study the fiery nature of combustion as well as the predictability and unpredictability in
equal sense of fire behavior.

Chapter 1: [Introduction to Fire Technology]

Objectives
By the end of this chapter/week, you will be able to:

9. Know what Combustion is.

10. Recognize the principles of Combustion and its process.
11. Learn what Fire Behavior is: its causes and its classifications.

Lesson 1.5 Combustion (Principles of Combustion and Fire Behavior)

COMBUSTION
Is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant
accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames,
appearance of light flickering.
Refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat, or heat and light.
Complete combustion (complete oxidation) of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate supply
of oxygen. (Air: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and other gases).

PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION
 Temperature which should be high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel.
 Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen.
 Time should be sufficient for complete combustion.

COMBUSTION PROCESS:
 Causes pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production of ignitable vapors or
gases;
 Provides the necessary energy for ignition;

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  Causes continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases to continue the combustion
reaction.

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION
Is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to exothermic internal
reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and
finally, auto-ignition.

Spontaneous combustion can occur when a substance with a relatively low ignition temperature (hay,
straw, peat, etc.) begins to release heat. This may occur in several ways, either by oxidation in the
presence of moisture and air, or bacterial fermentation, which generates heat. The heat is unable to escape
(hay, straw, peat, etc. are good thermal insulators), and the temperature of the material rises. The
temperature of the material rises above its ignition point (even though much of the bacteria are destroyed
by ignition temperatures). Combustion begins if sufficient oxidizer, such as oxygen, and fuel are present to
maintain the reaction into thermal runaway.

FIRE BEHAVIOR, CAUSES AND CLASSIFICATION

The behavior of fire maybe understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and thermal
imbalance. Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the normal behavior when
the pattern is undisturbed. Thermal imbalance, on the other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to
the interference of foreign matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the
exact point where the fire originated.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE SPREAD OF FIRE

As to the thermal influence upon a building from the other fire-involved buildings, the following
mechanisms are considered as contributing factors to fire spread: (A) thermal radiation heat transfer from
fire involved buildings; (B) temperature rise due to wind-blown fire plumes; and (C) spotting of firebrands (a
piece of burning wood) to the downwind of fire-involved buildings. Under the influence of the above
phenomena, fire spread is assumed to occur when one of the following conditions are met: (a) incident heat
flux through opening exceeds a critical value; (b) surface temperature of exterior wooden wall exceeds a
critical value; (c) firebrands at high energy states fall upon combustibles.

DANGEROUS BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:

1. Backdraft – it is the sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that
occurs in the form of explosion. This may occur because of improper ventilation. If a room is not properly
ventilated, highly flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or window is suddenly
opened, the room violently sucks the oxygen from the outside and simultaneously, a sudden combustion
occur, which may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
CHARACTERISTICS OF BACKDRAFT
 fire gases are under pressure
 existence of black smoke that is becoming dense gray yellow
 confinement of excessive heat
 there is little flame or no visible flame
 smoke leave the building in puffs or by intervals
 windows are smoked stained
 muffled sounds are heard inside the building
 violent rushing of air inside when opened
2. Flashover – it is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is
incomplete combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of free radicals, which is initiated by a spark or
flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When accumulated volume of radical
gases suddenly burns, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of causing flames to jump at a certain
distance in the form of fireball. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards with in a few seconds.

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 3. Biteback - a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations and
become stronger and bigger instead.
4. Flash Fire – better known as dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is
completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn
simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an
explosion.

Week 6 Content (Preliminary)

Overview Page

OVERVIEW
This week you will study on the first subject of the Fire Protection that will deal on the legal basis of Fire
Protection in the Philippines.

Chapter 2: [Fire Protection]

Objectives
By the end of this chapter/week, you will be able to:

12. Know Republic Act No. 9514 or the Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008.
13. Learn about the Fire Code and how does it aim to help protect lives and properties.
14. Recognize the legislation’s necessity in preventing fires and to minimize losses from both life and
property.

Lesson 1.1 Comprehensive Fire Code of the Philippines

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9514 - "Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008"
Provides for the public safety and promote economic development through the prevention and
suppression of all kinds of destructive fires and promote the professionalization of the fire service as a
profession.

Section 3 of the RA 9514: Mandates the Bureau of Fire Protection to administer and enforce the law,
under the direct supervision of the Chief of the Bureau of Fire Protection, through the hierarchy of
organization as provided for in Chapter VI of Republic Act No. 6975.

Section 3 also provides for the issuance of the Fire Safety Inspection Certificate (FSIC) in which no
occupancy, business permit or permit to operate may be granted.

Fire Safety Inspection Certificate will not be issued if:

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  Inspect at reasonable time, any building, structure, installation or premises for dangerous or
hazardous conditions or materials as set forth in this Code, provided that in case of single family
dwelling, an inspection must be upon the consent of the occupant or upon lawful order from the
proper court. The Chief, BFP or his/her duly authorized representative shall order the
owner/occupant to remove hazardous materials and/or stop hazardous operation/process in
accordance with the standards set by this Code or its implementing rules or regulations or other
pertinent laws;
 Where conditions exist and are deemed hazardous to life and property, to order the
owner/occupant of any building or structure to summarily abate such hazardous conditions;
 Require the building owner/occupant to submit plans and specifications, and other pertinent
documents of said building to ensure compliance with applicable codes and standards; and
 Issue a written notice to the owner and/or contractor to stop work on portion of any work due to
absence, or in violation of approved plans and specifications, permit and/or clearance or
certification as approved by the Chief, BFP or his/her duly authorized representative. The notice
shall state the nature of the violation and no work shall be continued on that portion until the
violation has been corrected.

Section 7 of the RA 9514: Provides for the Inspections, Safety Measures, Fire Safety, Constructions, and
Protective and/or Warning Systems in which owners, administrators or occupants of buildings, structures
and their premises or facilities and other responsible persons shall be required to comply with the following,
as may be appropriate

INSPECTION REQUIREMENT - A fire safety inspection shall be conducted by the Chief, BFP or his duly
authorized representative as prerequisite to the grants of permits and/or licenses by local governments and
other government agencies concerned, for the:
(1) Use or occupancy of buildings, structures, facilities or their premises including the installation or fire
protection and fire safety equipment, and electrical system in any building structure or facility; and
(2) Storage, handling and/or use of explosives or of combustible, flammable, toxic and other hazardous
materials;

SAFETY MEASURES FOR HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

- Fire safety measures shall be required for the manufacture, storage, handling and/or use of hazardous
materials involving:
(1) cellulose nitrate plastic of any kind;
(2) combustible fibers;
(3) cellular materials such as foam, rubber, sponge rubber and plastic foam;
(4) flammable and combustible liquids or gases of any classification;
(5) flammable paints, varnishes, stains and organic coatings;
(6) high-piled or widely spread combustible stock;
(7) metallic magnesium in any form;
(8) corrosive liquids, oxidizing materials, organic peroxide, nitromethane, ammonium nitrate, or any amount
of highly toxic, pyrophoric, hypergolic, or cryogenic materials or poisonous gases as well as material
compounds which when exposed to heat or flame become a fire conductor, or generate excessive smoke
or toxic gases;
(9) blasting agents, explosives and special industrial explosive materials, blasting caps, black powder,
liquid nitro-glycerine, dynamite, nitro cellulose, fulminates of any kind, and plastic explosives containing
ammonium salt or chlorate;
(10) fireworks materials of any kind or form;
(11) matches in commercial quantities;
(12) hot ashes, live coals and embers;
(13) mineral, vegetable or animal oils and other derivatives/by products;
(14) combustible waste materials for recycling or resale;
(15) explosive dusts and vapors; and
(16) agriculture, forest, marine or mineral products which may undergo spontaneous combustion.
(17) any other substance with potential to cause harm to persons, property or the environment because of
one or more of the following: a) The chemical properties of the substance; b) The physical properties of the

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substance; c) The biological properties of the substance. Without limiting the definition of hazardous
material, all dangerous goods, combustible liquids and chemicals are hazardous materials.

SAFETY MEASURES FOR HAZARDOUS OPERATION/PROCESSES

- Fire Safety measures shall be required for the following hazardous operation/processes:

(1) welding or soldering;

(2) industrial baking and drying;
(3) waste disposal;
(4) pressurized/forced-draft burning equipment;
(5) smelting and forging;
(6) motion picture projection using electrical arc lamps;
(7) refining, distillation and solvent extraction

PROVISION ON FIRE SAFETY CONSTRUCTION, PROTECTIVE AND WARNING SYSTEM

- Owners, occupants or administrator or buildings, shall incorporate and provide therein fire safety
construction, protective and warning system, and shall develop and implement fire safety programs, to wit:

(1) Fire protection features such as sprinkler systems, hose boxes, hose reels or standpipe systems and
other fire fighting equipment;
(2) Fire Alarm systems;
(3) Fire walls to separate adjoining buildings, or warehouses and storage areas from other occupancies in
the same building;
(4) Provisions for confining the fire at its source such as fire resistive floors and walls extending up to the
next floor slab or roof, curtain boards and other fire containing or stopping components;
(5) Termination of all exits in an area affording safe passage to a public way or safe dispersal area;
(6) Stairway, vertical shafts, horizontal exits and other means of egress sealed from smoke and heat;
(7) A fire exit plan for each floor of the building showing the routes from each other room to appropriate
exits, displayed prominently on the door of such room;
(8) Self-closing fire resistive doors leading to corridors;
(9) Fire dampers in centralized airconditioning ducts;
(10) Roof vents for use by fire fighters; and
(11) Properly marked and lighted exits with provision for emergency lights to adequately illuminate exit
ways in case of power failure.

Section 8 of the RA 9514:

Provides for the following prohibited acts:

(a) Obstructing or blocking the exit ways or across to buildings clearly marked for fire safety purposes, such
as but not limited to aisles in interior rooms, any part of stairways, hallways, corridors, vestibules, balconies
or bridges leading to a stairway or exit of any kind, or tolerating or allowing said violations;
(b) Constructing gates, entrances and walkways to buildings components and yards which obstruct the
orderly and easy passage of fire fighting vehicles and equipment;
(c) Prevention, interference or obstruction of any operation of the Fire Service, or of duly organized and
authorized fire brigades;
(d) Obstructing designated fire lanes or access to fire hydrants;
(e) Overcrowding or admission of persons beyond the authorized capacity in movie houses, theaters,
coliseums, auditoriums or other public assembly buildings, except in other assembly areas on the ground
floor with open sides or open doors sufficient to provide safe exits;
(f) Locking fire exits during period when people are inside the building;
(g) Prevention or obstruction of the automatic closure of fire doors or smoke partitions or dampers;
(h) Use of fire protective of firefighting equipment of the fire service other than for firefighting except in other
emergencies where their use are justified;
(i) Giving false or malicious fire alarms;
(j) Smoking in prohibited areas as may be determined by fire service, or throwing of cigars, cigarettes,
burning objects in places which may start or cause fire;

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(k) Abandoning or leaving a building or structure by the occupant or owner without appropriate safety
measures;
(l) Removing. destroying, tampering or obliterating any authorized mark, seal, sign or tag posted or required
by the fire service for fire safety in any building, structure or processing equipment; and
(m) Use of jumpers or tampering with electrical wiring or overloading the electrical system beyond its
designated capacity or such other practices that would tend to undermine the fire safety features of the
electrical system.

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