1

CHAPTER 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER

1.1.0 INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED SCIENCE

Science is a body of systematized knowledge that helps us to comprehend,

explain phenomena, predict and control nature.

Science can be broadly grouped into tw o branches. These are:

1. Pure Science 2. Applied Science

Main Branches Sub - Branches

Chemistry Organic, Inorganic, Physical

Biology Botany, Zoology, Microbiology

Physics Atomic, heat, light, Sound, Electricity and

Magnetism

Table 1.1.1

The knowledge uncovered by the study of the pure sciences is then

applied to the way we live e.g. pure chemistry deals w ith chemicals and their

reactions in nature and applied chemistry links these reactions to useful fields

such as agriculture, medicine, pharmacy, engineering, food science, industry etc.

CAREERS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(I) Pharmacist : CHEMISTRY

Biology - effects of chemicals on the body

Maths - calculation of quantities and concentrations

(II) Civil Engineer : PHYSICS

Maths - to calculate areas, stress of materials etc.

Chemistry - how certain materials will react together.

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(III) Nurse BIOLOGY

Chemistry understanding how drugs work

Physics the accurate use of machines and instruments

Maths the dosage of medicine

(IV) Astronaut PHYSICS

Maths distance, time, energy calculations

Chemistry chemistry of rocket fuels, chemistry on the body

Biology how the body functions in space

Science therefore, is an integrated subject which relies on more than one

of the pure sciences to make it relevant to our daily lives.

TECHNOLOGY

Technology is not only the application of sciences but also the ability to

read and w rite about technological practices

be aware and recognize technological developments

use technological knowledge to solve everyday problems.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE

1. Science educates us about things concerning us and the world as a whole.

2. Science offers reliable knowledge that can be used as basis to cure

diseases, communicate across the world, make our homes more

comfortable, and produce more and better crops and many other things.

3. Science helps us to solve some problems.

1.1.1 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

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This is a method of collecting inform ation and forming ideas which must

be systematic and reliable. There are several im portant steps in the scientific

method. These are:

Identification of problem: - decide exactly what you want to do after careful

examination (e.g. eradicating the anopheles mosquito).

State the aim: - the main reason for your investigation (e.g. the anopheles
mosquito causes malaria which is killing the populace).

Data collection: - find out all you can about the problem and decide on what to
do, use and measure, how to go about it. (E.g. male mosquitoes breed in greens

they are vegetarians, others also breed in stagnant waters, ponds, poodles, lorry

tyres, empty cans, filthy places, gutters etc. The use of hoes, cutlasses, rakes, oil,

and insecticide mosquito nets etc)

Formulate hypothesis: - this is the statement which you w ill aim to prove or
disprove by your investigation (e.g. keeping the environment clean can eradicate

mosquitoes)

Experimentation: - carry out practical work to find out the solution(s) to the

problem (e.g. clearing the environment of filth, weeding, spraying breeding

places w ith insecticides, covering barrels of water, cover beds w ith mosquito nets

etc.)

Recording and analysis of data: - use of tables, charts and graphs to interpret
your results and draw conclusions.

Further experiments: - carry out further experiments to check and test for
unexpected outcomes (e.g. further experiments on mosquito nets and insecticide

sprays).

Evaluation: - look critically at all aspects of your investigation and make

suggestions for improvem ent (e.g. keeping the environment free from weeds can

curb the breeding of mosquitoes, however grass grows so quickly thus, mosquito
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nets which have been treated w ith insecticide can be used side by side in

addition to insecticide sprays.

The quest for knowledge and curiosity are necessary to arrive at the truth,

facts and solutions to problems.

Discoveries have been made by many great scientists using the scientific

method. In 1926 for instance, Alexander Fleming observed and examined the

bacteria Staphylococcus. Then one day he noticed a mass of fluffy mould growing

on the cultures, which became dark green after sometime. He called it

Penicillium notatum . Five days later he noticed that it secreted a substance which

penetrated the culture medium. A clear zone was found w ith no staphylococci

around regions where the mould grew. This meant that Penicillium could have

produced a substance that fights bacterial growth.

This theory was not accepted tiil after the Second World War when Howard

Florey read Flemings w ork and conducted further experiments.

in 1896, Henri Becquerel investigated the action of bright sunlight and

uranium salt on photographic plates. The plates were securely wrapped and

placed near the uranium compounds yet became fogged. This suggested that,

uranium spontaneously em itted some rays known as Becquerel rays. Later on

Roentgen and Curies conducted further investigations, modified it, and then

came out w ith the fact that uranium gives o ff particles spontaneously and this

was known as radioactivity.

Archimedes (287 - 212 B.C) made a discovery. The then King of Sicily

tasked a goldsmith to make a crown from a piece of pure gold. There were

doubts upon completion although it had the same weight as the original piece of

gold. Archimedes was to find out why w ithout damaging the crown. (He stumbled

upon the solution whiles taking his bath). He took the crown and a piece of pure

gold having the same weight as the crown and immersed each in turn in a trough
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full of water. He found out that the crown displaced more w ater than the piece of

gold. This means that, the crown had a greater volume than the piece of gold

although they had the same weight.

This showed that the density of the crown was less than that of pure gold

thus, proving that the crown was not made of pure gold. Archimedes continued

his work in this field and put forward his principle which states: “The upthrust on

an object immersed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces.

A R C H IM E D E S ’ E X P E R IM E N T

F i g 1. 1.1 A rc h im e d e ^ experim ent

*"There is a common problem of flooding in your community, Outline the

scientific methods you would follow to arrive at a solution to this problem"

1.1.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN THE LABORATORY

2. Do not chew food substances in the laboratory because the hands,

counters and glassware may contain substances that can contaminate

food.

3. Do not eat in the laboratory because some chemicals in the lab might be

poisonous or em it radiations which contaminate the food being eaten.

4. Do not wash hands w ith an unknown colourless liquid in a beaker because

a liquid may (appear colourless but may) be a dangerous

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chem ical/toxic/corrosive/injurious/poisonous and could cause serious

burns.

5. Do not open a gas tap before looking for a match to light the Bunsen

burner because such practices causes fire outbreaks,

6. Do not drop large pieces of sodium metal into water because this practice

will cause a violent reaction and explosions

7. In mixing a strong acid w ith w ater do not pour w ater into acid but rather

pour the acid gently and slowly into the water. Allow the mixture to cool.

8. Avoid spillage and skin/cloth contact because the liquid might be

corrosive.

9. Wear protective clothing and do not walk barefooted in the laboratory

because one is exposed to the risk of stepping on splashed chemical/ a

fallen pin/ pointed object or a piece of broken glass.

10. Avoid smelling directly the gas evolved from a chemical reaction because it

might be injurious or poisonous to one's health when inhaled directly.

11. When boiling a substance in alcohol do not use naked flame to avoid fire,

pour alcohol into a suitable container, put the substance into the alcohol

and place the container containing alcohol in a w ater bath.

12. Plastic gloves on the hands can be worn to offset heat. Others include

goggles, aprons, gas masks etc.

13.Close all taps before leaving the laboratory. The laboratory will be filled

w ith flammable gas if the taps are left on overnight or a period of time.
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Graduated or measuring V o lu m e ir ic F la s k
Cylinder

Retort stand and clamp

Wash BottJe

Dr»pftot
plprtteor
leal pip«<1r
Flat bottom flask
Conical flask
Round bottom flask

Some Laboratory Equipment

SAFETY SYMBOLS

These are signs that may be fixed to doors, benches, tables, cupboards and

other spots to give inform ation to those around the vicinity. However these signs

are subject to regulations which may differ from those requiring hazard warning

symbols on equipment or bottles, although in some cases the same basic symbol

may be used. Such safety symbols include the following:

W arning Signs:

These are enclosed in a triangle and are on a yellow background. They

usually give warnings of a hazard. Examples are given below:

Toxic Flammable Electrical hazard E xplosive Irritant/harmful

Containers o f Hazardous Chemical:

These normally bear a hazard warning symbol and certain approved risk

phrase. For vehicles the symbol is contained w ithin a square.

Toxic chemical Corrosive materials Highly flammable

Oxidizing

Prohibitory Signs:

These signs indicate behaviour which is disallowed. Examples include:

 No open flames Non portable water No

smoking

Others:

Mandatory signs show the specific action to be taken e.g. an eye

protection must be worn. The eye wash sign and first aid signs are examples of

safe conditions sign.

□ !

First aid Eye protection Fire Radioactive Biohazard

Eyewash
sign sign Extinguisher sign sign sign

Item Examples and Essential Features

Biohazards Biohazard materials represent a threat to the body of a living

organism.

Corrosive These also indicate hazards to human skin. Concentrated acids

substances and alkali are usually corrosive e.g. are H2S04, HCI, NaOH etc.
Irrita n t/ Examples include ethanol, bleaching powder and calcium Oxide.
harmful
materials
Explosive Examples are gun powder, a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen
materials
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Oxidizing Examples include potassium permanganate and hydrogen

materials
peroxide

Toxic or Examples include mercury, potassium cyanide, and lead

poisonous
ethanoate
chemicals
Flammable These materials catch fire readily. Examples include butanol,
materials petrol, ethanol, diesel, ether
Radioactive Examples are alpha, beta and gamma.
materials

Study the diagram carefully

B D

a. Identify each symbol.

b. Give an example of chemical or substance represented by each of the safety

symbol.

1.2. MEASUREMENTS

In the olden days, the length of the King of England's foot was adopted as
the unit, foot , his arm's length as the yard, and the first segment of his thum b as
the inch, all these are now established as the Imperial System of measurement.
The decimal system of units was adopted in 1791; this was devised by a
committee of the French Academy. The M etric system was devised by the British
who selected the gram and centim eter as the basic units of mass and length.

In 1960, the w orld scientific community agreed to adopt the SI un it (Systeme

International d'unites). Seven independent quantities were identified and given
units to form the basis of the system. These are:

QUANTITY BASIC UNIT SYMBOL

Mass kilogram kg
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Length metre m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Table 1.2.1
Many other units in the system are made up from multiples and

combinations of the basic units. Some of these units would have had long

complicated names if expressed in the basic unit only. Many have also been given

special names of scientists connected w ith that field of study. Examples of

derived units are represented as follows:

Table 1.2.2

QUANTITY SI UNIT SYMBOL

Force newton N - kgms ;

Work & Energy joule J - Nm

Quantity of electricity coulomb C- As

Power w att W -J s "1

Electric potential volt V - WA"1

Electric resistance Ohm Q - VA'1

For convenience sake numbers in SI units are often w ritten to a power of

10 to indicate multiples of the unit. Examples are represented below:

Table 1.2.3
Decimal m ultiples and Sub - m ultiples
PREFIX SYMBOL MULTIPLE
tera T 1012
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giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo K 103
hecto h 102
deca da 10
deci d 10'1
centi c 10"2
milli m 10"3
micro M- 10'6
nano n 10‘9
1 0 12
pico P
1 0 15
fem to f
alto a 10 18

Measuring quantities accurately teaches us some values such as honesty,

integrity truthfulness, consistency etc.

1.2.1 DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY

Density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume,

i.e. p= m/v. Its unit = kg/m 3.

D eterm ination o f density o f w ater:

1. Weigh a dry empty beaker (M).
2. Pour w ater into the beaker and weigh (M i).
3. Pour a convenient volume of w ater into a beaker using a pipette or burette (V).
4. Subtract M from M i to get the mass of water.

5. Divide the mass by the volume to get the density of water.

D eterm ination o f the density o f an irregular solid e.g. stone

• The stone is weighed on a beam balance and its mass is recorded as (M).
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• A measuring cylinder is partly filled w ith w ater and the initial level is

recorded as (Vi)

• A string is tied to the stone and lowered gently until it is completely

immersed in the w ater and the new level is recorded as (V2)

• The volume of the stone is determined as V2—Vx

• The density of the stone is thus, Mass of stone = M = _M

Volume of stone V V2—Vx

(b ) Is an alternative method using the Eureka can.

Finding volume by displacement

2001 Nov Question

I. A salt solution is made by dissolving 50g of the salt in 250cm of water.

Calculate the density of the solution in kgm J.

Mass (m) 50g + 250 = 300g -¥ 0.3kg

Volume (v) 250cm3 0.00025m3 [10"2cm] m3 = [10~6]

Density = Mass/Volume

= 0.3kg/0.00025

= 1 2 0 0 k g m "3

The relative density of a substance is the density/mass of the substance

compared w ith the density of water or the mass of equal volume of water. The

formula could be represented as follows:

Relative Density = Density of substance or Mass of substance

Density of w ater Mass of equal volume of w ater
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The relative density b o ttle :

This bottle has a glass stopper which has a fine

hole through it. The purpose of this stopper is

to enable the bottle to be filled w ith exactly

the same volume of liquid every time. The

excess liquid escapes through the hole.

Determination of relative density

1. Weigh the relative density bottle empty (M)
2. Weigh the R.D bottle full of salt solution (M x)
3. Empty the bottle, dry it and refill w ith w ater and weigh again (M 2)
Results:
Mass of empty bottle = M
Mass of bottle full of salt solution = M1
Mass of bottle full of w ater = M 2
Mass of salt solution = M i- M
Mass of w ater = M 2- M
Relative Density of salt solution = Mass of salt solution - Mi_- M
Mass of equal volume of w ater M2- M

Again relative density can be determined using Archimedes' Principle

which states that: "The upthrust on an object immersed in a liquid is equal to the
weight of the liquid it displaces ".

An object experiences an upward force when it is immersed in a liquid.

This force is due to the pressure exerted on it by the liquid. This upward force is
what is referred to as the upthrust on the object.

If a piece of solid is immersed in water, it will displace its own volume of

water. The upthrust is thus, the weight of its own volume of w ater (apparent
weight).
Weight of body in air (Real weight) = W0
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Weight of the body in w ater (Apparent weight) = Wi

Weight of w ater displaced = apparent loss in weight
=W0- W 1 (By Archimedes
Principle)
.’.Apparent loss in weight of body = Natural weight - Apparent
weight
This shows that the apparent loss in weight of the body or the upthrust on
it should be equal to the weight of w ater displaced, thus verifying Archimedes
principle.

Worked example:

In determining the relative density of a piece of stone, it is first weighed in air,

and then w ater as illustrated in fig 1.5 below.

ft

co

o b je c t

(a) Read and record:

I. The mass, m 1; of the stone in air. 60N
II. The mass, m2, of the stone in water. 30N

(b) Calculate the:

I. Apparent loss of weight of the stone in water. 60 - 30 = 30N
II. Relative density of stone, using the relation,
R.D. = _m.i = 60 = 60 =2.0
m i- m 2 6 0 -3 0 30
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(c) Explain the apparent loss of weight of the stone.

Explanation: When a body is immersed in a fluid it experiences an

upthrust/upw ard force which reduces its weight measured in the fluid.

Table 1.2.4 Differences between density and relative density

DENSITY RELATIVE DENSITY

It has units kgn It has no units.

It is a measured quantity. It is a comparison between tw o

measured quantities.
It involves masses and volumes of It involves the mass of a substance and
substances. that of water.

The principle of floatation

A floating body displaces its own weight of fluid in which it floats.

If the density of an object is less than that of a liquid, it will float when placed in

that liquid.

Again an object will float in a liquid if the upthrust is equal to the weight of the

liquid displaced. OR

An object will float in w ater if that object can displace enough w ater suchthat

the weight of w ater displaced equals that of the object.

The ship is made w ith material (iron & steel) which is eight times denser than
w ater yet it floats in w ater because of its hollow structure which enables it to

displace a large volume of water. The weight of the volume of w ater displaced

then equals the weight of the ship, hence it floats. fo

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T he weight of" sea w ater displaced i>v

the ship m ust be equ al to the weight o f the ship.

A ship

The submarine:
> Initially a submarine floats on the sea as its weight is supported by the

upthrust from the w ater

> the upthrust is equal to the weight of the submarine

> the submarine takes in w ater which increases its weight

> the submarine sinks when its weight becomes greater than the upthrust

> the submarine rises to the surface when w ater is pumped out of it and its

weight decreases.

Balloons: Helium and hydrogen are gases used to fill balloons because their
densities are lesser than that of air. A balloon if filled w ith one of such a gas

whose density is less than that of air. The weight of the volume of air displaced

by the balloon is greater than the weight of the balloon. The upthrust is then

equal to its weight. A balloon filled w ith air from our breath (cold air) does not

rise up because cold air is denser than that of hot air.

The upthrust on the balloon w ill be lesser than the weight of the balloon, it will

not rise.

rThe weight of air displaced by the balloon must be equal to the weight of the
balloon'.
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A balloon

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Q uantity: Length

(i) Ruler, metre rule or surveyor's tape: are used to measure lengths and the

measurement is accurate to the nearest 0.5mm.

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(ii) Vernier Calipers: are used to measure short distances between tw o points to

the precision of 0.1mm.

(iii) Inside Calipers: are used to measure the internal diameter of circular objects

(iv) Outside Calipers: are used to make external measurements.

(v) M icrom eter screw gauge: is used to measure extremely short distances such

as the diameter of a wire or the thickness of a sheet of metal to the precision of

0.01mm.

2. Spherometer: to measure the curvature of a spherical surface.

3. Opisometer: to measure curved lines.

4. Pipette: used by chemists to measure the pre-determined volume of a liquid.

5. Measuring Cylinders: to measure the volumes of liquids

6. Watches and clocks: to measure time

7. Barometer: to measure atmospheric pressure.

8. V oltm eter: to measure electric potential.

9. Am m eter: to measure electric current.

10. Photometer: to measure luminous intensity

11. Balances: to measure mass

12. Hydrometers: used to measure the density of acids, alcohol and other liquids.

By measuring the density of acid in the car battery, hydrometers can show

w hether a car battery is charged.

Hydrometer is a weighted bulb w ith long marked stem. The weight keeps

the hydrom eter erect and it sinks to the mark on the stem, showing the density

of the liquid.

Using the hydrometer to determine the density of liquid:

—» Lower the hydrom eter gradually into the liquid and leave it in.

—» Read the value on the hydrometer

—» The reading is the relative density of the liquid

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—» The density of the liquid is obtained by multiplying the relative density

by the density of w ater (Igcm )

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mercury normal body temperature 36 9'C

cftnicaf ihermorneter

F ig 1.7 Examples of some measuring instrument

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1.3 DIVERSITY OF LIVING AND NON LIVING THINGS

Diversity means a wide range of differences that a scientist can see when looking

at a large number of different organisms.

There are some basic life processes that unite all living organisms. These

life processes distinguish living things from non - living things. They are as

follows:

Locomotion: this is the change in position of the whole body or part of the body.
Nutrition: it is the taking in or manufacturing food in order to carry out other life
processes.

Irritability: is the response to changes in the surroundings or to stimuli.

Growth: is the irreversible increase in size and weight.

Reproduction: is the ability to make more of the same kind.

Excretion: is the removal of toxic waste metabolic products from the body.
Respiration: release of energy from food with or w itho ut the use of oxygen.
Classification: is the grouping of things or the sorting out of things into groups
according to their common characteristics,

History o f classification => this involved tw o persons they were:

Aristotle (early classification) and Linnaeus (binomial system)

A ristotle (384 - 322BC); a Greek biologist produced the first classification of

living things. He classified animals by looking at the way they moved. He thus put

together animals that can fly, run or swim.

The only thing they have in common is movement.

He again used appearance and size in classifying plants. He grouped plants as

herbs, shrubs or trees.

Herbs are short, delicate plants, the stems of which rarely become woody. The
shoot system dies off at the end of a growing season e.g. of annuals include

maize, yam, garden eggs; perennials include canna lily, ginger, Crotalaria.
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Shrubs grow larger than herbs and often form woody tissues e.g. Hibiscus and
Allamanda.

Trees are large, woody plants which grow much taller than shrubs and produce
much thicker stems or trunks e.g. Flamboyant.

Carolus Linnaeus (1707 - 1778) a Swedish naturalist based his classification on

natural relationships. He called a group of organisms capable of reproducing

'species'. His system of classification is still in use today and it is called the natural

system of classification because it puts all organisms w ith the same structure

together. He brought about the binomial system. The binomial system is a system

of nomenclature in which every organism is given a tw o - part Latin name. The

first part is the Genus to which all organisms belong and always begins w ith a

capital letter. The second part is the species to which the organisms belong and

this always begins w ith a small letter.

E.g. Genus Species Common name

Homo sapien man

Zea mays maize

Classification schemes:

(I) Living things => The various schemes as listed in increasing order of

similarities in features, as one goes down the list according to Linnaeus

system of classification are: -

Kingdom —» Phylum—» Class —» Order —» Family —» Genus —»

Species

(II) Non - living things => the schemes are metals and non- metals.

Importance o f Classification:

1. Allows biologists to identify and follow similarities and differences in

organisms,

2. Allows any one group to be described using one or a few words.

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3. Allows new organisms to be identified and classified

4. Forms a new common pool of knowledge that allows easy communication

between all biologists.

The Linnaeus system of classification for living organisms are: Kingdom, Phylum,

Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

Kingdom is divided into 5 main groups.

> Kingdom Prokaryotea / Monera

> Kingdom Protoctista

> Kingdom Fungi

> Kingdom Plantae

> Kingdom Animalia

Kingdom Prokaryotae / Monera (bacteria)

Most are microscopic, about one micrometer (nm) in diameter.
They have no nucleus and no membrane - bound organelles.
- The cytoplasm is surrounded by a cell wall.
Many posses' flagella which help them to move e.g. are Escherichia coli,
vibrio (cholera), Bacillus typhus's (typhoid fever), Treponema (syphilis)
spiral la

Prokaryotae kingdom

Kingdom Protoctista (protozoa and algae)

- These are often unicellular.
They are eukaryotic (posses a membrane - bound nucleus) e.g. Include
Amoeba, Trypanosome, Euglena, Plasmodium, Algae, Spirogyra, and
Seaweed etc.
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Protoctista kingdom

Kingdom Fungi (fungi)

All are eukaryotic and multicellular
- They have no roots, stems, or leaves
- They are not photosynthetic
- The vegetative body is called mycelium
- They have no cellulose cell wall
- Their mode of nutrition is parasitic e.g. Rhizopus (mould), Agaricus
(mushroom).

Fungi kingdom

Kingdom Plantae (plants)

All are multicellular, eukaryotic and photosynthetic.
They have cellulose cell wall e.g. mosses, liverworts, ferns, maize, and
pine tree etc.

Plantae Kingdom
Kingdom Animalia (animals)
- All are multicellular, eukaryotic and non - photosynthetic.
- Almost all are capable of locomotion
They possess nerve tissue for co - ordination e.g. liver fluke, grasshopper,
Tilapia, frog, lizard, leopard, man etc.
 A nim al kingdom lizard

Viruses
They are called particles, basically made up of proteins and either DNA or
RNA.
- They do not posses a nucleus, cytoplasm or cell membrane.
They can reproduce only in a living cell.
- They have a variety of shapes e.g. rods, spirals, spheres and hexagons.
All known viruses cause diseases e.g. sore throat, yellow fever,
poliomyelitis, foo t and mouth disease in cattle, herpes, AIDS etc.

I'- ovm'v

Types of viruses

Non - Living Things

Elements: metals and non-metals
In 1860, Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian scientist classified elements by predicting
that some of the families of elements contained elements yet to be discovered.
His system of classification is the periodic classification.
He discovered that the properties of the elements changed gradually as
their atomic number increased.
He frequently came across an element that showed similar properties to
an earlier one.
 27

W ith these tw o discoveries he arranged elements in order of increasing atomic

number or the number of electrons in an atom of each element, so that those
w ith similar properties came under one another in a vertical column.
Below are the first eighteen elements on the periodic table arranged into groups
of metals, semi metals and non metals.

Metals______ Semi metals Non metals

Lithium (Li) Boron (B) Hydrogen (H)
Beryllium (Be) Silicon (Si) Helium (He)
Sodium (Na) Beyond 1st 18 Carbon (C)
Magnesium (Mg) Germanium (Ge) Nitrogen
Aluminium (Al) Arsenic (As) Oxygen (0)
Antimony (Sb) Fluorine (F)
Tellurium (Te) Neon (Ne)
Astatine (At) Phosphorus (P)
Sulphur (S)
Chlorine (Cl)
Argon (Ar)
Living Societies:
The basic unit of any social group is the family. It is a nuclear family when
it consists of a husband, a wife and children.
Another type of fam ily is the extended family which consists of a larger
number of people. An extended family may be a clan.
A clan is a number of families all of whom claim to have descended
from a common ancestor.
Ethnic group is a collection of clans. Members of an ethnic group have one
common ruler.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. (i) Name the five major kingdoms in the classification of living organisms.
(ii) Give an example of an organism in each of the kingdoms
2. (i) Give three reasons for classifying organisms.
(ii) What is the binomial system of nomenclature?
1.4 MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

Mass is the amount of m atter contained in an object.
 MATTER
1. M atter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

2. M atter is anything that has mass and volume

3. Examples of matter: include all the materials in our surroundings i.e. Air, Wood, Water, Paper, Rock,
Plastic, Sand, Animal, Kerosene, Glass, Petrol, Fruit etc

Mass: the amount of matter contained in an object.

W eight : is the force that the object exerts on the ground due to the force of gravity.

Volume:
Pa r t i c u l a t e s n atu re of m atter
The tiny particles which form the building blocks or basic units of m atter are:
I. Atom
II. Molecule
III. Ion

They are the particulates nature of matter

At o m :
1. Smallest particle of an elem ent that exhibits the properties of the elem ent and can take part in a
chem ical reaction.

2. Smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element in a chemical reaction.

3. It is made up of a nucleus with positively charged protons and neutral neutrons surrounded by
negatively charged electrons in a shell.

4. It has equal numbers of protons and electrons making it neutral.

Examples: Hydrogen atom(H), Carbon atom (C), Oxygen atom (O), Sodium atom (Na), Potassium
atom(K), Fluorine (H) etc.

Mo l e c u l e :
1. The smallest particle that exits separately. It can be made up of either one kind of atom or atoms of
different elements joined together e.g. Cl2, H2O, O 2,

2. A molecule is a small particle of element or compound that exist as chemically bounded group of atoms
that exist as separate unit.

Atoms that group together to form a molecule may be of the same element or different elements. Often
molecules made up of different elements are referred to as compounds.
3. A molecule could be m onoatom ic - Elements whose atoms exist in single i.e. mostly the inert gase e.g.
He, Ne, Ar, etc.
4. A molecule could be diatom ic - M olecules containing two atoms e.g. O2,Cl2, I2, N2 etc.
5. A molecule could be triatom ic - M olecules containing three atoms e.g. O 3
6. A molecule could be a com pound e.g. H2O, NH3, C 12H22O 11 etc.

1
Io n :
1. Is a positively or negatively charged particle. It is form ed when an atom gains or loses electron(s).
2. It consists of an atom or a group of atoms that has positive or negative charge(s).
3. TYPES OF IONS
There are two types. These are cation and anion.

1. Cation: positively charged ion. It is formed when an atom loses electrons

Examples: Sodium ion (Na+), Potassium ion(K+), Magnesium ion( Mg2+), Aluminium ion(Al3+), Iron (III)
iron(Fe3+), Iron (II) ion (Fe2+), Cu+,
2. Anion: negatively charged ion. It is formed when an atom gains electrons.
Examples: Chlorine ion (Cl-), Bromine ion (B r-), Oxygen ion (O2-), Nitrogen ion (N3-)

4. Polyatomic ions are called radicals. E.g. SO42- , NO3-, c o 3- etc.

A pure substance is one that is made up of only one kind of matter e.g. sodium chloride and Aluminium metal.

STATE OF MATTER

Matter exists in three different states

1. Solid state (i.e. solid)
2 . Liquid state (i.e. liquid)
3. Gaseous state (i.e. gas)

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLIDS
1. Tightly or closely packed by strong attractive forces.
2. Do not flow or cannot be poured.
3. Have fixed volume.
4. Dense and cannot be easily compressed.
5. Solids have definite shape.
6. Particles have lowest kinetic energy compared to those in liquids and gases.
7. Particles in solids cannot move but only vibrate.
E.g. stones, wood, iron, ice cubes etc

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIQUID
1. Particles more separated than in solids
2. Forces of attraction among constituent particles are weaker than those in
solids but stronger than those in gases.
3. They flow or can be poured.
4. They have definite volume.
5. They have no definite shape but take or assume the shapeof the containing vessel.
6 . They cannot be compressed easily.
7. The constituent particles have higher kinetic energy than those in solids but lower than those in gases.
8 . The constituent particles undergo random motion.
E.g. water, oil palm, petrol, kerosene etc.

2
CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES
1. Have no definite shape.
2. Have no definite volume or size.
3. There is little or no attractive forces among gas particles.
4. They undergo random motion and occupy the entire space of which they are contained.
5. Compressible.
6 . The constituent particles have highest kinetic energy compared to solids and liquids.
7. Most gases cannot be seen but can be felt e.g. air.
Examples: Steam or water vapour, Chlorine, Air, Methane, Oxygen, Argon,, Hydrogen gas, Neon, Smoke, Carbon
dioxide

T h e ta b le b e lo w is a g re a t g u id e to th e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n
so lid s, lig u id s a n d g a s e s :

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

Arrangement Regular, close to Random or irregular Random and

of m olecules each other close to each other wide apart

Movement Molecules can

Very little movement Quick movement
of m olecules move around

»
in the form of vibrations in random direction
each other

£££££ • • •
Diagram z z z z z •
•
CCM C
Strenght of bond Strong bonding weak bonding very loose bonding
between m olecules

Examples a rock water water vapor

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ICE (SOLID) AND WATER (LIQUID)

ICE (SOLID) WATER (LIQUID)
1. It is solid form of the compound H20 1. It is liquid form of the compound H20.
2. It cannot flow or cannot be poured. 2. It can flow or can be poured.
3. Constituent particles are closely packed. 3. Constituent particles are loosely packed.
4. Constituent particles have low kinetic energy. 4. Constituent particles have high kinetic energy.
5. It has definite shape. 5. It has no definite shape but assume the shape of the
containing vessel.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ICE (SOLID) AND VAPOUR OR STEAM (GAS

ICE (SOLID) WATER VAPOUR OR STEAM (GAS)
1. It is solid 1. It is gas of the same compound
2. It cannot flow or cannot be poured. 2. It moves randomly to occupy any space available.
3. Constituent particles are closely packed together. 3. Constituent particles are far apart.
4. It has definite shape. 4. It has no definite shape.
5. Constituent particles have low kinetic energy. 5. Constituent particles have very high kinetic energy.

3
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ICE AND WATER
1. Both have definite volume.
2. Both are made up of the same chemical composition

MAJOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WATER (LIQUID) AND VAPOUR OR STEAM (GAS)

WATER (LIQUID) WATER VAPOUR OR STEAM (GAS)
It is the liquid form of the compound, H2O It is gaseous form of the compound, H20
It can flow or can be poured It moves randomly to occupy any space available
Constituent particles are closely packed together Constituent particles are far apart
compared to that of gas.
It has no definite shape but takes the shape of the It has no definite shape.
containing vessel.
Constituent particles have low kinetic energy compared to Constituent particles have very high kinetic energy
that of gas.

CHANGE OF STATES OF MATTER

Matter can be changed from one state to another, in each case energy is either absorbed (given to it) or released

(taken from it).

LIQUID evaporation ► ( j ^

Physical processes involved in change of state of matter.

1. Melting.
2. Freezing or solidification (opposite of melting).
3. Evaporation or vapourisation.
4. Condensation (opposite of vapourisation).
5. Sublimation
6 . Deposition (opposite of sublimation).

1 . Melting: - It is a process by which a substance changes from the solid state to the liquid state. Heat is

absorbed in this process. E.g. ice cubes melt to water. The temperature at which a substance melts

is called the melting point of that substance. E.g. Margarine or butter, Wax or candle, Ice.

2 . Freezing/Solidification: - the process by which a substance changes from the liquid state into the solid state.

Heat is released in the process e.g. water to ice block, Cooking oil (e.g. palm oil), Milk.
4
3. Vaporization/Evaporation: - the process by which a substance changes from the liquid state into the gaseous

state. Heat is absorbed in the process. E.g. water to water - vapour.

i. Factors affecting evaporation
1. Temperature
2. Nature of liquid
3. Surface area of the liquid
4. Wind effect
5. Pressure
6 . Relative humidity
Examples of substances that can be observed evaporating are Water, Kerosene, Alcohol, Petrol.

ii. Boiling point: Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid changes to gas.

Factors affecting boiling point

1. Pressure.
2. Nature of liquid.
3. Wind effect.
4. Presence of dissolved material e.g. salt in the liquid.
5. Surface area of the liquid exposed to the atmosphere.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION

BOILING EVAPORATION
1. It occurs throughout the bulk liquid 1. It occurs only at the surface of the liquid.
2. Does not result in cooling. There is heat gain 2. Evaporation results in cooling. There is heat loss
3. Bubbles can be observed the liquid. 3. No bubble is observed,
4. It occurs at definite temperature or at one constant 4. It occurs at any temperatures.
temperature for any one particular liquid
5. A decrease in pressure lowers the boiling 5. A decrease in pressure increases the rate of
evaporation.
temperature.

4. Condensation: - the process by which a substance changes from the gaseous state to the liquid state. Heat is

released in the process e.g. conversion of water vapour to water.

5. Sublimation: - the process by which a substance changes from solid state into the gaseous state without first

changes into the liquid state or vice versa. Heat is either released or absorbed. E.g. camphor ball (naphthalene)

reducing in size, Iodine crystals, Sulphur, and Crystals of ammonium chloride (NH4CI) i.e Ammonium salts, dry

ice, dry carbon (IV) oxide

6. Deposition (opposite of sublimation): - This is the process in which a gas changes directly to a solid without going

through the liquid state. It occurs when gas particles become very cold. For example, when water vapor in the air

contacts a very cold windowpane, the water vapor may change to tiny ice crystals on the glass. The ice crystals are

called frost.
5
ELEMENTS, MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

ELEMENTS
1 . Element: is a substance which cannot by any known chemical process be split into two or more simpler substances.
It consists of only one type of particle or atom.

2 . The simplest form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any known chemical
or physical processes.

All things on Earth are made up of elements. There are about 106 different elements and each is represented by a

symbol e.g. Hydrogen by H. When the elements are arranged in order of ascending atomic weight, a periodicity of

chemical properties is observed. If the elements are arranged in a table such that elements with similar properties

appear in the same column, a periodic table is formed.

3. THE PERIODIC TABLE

Is the arrangement of elements with increasing atomic numbers.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period 1 2
H He
1
3 4 5 6 7 3 9 10
2 Li Be B c N 0 F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 is 17 13
3 Na Mg Al Si P s Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 28 27 23 29 3D 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 33 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 43 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd 111 Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 73 79 30 81 32 33 34 35 36
6 Cs Ba Hf Ta w Re Os lr Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn

37 33 89-103 104 ms IOC 107 133 103 110 m 112 113 114 115 11S 117 11E
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh FI Me Lv Is °g

57 53 59 63 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

39 93 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 9S 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa u Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md Ho Lr

Periodic Table Key

Alkali M etals Alkali Earth Tran sition O th e r M etals M eta lloid s O th e r Non H a lo g e n s N o b le G ases

X X x x M etals M etals M etals

S yn th e tic L iq u id s o r S o lid s G ases

E le m e n ts m e lt a t

c lo s e to

ro o m tem p.

i. Elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number.

ii. They are specially arranged for every column to contain elements with similar properties. These
columns are called groups.
iii. For each element in a group the number of outer electrons is the same.
6
 iv. Each new row has one more full shell as you go down any group. As atoms get bigger, they have more
full shells of electrons.
v. Outer shells of electrons however, are increasingly far from the nucleus.
vi. The inner shells provide 'shielding' from the attraction of positive nucleus.
vii. There is always a gradual change in properties across horizontal rows.
viii. These rows are called periods.
ix. In each period there is a change from metallic to non-metallic character e.g. from sodium to argon in the
third period.

MIXTURE
Mixture: - is the physical combination of two or more substances. A mixture does not have a definite composition.
Mixtures can be separated by physical means. The properties of the substances in a mixture are not
altered by mixing.
Chromatograph is a method that can be used to separate complex mixtures.

Types of mixtures

1. Solid - solid mixtures: - these are formed from the mixing of two or more solid particles physically.
Examples include;
i. gari and sugar
ii. sand and salt mixture
iii. sand, salt and iron filings mixture
iv. salt and sugar mixture
v. charcoal and iron filings mixture
2. Solid - liquid mixtures: - these are formed when solid particles are mixed with a liquid physically.
Examples include;
i. common salt and water mixture
ii. sugar and water mixture
iii. salt and petrol mixture
iv. sand and kerosene mixture
v. gari and water mixture
3. Liquid - liquid mixtures: - these are formed from the mixing of two or more different liquids.
Examples include;
i. water and frytol oil mixture
ii. gas oil and petrol mixture
iii. petrol and palm oil mixture
iv. water and alcohol mixture
v. water, kerosene and petrol mixture.

7
4. Gas - gas mixture: - this is a mixture of two or more different gases.
Examples include;
i. oxygen acetylene mixture used in welding
ii. nitrogen oxygen mixture
iii. Air i.e is made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide 1% rare gases, variable water
vapour.

REASONS WHY AIR IS CONSIDERED AS A MIXTURE:

i. It cannot be represented by a chemical formula or has no definite m olecular formula;
ii. Its composition varies from place to place
iii. Its components can be separated by a physical means.
iv. Its components retain their individual properties.

COMPOUNDS

Compounds: - are formed when two or more elements chemically combine e.g. NaCl, H2O,NH3
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
Compounds Mixtures
1. A new substance is formed 1. No new substance is formed
2. It contains one substance only, thus pure. 2. Contains more substances, thus impure.

3. Components are combined in fixed 3. Components are combined in varying

proportions different proportions
4. Constituents cannot be separated by 4. Constituents can be separated by
physical means physical means
5. Elements do not maintain their individual 5. Components maintain their individual
properties properties

TRIAL QUESTIONS
Classify the following materials into elements, mixtures and compounds
1. Water 2.Salt 3. Iron filings 4. Sea water 5. Glass 6.Air 7. Titanium 8. Clay 9. Sulphur

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES.

Physical change
A change where no new chemical substance is formed is called a physical change. Physical changes are usually
easily reversible and there is no apparent loss or gain in weight of the materials involved.

Characteristics of physical changes

1. No new substance is formed.
2. It is easily reversible.
3. Not accompanied by great heat change
4. There is no change in mass.
5. Individual components retain their properties.

8
Examples of physical change
1. Melting of ice.
2. Boiling a liquid.
3. Heating a wire by electricity.
4. Magnetization of iron.
5. Dissolving sugar in water.
6 . 6 . Mixing sand and sugar.
7. Freezing of water.
8 . 8 . Grinding of chalk.
9. Pounding some cassava into fufu.
6 . Melting of candle or wax.

Chem ical change

This is a change where a new (chemical) substance is formed. Chemical changes are usually irreversible. In
chemical changes there is a loss or gain in weight of the materials involved. Usually chemical changes are
accompanied by a great heat change.

Characteristics of chemical changes

1. New substances are formed.
2. It is irreversible.
3. Accompanied by great heat change.
4. There is a change in mass.
5. Individual components change their properties.

Examples of chem ical change

1. Burning substance such as wood into ash.

2. Rusting of iron.
3. Reaction between NaOH and HCl.
4. Fermentation.
5. Decomposition of substances by electricity
6. Precipitation of a solid by the reaction of two solutions.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE
1. No new substance is formed 1. New substances are formed
2. It is easily reversible 2. It is irreversible
3. Not accompanied by great heat change 3. Accompanied by great heat change
4. There is no change in mass 4. There is a change in mass
5. Individual components retain their properties 5. Individual components change their properties

9
 35

Compounds are formed when different elements are chemically

combined. The forces, which hold these atoms together, are known as chemical

bonds. These bonds are of tw o types; 1. Ionic or Electrovalent bonds

2. Covalent bond

Formation o f Ionic bonds & compounds: -

Ionic bond form ation is as a result of transfer of electrons from one atom to

another giving cations and anions. In the transfer, the positive charge cancels the

negative charge making the compound formed neutral. Bonds formed are as a

result of electrostatic force. The transfer is usually from a metal to a non - metal.

Examples of ionic compounds are:

Sodium Chloride (NaCl); CuS04; MgC03; NaOH; CaC03; HN03

Copper (II) trioxonitrate (CuN03); Potassium Oxide

(K20)

- Calcium Chloride (CaCl2); Magnesium Chloride

(MgCl2)

- Calcium Oxide (CaO) - Calcium burnt in oxygen forms calcium oxide. The

reaction between the atoms is w ritten as: Ca + O —» Ca2' + 0 2~ —» Ca2+Cr

(solid).

Below is a diagrammatic representation of the form ation of ionic bond between

Sodium and Chlorine. When hot Sodium is placed in Chlorine gas the reaction is
as follows: Na+ + e~—»Na+ Cl + e“ —> Cl“
Na + Cl = NaCl
 36

e a s i l y d t o n a t e c i s in g le s e l e c t r o n
in in c o m p J e t e o u le r sheP l

Na[2.8.1 ) 01(2*8.7}
sodium a+orn —eJectfon donor chlorine atom —ei&ciron acceptor

Ionic bonding of sodium and chlorine

Formation o f Covalent Compounds

The compound formed by the process of electron sharing between atoms to
achieve fully filled shells is called covalent compounds. The bonds formed here
are weaker and usually formed between non - metals.
A covalent bond formed between atoms is sometimes shown as a short
line drawn between the symbols of atoms e.g. H - H, Cl - Cl, Q = O, N = N, These
bonds are referred to as single, double, and triple. Examples of covalent
compounds are: - Ethanol (CH3 CH2 OH), - Ammonia (NH3)
Hydrogen Chloride (HCI),- Carbon dioxide (C02)
W ater (H20), - Chlorine (Cl2) etc.
Outermost electrons shells are only shown in this diagram.

Hi 1 )
hydrogen ator CK' 2. 8 7} H-CII?) 12 8.8)
eh tonne atom hydrogen chloride muiiXUie

Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride

Table 1.4.1 Differences between ionic and covalent bonds

 37

IONIC BOND COVALENT BOND

1. There is electron transfer There is sharing of electrons
2. Formed between metals & non Formed between non metals
metals
3.The bond formed is stronger The bond formed is weaker
4. Found in ionic compounds Found in covalent compounds

Table 1.4.2 Differences between Ionic and Covalent Compounds

IONIC COMPOUNDS COVALENT COMPOUNDS
All are mostly solids All are mostly liquids and gases
Have high melting points Have low melting point
Have high boiling points Have low boiling point
Conduct electricity in aqueous state No electricity conduction in aqueous
state
Soluble in w ater or polar solvent Insoluble in w ater or polar solvent
Insoluble in non polar solvent Soluble in non polar solvent

IUPAC naming o f compounds

• Naming gives one name to one compound
• It gives inform ation about the oxidation state and the number of atoms
combining to form the compound.
The oxidation number of an atom is the charge the atom carries in its pure state
or in its compound.
Rules determining oxidation states of compounds.
1. The oxidation number of:
(a) An element in its uncombined or atomic or molecular form is zero (0).
E.g. H, H2 => 0; Na => 0; CI,CI2=>0
(b) An ion of a single atom is equal to the charge on the ion
E.g. C l'= > -lj O2~ ^ - 2 ; Cu+ => +1
(c) An oxygen atom is -2 except in peroxides e.g. H20 2 and K20 2where it is
-1 and superoxides e.g. K02where it is -1/2.
E.g. H20 => 2(+l) + (-2) = 0
H20 2 => 2 (+1) + 2 (-l) = 0
(d) Hydrogen is -1 in metal hydrides
 38

E.g. NaH => +1 + (-1) = 0

2. The total of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral substance is zero.
E.g. HCI => +1 -1 = 0
H2S04 => 2(+2) + (+6) + 4(-2) = 0
3. The total of the oxidation numbers of all atoms of a radical is equal to the
charge carried by the radical (a radical is a polyatomic ion).
E.g. C032' => +4 +3 (-2) = -2
P043" => +5 +4 (-2) = -3
S032" => +4 +3 (-2) = -2
- Some elements e.g. (Cu; Fe) have more than one oxidation state; they are
said to show variable oxidation states.
- All metals show a positive oxidation state.

BINARY COMPOUNDS
These are compounds containing atoms of tw o different elements only.
One of the tw o elements attracts electrons more towards itself than the other
element does (electronegative). It therefore has a negative oxidation state. They
are found nearer the right hand side of the periodic table.
Rules applied in naming binary compounds
1. The suffix -'id e ' replaces the last tw o or three letters in the name of the more
electronegative element e.g. Chlorine - Chloride, Oxygen - Oxide, Nitrogen -
Nitride, Sulphur - Sulphide, Hydrogen - Hydride etc.
2. The modified name of the more electronegative element is w ritten second.
3. The name of the less electronegative element is w ritten first. It is not modified.
The oxidation state is placed in parenthesis in capital Roman numerals
immediately after the name of the element, e.g. Iron + Sulphur = Iron (II) Sulphide
or Iron (III) Sulphide.
If the element exhibits only one oxidation state, this is not shown,
e.g. Potassium + iodine => potassium iodide
Aluminium + chlorine => Aluminium chloride.
Old or trivial names are used for some compounds
e.g. H20 => water;
C02 => Carbon dioxide;
NH3=> Ammonia;
 39

CO => Carbon monoxide etc.

IONS
Rules for naming simple ions
1. The oxidation state is not shown for cations of elements w ith fixed (only
one) oxidation state, the name of the element is w ritten plus the word ion;
E.g. Zn2+ Zinc ion
H+ Hydrogen ion
NH4+ Ammonium ion
2. The oxidation state is w ritten in Roman Capital numerals, in parenthesis,
immediately after the name of the element for cations of elements with variable
oxidation states;
E.g. Cu! Copper (I) ion;Fe2'=> Iron (II) ion
Cu2" => Copper (II) ion; Fe3+ => Iron (III) ion
3. Anions take the suffix -'id e ' as does the more electronegative component of a
binary compound, plus the word ion;
E.g. Cl => Chloride ion; Br => Bromide ion
2 2
S" => Sulphide ion; O => Oxide ion
OXOANIONS: - are radicals in which oxygen atom(s) are bonded to a central
atom. Names are based on the oxidation number of the central atom and the
number of oxygen atom(s) bonded to it
1. The suffix '-ate' replaces the last tw o or three letters in the name of the
central atom.
2. The oxidation number of the central atom is given in Roman capital
numerals, in parenthesis, after its name.
3. The number of oxygen atoms is placed before the name of the central
atom as 'dioxo'; 'trioxo' etc; there is no prefix for one oxygen atom.
4. The word ion is added to the name ;
E.g. C032" => trioxocarbonate (IV) ion S03"
N 03~=> trioxonitrate (V) ion NO2"
S042" => tetraoxosulphate (VI) ion CIO"
HC03" => hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) ion CIO4
OH’ => Hydroxide ion MnO4’
OXOACIDS: - are compounds containing one or more hydrogen atoms and an
oxoanion. They are named the same way as oxoanions but the word 'acid'
replaces the word 'ion' in the name of the oxoanion;
 40

E.g. HN03 => trioxonitrate (V) acid h 2so 3 h 3po 4

H2S04^> tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid hco3 H2CO:

HCIO => oxochlorate (1) acid hno2 h c io 3

BASES:- are divided into oxides and hydroxides;

Oxides are named as binary compounds;
E.g. Fe20 3 => Iron (III) oxide
Na2 0 2 => Sodium peroxide
Al Cl3 => Aluminium Chloride
Hydroxides are also named as binary compounds, that is, the name of the cation
is w ritten first, followed by the oxidation number if it varies, then the word
hydroxide is added; e.g. NaOH => Sodium hydroxide
Ca (OH)2=> Calcium hydroxide
Cu (OH)2 => Copper (II) hydroxide
Fe (OH) 2 => Iron (II) hydroxide
SALTS: - are formed when a metal (or ammonium) cation replaces the
hydrogen(s) of an acid. They are divided into binary salts and oxoacid salts.
Binary salts are formed from the combination of the names of the cation and the
anion; e.g. NH4CI ammonium chloride
CuCl2 => Copper (II) chloride
FeS => Iron (II) Sulphide
Oxoacid salts are salts of the oxoacid e.g. Na2S04 is a salt of H2S04. They are
named by w riting the cation, followed by its oxidation number if it is variable. The
name of the oxoanion is then added.
E.g. ZnC03=> Zinc trioxocarbonate (IV) Na2S04
KM n04 => Potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) Na2C03
CuS04=>Copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) NaN03
Other Salts:
- Are named as combination of names of cations and anions e.g. Sodium
Cyanide.
- Others have w ater molecules as part of their structures. The name of
hydrated salt is followed by number of w ater molecules;
e.g. CuS0 4.5H20 => Copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)
pentahydrate
 41

Na2C03.10H20 Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) decahydrate

Name the following compounds
1. (NH4)2S04 2. KM n04
3. CuS04 4. ZnC03
5. NaHC03 6. H2S03
7. H3P04 8. HN02
9. Cu (OH) 2 10. M n 0 4

{Cations: Na', K', Mnz+, Mg2', Ca2', Zn2 , Al3', NH4 , Li', Cu2 , Cu' Fe2 , Fe3' }.
{ Anions: Cl", Br", F~, O2" , S042" , C032" , HC03" , N 03"}

1.4.3 Atomic and Mass number, Isotopes, &Relative atom ic mass.

Materials are made up of very tiny particles called atoms. Because of their
tiny nature it takes millions to form a full stop at the end of a sentence. To
deduce the structure of the atom scientist fired fast moving particles to atoms to
fall to pieces. One piece represents the atom till date.
In the nucleus are protons and neutrons. Proton number is equal to the number
of electrons around the shells; it is also equal to the atom ic number.
Atomic number is represented as Z, a subscript, e.g. zO o r 80.
Electrons have almost no mass thus; the mass of an atom of an element depends
on the sum of the protons and the neutrons. The mass of the atom therefore
becomes its mass number. Mass numbers, also called nucleons are represented
A 23
as A, a superscript, e.g. Na or Na. Mass numbers are also horizontally w ritten
as: H ydrogen-1, Helium- 4, Lithium- 7, Sodium- 23, Uranium- 238, etc.

Atomic structure

An atom w ith a known or specified number of neutrons and protons is called a

1 4 7
nuclide, examples include: XXH, 2 He, 3 Li, etc.
 42

Many elements have atoms of the same element w ith the same atomic
12 13
number but different mass numbers. They are called Isotopes. E.g. 6 C, 6 C,
614C; / H ^ H , !3H ;8160, 8170, 8180; 1224Mg/ 1225Mg, 1226Mg and so on.
The mass spectrom eter is the instrument used to determine isotopes.

Relative Atom ic Mass

Atoms of different elements have different masses. These very small
masses cannot be weighed directly but can be compared. Such compared masses
are the relative atomic masses,
The atom chosen for comparison w ith all other atoms is the carbon- 12
isotope. The scale of relative atomic mass obtained is called the ca rb o n -12 scale.
Definitions:
> Relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass of its
isotopes compared w ith an atom of c a rb o n -12. Or
> Relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the mass of one atom to
1/12 the mass of one atom of c a rb o n -12. Or
> Relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times the mass of
one atom of the element is heavier than 1/12 of the mass of one atom of
carbon - 1 2 .
On the ca rb o n -12 scale one unit is equal to 1/12 of the mass of one atom
of carbon- 12. Relative atomic mass has no unit, because it is a comparison of
masses in the same unit, but when it is given, u, it is called the atomic mass unit.

1.4.4 Calculations using the mole concept

Substances are made up of tiny particles - atoms, molecules, ions. They
are so small that we sometimes use units such as dozen (12), gross (144) etc. For
particles 'Avogadro' constant is used.
It is an extremely large number - 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 or 6.02 x
1023.
The unit formed is the amount of substance, which is the mole. (Symbol n; SI unit
= mol)
23
A mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 10 particles of that substance.
= 23
The mass (m) of one mole = Molar mass or 6.02 x 10 ~ particles of any substance.
Numerically molar mass is equal to the relative atomic mass of an atom, but its
_i
unit is gram per mole, i.e. gmol .
 43

If R.A.M of Gold (Au) is 127, then the molar mass of Au will be 127gm ol1.
Trial Questions
The relative atomic masses of the following elements are: H = 1.0, C=
12, N = 14, O = 16, Na = 23, S = 32, Cl = 35.5, Cu = 63.etc.
Calculate the formula mass (molar mass) of:
1. HN03 = (1 x 1) + (14 x 1) + (16 x 3 ) = eSgm ol1
2. NH4N 03= (14 x 1) + (1 x 4) + (14 x 1) + (16 x 3) = SOgmol"1
3. HCI = ( lx 1) + (35.5 x 1) = se.sgm ol'1
4. Na2S04= (23 x 2) + (32 x 1) + (16 x 4) = 142gmol"1
5. H2S03 = ( 1 x 2) + (32 x 1) + (16 x3) = 82gmol"1
6. C6H120 6 = (12 x 6) + (1 x 12) + (16 x 6) = ISOgmol"1
7. H2S04 = (1 x 2) + (32 x 1) + (16 x 4) = SSgmol"1
8. CuS04 = (63 x 1) + (32 x 1) + (16 x 4) = ^ g i r i o ! 1
9. NaCl = ( 23 x 1) + (35.5 x 1) = SS.Sgmol'1
10. NH3 = (14 x l) + (1 x3) = 17gm ol1
Revision Questions
Calculate the molar mass of the following:
1. CaC03 6.CaCl2
2. MgO 7. K2M n 0 4
3. AgN03 8. FeCl3
4 NaHC03 9. Ca(OH)2
5. Na2C03 10. Pb02
R.A.M -> Pb = 207, Ca = 40, Mg = 24, Ag = 108, Mn = 54.9, K = 39.1, Fe = 55.8
The general relation between the mass (m) and the amount of solute is
given by:
n=m
M

Where n = amt of substance (mol)

m = mass (g)
M = molar mass (gmoT )

(i) The atomic mass of any element = lm o l.

If 40g of Ca = lm o l
20g of Ca = 20g x lm o l
 44

40g
= 0.5mol
(ii) How many moles of H2S04 are there in lOg of the substance?
Molar mass of H2S04 = ( lx 2) + (32 x 1) + (16 x 4) = 9 8 g m o l1
lOg of H2S04= 10 x lm o l
98
= 0.102 mol

Revision Questions: Find out the number of moles in these substances:

1. 70.5g of sugar (C12H220 u )
2. 35g of h 2so 4

3. 85g of NaN03
4. 60g of CeHi20 6
5. 41.5g of trioxonitrate (V) acid - {H N 03}
6. 120g of trioxocarbonate (IV) ion - {C03
7. 123g of Copper (II) trioxocarbonate (IV)
8. lOOg of ca CO j
9. 426g of Na 2S04
10. 40g of MgS04

1.4.5 Preparation o f solutions o f given concentrations

The quantity of substance in solution can be expressed in units of moles or
grams. When expressed in moles per cubic decimeter it is referred to as
concentration (C). When it is expressed in grams it is called mass concentration.
The unit of concentration relates to the moles of solute per litre of
solution. Its unit is mol dm a or M. Note moldm 3 = m olarity = M.
This concentration of a solution can also be defined as the amount of
3 3
substance (in moles) per unit volume (dm i.e. 1000cm ) of a solution.
Mass concentration is therefore, the quantity of substance in grams per
3 3 3
unit volume (dm i.e. 1000cm ) of a solution. The unit is gdm \
Concentration in moldm 3 x m olar mass = gdm-i.
C = n
v
Where c - concentration (moldm )
n - Amt of solute (mol)
 45

o
v - Volume (dm )

And n = m_ ; Where m - mass (g)

M M - molar mass (gmol‘ )
W orked exam ple:
2.0dm' of an aqueous solution contains 25.5g Sodium chloride. Calculate
the concentration of the solution in moldm .
Ans: c = n/v; but n = m /M n = 25.5 / 58.5 = 0.436moles.
C = n/v = 0.436/2.0 = 0.22moldm"3.
A solution whose exact concentration is known is a Standard Solution.
M olar Solution: is a solution obtained by dissolving 1 mole of a substance
in 1dm of water. Or a concentration of 1M of any solution is a molar solution.

To prepare Id rr o f 1M NaCl solution:

First determine the mass of NaCl required;
C = n /v ; n = m /M ; C = 1, v = l d m 3,, M = 58.5'grfior1.
z^> n = lm o l; m = 58.5g
58.5g of NaCl crystals are needed to prepare 1dm of 1M NaCl solution
Procedure:
1. Weigh and record the 58.5 NaCl pellets into the beaker.
2. Transfer all the solute from the beaker into the 1dm volum etric flask.
Wash the inside of the beaker well w ith distilled water.
3. Shake the flask to mix well
4. Top the w ater up to the mark w ith adropper till bottom of meniscus is on
the graduation mark
5. Shake the flask well again to ensure proper mixing; label the flask with the
name and concentration of the solution; e.g. 1M o f NaCl.
To calculate the concentration of the solution when 0.200 mol of Sodium
trioxocarbonate (IV) is dissolved in w ater to make 0.500dm of solution.

C = 0.200mol = 0.400dm"3
0.500dm3
If the mass is given then calculate amount of solute in moles before
proceeding to C above.
 46

3 3 3 3
- Convert cm to dm before using the formula ; ld m = 1000cm

W orked example
Calculate the mass of Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) (Na2C03) to be weighed
to prepare 250cm of a 1M solution.
Volume of solution = 250cm3= 0.250drrr’
Amt of Na2C03 in 0.250dm3of 1M solution.
Concentration: n = cxv

=> n = 1 x 0.2.50
:=> n = 0.250mol
Mass Of Na2C03 in 0.250mol
=>n = m m= nx M
M m = 0.250mol x lO S gm ol1
= 265g
Revision Questions
> Find the relative molecular mass of ammonia (MH3), How much ammonia
would youneed to make 1dm of a 1M solution of ammonia?
> I haveld m 3 of a 0.1M solution of ammonia in water. What mass of
ammonia does it contain?
> A bottle in a laboratory describes a solution as 2M hydrochloric acid. What
mass of hydrogen chloride is present in ld m of this solution?
> Find the formula mass of magnesium tetraoxosulphate (VI) (MgS04). What
mass of MgS04 would you need to make: (a) ld m 3 of 1M MgS04? (b) ld m '
of 1/10M MgS04?
> Calculate the concentration of 30.5g of salt dissolved to produce 500cm3
of solution.
> A solution is prepared by dissolving 5g of NaOH in 250crrf' of water.
Calculate the concentration of the resulting solution in (a) moldm"' (b)
gdrrr'

Solution: (a) n = m /M = 5/40 = 0.125mol.

C = n/v = 0.125/0.250 = 0.5moldm~3
(b) C x Molar mass = 0.5 x 40
= 20gdm~~’
 47

D ilution o f Solution
This is done when more solvent is added to the solution, as a result the
volume of the solvent increases whiles the amount of substance remains the
same.
It is a practical process which takes place in everyday human activities.
Dilution is carried out in our homes and industries. It is not left out in food
preparation, in the preparation of herbs and medicines, food processing, paint
production and many other processes.
Stock Solution: is a concentrated solution from which dilute solutions are
prepared.

The law o f d ilu tio n :

Amount of solute in undiluted solution = Amount of solute in diluted solution.

Parts per million (ppm) is another way to express concentration. This unit of

concentration is used to express concentration of very dilute solutions.

ppm = grams of solute x 1C

grams of solution

OR mg of solute ; mg of solute
L solution kg of solution

In dilution it is only the volume of the solvent which is increased; the amount of

substance in the more dilute solution remains the same.

Therefore n concentrated solution ~ dilute solution

And, since n = c x v

C conc. x V conc. = c d/7 x Vc//7, OR

C conc. x V conc. = c dil x (V conc. + V water)

TRIAL QUESTIONS:
 48

1994 Questions:
1. An atom contains 11 electrons

(a) Draw an electron configuration w ith the atom.

(b) State w ith reasons, the type of chemical bond that the element can

form w ith chlorine (atomic number 17).

1995 Questions:
2. (a) State the three main particles of an atom and state their charges.

(b) What is sublimation?

(i) Name tw o substances that can sublime.

1996 Questions:

3. (i) Distinguish between a covalent bond and an ionic bond.

(ii) For each of the ionic and covalent bond, give one example each of a

compound which contains the bond.

(iii) Give tw o characteristics of each of the covalent and ionic compounds.

1997 Questions:
4. Atomic number of an atom Y is 17 and its mass is 35.
(a) Indicate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom.
(p) Draw the electron configuration of the atom showing positions of the
protons and electrons as well as the arrangement of electrons in the
various shells.
1998 Questions:
5. (i) Draw and label the structure of an atom.
(ii) What type of particles are produced when an atom
(a) Gains electrons? (j3) Loses electrons?
2001 Questions:
6. Name the type of bonds present in each of the following substances.
(a) Ammonium chloride (p) calcium chloride (y) carbon dioxide
2003 Questions:
7. Tabulate three differences between covalent and ionic compounds.
2005 Questions:
8. (a) (i) State the three states of matter.
 49

(ii) Sketch and label diagrams to show the comparative intermolecular

distances in each of the three states of matter,
b) (i) What is IUPAC nomenclature?
(ii) Give IUPAC names fo r the following compounds.
(a) Fe (OH) 3 ((3) H2S04 (v) KN03
(c) Give tw o differences between condensation and sublimation
2006 SSCE:
9. The chemical formula of a compound is KM n04
(a) Give the IUPAC name of the compound.
(|3) Determine the oxidation number of Mn in the compound.
2007 WASSCE:
10. (a) Explain how covalent bonds are formed.
(b) From the following list of compounds indicate which are covalent or
ionic
(i) Ethanol
(ii) Potassium oxide
(iii) Hydrogen chloride
(iv) Copper (II) trioxonitrate (V)
(v) Sulphur
(c) Explain the following terms: (i) relative atomic mass (ii) Isotopes
2010 GBCE:
11.(a) An atom has 8 protons and 9 neutrons initsnucleus. Determine the
(i) Mass number
(ii) Number of electrons in the atom
(b) When limestone is heated strongly, quicklime (CaO) and carbon dioxide
are produced
(i) W rite a balanced chemical equation for the reaction
(ii) Calculate the mass of limestone needed to produce 112g of quicklime,
c) Calculate the mass of sodium of sodium chloride (NaCl) needed to
prepare 500cm of 0.1M concentration. [Na = 23.0; Cl = 35.]
O B J E C T IV E Q U E S T IO N S hazard w arning sign above posted on it, it im plies
W rite the letter o f the choice that best answ ers the that th e con ten t o f the bottle is
question or com pletes the statem ent A. corrosive. B. highly flam m able.
1. In the form ation o f an ionic com pound, atom s o f C. highly toxic. D . radioactive.
one o f the com bining elem ents m ust 12. W hich o f th e follo w in g characteristics about ionic
A. C onvert neutrons to electrons com pounds is tr u e ?
B. Lose protons A. T hey have low m elting points.
C. G ain protons B. T hey have high b oiling points.
D. G ain electrons C. T hey do not conduct electricity in solution.
2. T he arrangem ent o f electrons in the shells o f a D. T hey do n o t form crystalline solids.
m agnesium atom is represented as -46]'
A. 8 ,2 ,2 . B. 2 , 4 , 6 . 13. T he IUPAC nam e for F e(O H ), is
C. 2 , 8 , 2 . D. 2 , 2 , 8 . A. F errous hydroxide
3. M ixture o f sodium chloride and am m onium B. F erric hydroxide
chloride can be separated by C. Iron(II) hydroxide
A. C rystallisation B. D istillation D. F errous(II) hydroxide
C. Filtration D . Sublim ation 14. W hich o f the follow ing form ulae represents an
4. T he m axim um num ber o f electrons w hich can be organic com pound?
placed in th e third shell o f an atom is A. CO B. C O :
A. 3 B. 8 C. N aH C O , D. C j L o 6
C. 10 D. 18 15. T he IUPAC nam e for C O , is
5. M ixture o f ethanol and w ater can be separated by A. carbon(IV ) oxide
A. C ondensation B. D istillation B. carbon(II) oxide
C. E vaporation D. F iltration C. carbon oxide(II)
6. T he process by w hich a solid substance changes D . carbon oxide(IV )
directly into the gaseous state is know n as
A. crystallization B. evaporation
C. fum igation D. sublim ation
7. W hich o f the follow ing chem ical form ulae
correctly represent, iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(V I) I f the hazard w arning sign show n above is seen
A. FeSO , B. F e S 0 4 on a reagent bottle, it im plies th at the content is
C. F e ,(S 0 3)3 D. Fe,(SO„)3 . A. corrosive
8. W hich o f the follow ing substances changes B. highly inflam m able
directly from the solid phase to the gas phase at C. irritant
room tem perature? D. oxidizing
A. fats B. ice 17. I f a bond fo rm ed by tw o atom s is ionic, then
C. naphthalene D. w ax A. the tw o atom s share a pair o f electrons
9. An atom is said to be electrically neutral if B. there is tran sfer o f at least one electron from
A. neutrons are in the nucleus one atom to the other
B. protons are in the nucleus C. the two atom s tran sfer neutrons to each other
C. the num ber o f protons and neutrons in the D. no electron transfer occurs betw een the atom s
nucleus are equal
D . the num ber o f protons and electrons are equal 18. T he IU PAC nam e for the com pound w ith the
form ula C u S 0 4 is
10. T he nucleus o f an atom is positively charged A. C opper(II) tetraoxosulphate(V I)
because B. C opper(I) tetraoxosulphate(V I)
A. E lectrons revolve around the nucleus C. C opper trioxosulphate(IV )
B. T he protons are in th e nucleus D . C opper(IV ) trio x o su lp h ate(ll)
C. T he neutrons are in the nucleus 19. T he difference betw een a so lid and a liquid can be
D . T he num ber o f protons and electrons in an explained on the basis that
atom are equal A. a solid has a changing shape w h ile a liquid
has a fixed shape and volum e
B. solid particles are far apart and in erratic
m otion but liquid p articles vibrate at fixed
positions
W hen a reagent bottle in the laboratory' has the C. solid particles have fixed m ass and volum e
 w hereas liquid particles have changing m ass C. solid to gas
and volum e. D. solid to liquid _
D. Solid particles are in fixed position in a fixed 27. W hich o f the follo w in g characteristics is tr u e o f
structure but liquid particles are free to m ove ionic com pounds? T hey
around. A. have low m eltin g points
20. W hich o f the follow ing statem ents about an atom B. have high boilin g points
is tru e ? C. do no t conduct electricity in solution
A. T he atom ic num ber is greater than the mass D. do not form crystalline solids
num ber
B. T he L electron shell is th e closest shell to the 28. T he nucleus o f an atom contains
nucleus A. electrons and protons
C. N eutrons are contained in the nucleus o f the B. neutrons and protons
atom C. neutrons and electrons
D . Protons outnum ber electrons in a neutral D. protons, electrons and neutrons.
atom .
Use the follow ing characteristics o f substances to 29. N ucleons consist o f
A. electrons, protons and neutrons
answer questions 21 and 22.
I. H igh m elting point B. neutrons and electrons
II. H igh solubility in w ater C. electrons and protons
III. L ow m elting point D. protons and neutrons |2005, Q u e - 12]
IV. H igh electrical conductivity in solution 3 0 . A n atom o f an electron X has 21 protons and 23
21. W hich o f the above characteristics are tr u e o f neutrons. W hat is the n u m b er o f electrons in it?
ionic com pounds? A. 2 B. 21
A. I and II only C. 23 D . 44
3 1. T he oxidation num ber o f m anganese in the
B. I and III only
C. I and IV only • com pound KMnO., is
D. 1, II and IV only A. 4 B. 5
22. C haracteristics IV above is tr u e o f N aC l because C. 6 D. 7 _
it 32. The IUPAC nam e o f the com pound M g (H C 0 3):. is
A. form s ions in solution m agnesium hydrogen
B. dissolves in w ater to form a solution A. trioxocarbonate (III)
C. produces a tasty solution B. trioxocarbonate (IV )
D. form s a colourless solution C. trioxocarbonate (V)
23. T he IUPAC nam e for H N O , is D. trioxocarbonate (II)
A. dioxonitrate(III) acid 33. In w hich o f the follo w in g states is m atter fluid?
B. trioxonitrate(IV ) acid A. S olid and liquid only
C. trioxonitrate(V ) acid B. L iquid and gas only
D. trio x o n itrate(lll) acid C. G as and solid only
24. W hich o f the follow ing electronic configurations D. Liquid, solid and gas
is that o f sodium ? 34. W hich o f the follo w in g statem ents about a
A. 2, 1 ,8 B. 2 , 2 , 7 neutron is c o rre c t? A neutron
C. 2, 7, 2 D . 2, 8, 1 A. is positively charged
25. A ll the follow ing statem ents in D alton's atom ic B. is negatively charged
theory have been m odified in recent years ex cep t C. does not carry a charge
A. all elem ents are m ade up o f tiny indivisible D. has a variable charge
particles called atom s 35. The collective nam e for particles contained in the
B. atom s cannot be created, destroyed or sub­ nucleus o f an atom is
divided A. electrons B. neutrons
C. atom s o f sam e elem ents have sam e properties C. nucleons D . protons
and sam e m ass 36. T he electronic co n fig u ratio n o f the elem ent fjA ris
D. atom s o f different elem ents have different A. 2, 18 B. 2, 8, 8
properties and different m asses. C. 2, 8 , 8 , 2 D . 2 ,8 , 1 9 ,4
37. W hich o f the follow ing groups o f substances is
26. W hen am m onium chloride salt is heated gently, it m ade up o f elem ents o n ly ?
changes from A. A rgon, m agnesium , phosphorus
A. gas to liquid B. C hlorine, air, nitrogen
B. liquid to gas
91
 C. M agnesium , bronze, hydrogen D. solid state.
D . Petrol, alcohol, w ater 47. Safety devices to be used in a chem istry
38. T here is no observable change in the quantity o f laboratory include
substance during a chem ical reactio n or during a I. A pair o f g oggles II. N o se guard
physical change. T he above statem ent expresses III. C rash helm et IV. H and gloves
the law o f A. I, II and III only
A. conservation o f energy. B. I, II and IV only
B. conservation o f m atter. C. II, III and IV only
C. definite proportions. D. I, II, III and IV
D. m ultiple proportions. 48. W hich o f the follow ing chem ical form ulae
39. W hat is the chem ical form ula o f the substance represents L ead (II) oxide?
form ed w hen A 1J* ions react w ith Cl"? A. P b ,0 B. PbO
A. AIC1 B. A1,C13 C. PbO , D . P b ,0 4
C. A1C1- D. Al’c i , 49. W hich o f the follo w in g com pounds does n o t
40. A n elem ent A has tw o electrons in its outer shell. show covalent ch aracteristics?
A nother elem ent B has six electrons in its outer A. A m m onia gas
shell. The m o st likely com pound w hich can be B. E thanol
form ed by the com bination o f the tw o elem ents is C. H y drogen chloride
A. AB B. A B, D. Sodium chloride
C. A,B D. A ,B , | 50. An atom o f sodium becom es an ion w hen it
41. W hich o f the follow ing processes is a physical A. gains one electron.
process? B. loses one electron.
A . E lectrolysis C. gains tw o electrons.
B . E vaporation D . loses tw o electrons.
C. Photosynthesis 51. In an electrically neutral atom the
D . R espiration A. num ber o f protons and neutrons are equal.
42. W hich o f the follow ing chem ical form ulae B. m ass num ber is given by th e sum o f protons
correctly represents alum inium and electrons.
tetraoxosulphate(V I)? C. num ber o f protons is m o re than the num ber o f
A. Al(SO„): B. A l2SO„ electrons.
C. A l:(SO.,)3 D . A I,(S O J, D. num ber o f protons is equal to the num ber o f
electrons.
43. A helium nucleus has tw o protons.
52. T he electron configuration o f chlorine is
H ow m any electrons m ust be present in its shell
A. 2 , 7 , 8 . B. 2 , 7 , 7 .
to m ake it a neutral atom ?
C. 2 , 8 , 7 . D. 2 ,8 ,2 .
A. - 4 B. - 2
53. W hich o f the follo w in g safety sym bols w arns
C. + 2 D. + 4
44. T he follow ing are all physical properties o f
m atter except
A . capillarity.
B. heat.
C. viscosity.
D . volum e.
45. W hich o f the follow ing statem ents describes a
pure substance?
A. C om ponents retain their characteristic
properties.
o/f\
B . C om ponents are indistinguishable.
54. W hich o f the follow ing com pounds in n o t ionic?
C. It has fixed com position.
A. M agnesium oxide
D. It has variable com position. B. Potassium trioxonitrate(V )
C. Sodium tetraoxosulphate(IV )
46. W hen the particles m aking u p a substance are
D. S ulphur(IV ) oxide
closely packed, fixed in position and regularly
55. A non-m etal, X , com bines chem ically w ith
arranged, the substance is likely to be in the
alum inium (AI = 13) to form a com pound. W hat
A. gaseous state. •
is the chem ical form ula o f th e com pound?
B. liquid state.
C. plasm a state. [Electron configuration o f X is Is 2s 2 p 1,3s 3p']
 A. A1X, B. A IX , . SSSCE 1995 July Questions
C. ALX D. ALX, 2. (a) N am e the th r e e m ain particles o f an atom and
Use the illustration o f the hazard sym bol b elow to state their charges.
answ er questions 56 and 56. (b) D escribe how you w o u ld obtain a pure
sam ple o f sodium chloride from a
m ixture o f sodium chloride and sand. [Q. 1 d]
(c) (i) W hat is sublimation ?
(ii) N am e two substances th a t can sublim e.
[Q. 5 b]
56. I f the hazard sym bol is show n on a reagent bottle,
it im plies that the content is SSSCE 1995 July Answers
A. corrosive. B. irritant. 2. (a) Particles in an atom
C. oxidizing. D. radioactive. Particle Charge
57. An exam ple o f a chem ical substance that is E lectron -1
associated w ith this sym bol is Proton +1
A. ethanol. N eutron N il
B. calcium oxide.
C. m ercury. (b) Separation o f sodium chloride from sand
D. potassium hydroxide. 1. A dd w ater to the m ixture o f sodium
58. T he electron configuration o f sodium is chloride and sand
A. 2,1,8. B. 2,2,7. 2. Stir to d issolve sodium chloride
C. 2,7,2. D . 2,8,1. 3. F ilter sand o ff
4. C ollect the dry crystallized salt.

THEORY QUESTIONS (SECTION B) (c) (i) Sublimation

S ublim ation is a change o f a solid
SSSCE 1994 July Questions substance directly to the gaseous state.
1. A n atom contains 11 electrons.
(a) D raw the electronic configuration o f the (ii) Substances that sublime
atom . Iodine crystal, naphthalene ball,
(b) State w ith reasons, the type o f chem ical bond am m onium chloride, dry ice, solid carbon
that the elem ent can form w ith chlorine dioxide
(atom ic num ber 17).
SSSCE 1996 July Questions
SSSCE 1994 July Answers 3. (a) D istinguish b etw een a covalent bond and an
I . (a) An atom with 11 electrons ionic bond . . _ ...
(b) F or each o f the ionic and covalent bond, give
one exam ple each o f a com pound w hich
contains the b o n d .. .
(c) G ive two characteristics o f each o f the
nuclcus
11 protons covalent com pounds and ionic com pounds.
1,2 neu tro n s

SSSCE 1996 July Answers

3. (a) (i) Ionic bond
electrons rev o lv in g in orbits 2 , 8, 1
Ionic bonds are form ed as a result o f the
electrical attraction betw een a positive and
(b) (i) T he elem ent w ill form ionic bond w ith
a negative ion.
chlorine.
(ii) Covalent bond
(ii) Reasons
C o valent bonds are form ed as a result o f
T he elem ent w ill lose an electron to attain
sharing o f electrons betw een atom s, one
chem ical stability w h ile chlorine accepts
from each atom .
that electron to becom e chem ically stable.
 (b) (i) E x a m p le o f io n ic b o n d s S S S C E 1998 J u ly Q u e stio n
1. sodium chloride (N aC i) 5. (a) D raw and label the structure o f an atom.
2. m agnesium chloride (M gCL)
3. calcium chloride (C aC lj) (b) W hat type o f p articles are produced w hen an
4. m agnesium oxide (M gO ) atom
(i) gains electrons?
(ii) E x a m p le o f c o v a le n t b o n d s (ii) loses electrons?
1. w ater, 11.(1)
2. m ethane, CH 4 ■ S S S C E 1998 J u ly A n sw e rs
5. (a) S tr u c tu r e o f a n a to m
3. carbon(IV ) oxide, C O ,

(c) (i) C h a ra c te ris tic s o f ionic

com pounds
1. U sually crystalline solids
2. H ave high m elting and b oiling point
3. C onduct electricity w hen dissolved in
solution
4. Insoluble in organic solvents
5. C onsist o f ions

(ii) C h a ra c te ris tic s o f c o v a le n t c o m p o u n d s

(b) (i) P a rtic le s p ro d u c e d w h en a n a to m gain s
1. U sually liquids and gases
e lec tro n s
2. L ow m elting and boiling points
A nion (neg ativ e particles)
3. Do not conduct electricity
4. Soluble in organic solvents
(ii) P a rtic le s p ro d u c e d w hen a n ato m loses
5. M ade up o f m olecules
e le c tro n s
C ation (positive particles)
S S S C E 1997 J u ly Q u e stio n s
4. A tom ic num ber o f atom Y is 17 and its m ass is
S S S C E 2001 J u ly Q u e stio n
35.
6. N am e the type o f bonds present in each o f the
(a) Indicate the num ber o f protons, electrons and
follow ing substance;
neutrons in the atom .
(a) am m onium chloride,
(b) D raw the electron configuration o f the atom
(b) calcium chloride,
show ing the positions o f the protons
(c) carbon dioxide.
and electrons as w ell as th e arrangem ent o f
electrons in the various shells.
S S S C E 2001 J u ly A n sw ers
6. S u b sta n c e a n d b o n d s
S S S C E 1997 J u ly A n sw ers
S u b sta n c e T y p e o f bo n d
4. (a) N um ber o f protons = 17
am m onium chloride ionic bond
N um ber o f electrons = 17 since the atom is
calcium chloride ionic bond
neutral
carbon dioxide covalent bond
N um ber o f neutrons = m ass n um ber (A) -
atom ic num ber (Z)
S S S C E 2001 N ov Q u e stio n
N um ber o f neutrons = 3 5 - 1 7 = 1 8
7. (a) State th e nam e o f each o f th e follow ing
processes:
(b) A n a to m w ith a to m ic n u m b e r 17
(i) conversion o f an atom to positive ion;
(ii) com bination o f hydrogen and hydroxyl
e lectro n s ions;
(iii) reaction betw een an alkanols and
nu cleu s alkanoic acids.
17 p ro to n s (b) G ive tw o reasons w hy carbon dioxide is used
18 neu tro n s in p utting o ff fire. [Q. 3 c]

S S S C E 2001 N ov A n sw ers
e lectro n s re v o lv in g in o rb its 2, 8, 7 7. (a) (i) C o n v e rsio n o f an a to m to p o sitiv e ion
O xidation
 (ii) Combination o f hydrogen and hydroxyl (b) (i) Particles produced w h en an atom gains
ions electrons
N eutralisation A nion (negative particles)

(iii)Reactiori between an alkanols and (ii) Particles produced when an atom loses
alkanoic acids electrons
E sterification C ation (positive particles)

(b) Suitability of CO, for extinguishing fire S S S C E 2004 N ov Q u e stio n s

1. It does not support com bustion. 10. W hat nam e is given to each o f the follow ing
2. It is heavier than air. processes?
3. It produces no toxic com pounds. (a) The reaction betw een an acid and a base.
(b) The breakdow n o f a com pound by heat
SSSCE 2002 July Questions energy.
7. D escribe briefly how a m ix tu re o f granulated (c) The absorption o f h eat energy to enable a
sugar and sand can be separated. |Q. I b (ii)] reaction to take place.
(d) T he addition o f a substance to hasten the rate
SSSCE 2002 July Answers o f chem ical reaction.
7. Mixture sugar and sand (e) T he passage o f a solid su bstance into the
1. A dd w ater to the m ixture and stir to dissolve gaseous state w ith o u t p assing through the
the sugar. liquid state. [Q. 3 a]
2. Filter the m ixture and collect the sand as
residue SSSCE 2004 Nov Answers
3. C rystallize the sugar solution or evaporate the 10. (a) Reaction between an acid and a base
filtrate to collect the sugar. N eutralization

SSSCE 2003 July Questions (b) Breakdown o f a compound by heat energy'

8. Tabulate th r e e differences betw een covalent T herm al decom position
com pounds and ionic com pounds. IQ. 3 b
001 (c) Absorption o f heat energy to enable a
reaction
SSSCE 2003 July Answers E ndotherm ic reaction
8. Differences between covalent and ionic
bonds (d) Addition o f substance to hasten rate of
go to Page 93 Question 3 for A nsw er reaction
C atalysis
SSSCE 2003 Nov Questions
9. (a) D raw and label the stru ctu re-o f the helium (e) Passage of a solid substance into the
atom ( 2 H e1*') IQ. 2 b (i)j gaseous state
(b) N am e the ion form ed w h en an atom Sublim ation
(i) gains electrons
(ii) loses electrons [Q. 2 b (ii)] S S S C E 2005 July Questions
11. (a) (i) State th e three states o f matter.
SSSCE 2003 Nov Answers (ii) Sketch and label diagram s to show the
9. (a) Structure o f the helium atom co m parative interm olecular distances in
each o f th e three states o f matter. [Q. 1 a]
e lectro n (b) (i) W hat is IU P A C nom enclature?
(ii) G ive IUPAC nam es for the follow ing
n u c le u s com pounds:
2 p ro to n s (a) Fe(OH),
2 n eu tro n s
- S h e ll
(P) H,SO,
(y) K N O j IQ. 4 a]
electro n s re v o lv in g in o rb its

SSSCE 2005 July Answers

11. (a) (i) States o f matter
(a) Solid state
 (p) L iquid state (ii) Allot ropes
(y) G aseous state T he d ifferent form s o f an elem ent that
exist in the sam e physical state are called
(ii) Comparative in te r m o d u la r distances allotropes. E .g. carbon (diam ond, coal,
e.t.c)

S S S C E 2006 Nov Questions

o°
13. T he chem ical form ula o f a com pound is K M n 0 4.
Solid state Liquid state Gas state
(a) G ive the IU PAC nam e o f the com pound,

(b) ( i) IUPAC nomenclature (b) D eterm ine th e oxidation num ber o f M n in the
IUPAC nom enclature is the system atic com pound.
nam ing o f organic and inorganic
com pounds. S S S C E 2006 Nov Answers
13. (a) IUPAC name of the compound KMnOj
(ii) Some IUPAC names Potassium tetrao x o m an g an ate (V II)
Formula IUPAC name
F e(O H )3 Iron(III) hydroxide
(b) Oxidation num ber of Mn in the compound
H S04 T etraoxosulphate(V l) acid L et x rep resen t M n
K.NO, P otassiu m trioxonitrate(V ) O xidation n u m b er o f K = +1 and O = - 2
T he algebraic sum o f th e oxidation num ber in
WASSCE 2004 NIGERIA Questions the form ula is = 0
12. (a) A n elem ent has an atom ic m ass o f 35. If it has x + 1 + ( - 2 x 4) = 0
18 neutrons, x- 7= 0
(i) D eterm ine the num b er o f protons in each x = 7
atom o f the elem ent. •
(ii) D raw and label the atom ic structure W A S S C E 2007 M ay Question
show ing the electronic configuration o f 14. (a) E xplain h o w covalent bonds are form ed.
the elem ent.
(b) W hat are: (b) G ive o n e exam ple each o f covalent and ionic
(i) isotopes, com pounds.
(ii) allotropes.
G ive one exam ple each o f elem ents that W A S S C E 2007 M ay Answer
exhibit isotopy and allotropy. 14. (a) How covalent bonds are formed
C ovalenl com pounds are form ed by the sharing o f
W A SSC E 2004 N IG E R IA A n sw e rs pair(s) o f electrons betw een the tw o atom s invol ved.
12. (i) N um ber o f protons, Z = m ass num ber - When non-m etal atom s com b in e w ith other non­
neutron num ber, N m etal atom s, covalent bonding occurs. F or exam ple
Z = 35 - 18 = 17 protons w hen tw o hydrogen atom s form a covalent bond
sharing tw o electrons (one from each atom ), both
(ii) Atomic structure achieve the h elium n u m b er o f 2.

e lectro n s

n u cleu s Formation of hydrogen molecule

.17 pro to n s
18 n eu tro n s
(b) (i) Examples of covalent compounds
W ater H ?0 , carbon dioxide C O ,, A m m onia
(N H 3), etc.
e lectro n s re v o lv in g in o rb its 2, 8, 7

(ii) Examples o f ionic compounds

(c) (i) Iso to p es Sodium chloride N aC l, calcium chloride
Isotopes are tw o or m o re atom s o f the C aC l2, M agnesium chloride M gC lj, etc.
sam e elem ent having the sam e num ber
o f protons but different num ber o f
neutrons E .g. carbon
 UNIT
2
WASSCE 2007 Nov Questions WASSCE 2009 Nov Q u e stio n s
15. (a) From the follow ing list o f com pounds 17. (a) C lassify the follow ing com pounds as covalent
indicate w hich are covalent o r ionic: o r ionic:
(i) ethanol, N aC l, N a ,0 , N H , and H C l(g), |Q. 1 c (i)]
(ii) potassium oxide, (b) E xplain w hy ionic com pounds have higher
(iii) hydrogen chloride, boiling points than cov alen t com pounds.
(iv) copper(II) trioxonitrate,
(v) sulphur. [Q. 1 b]
(b) D escribe how you w o u ld o btain a pure WASSCE 2009 Nov Answers
sam ple o f sodium chloride from a m ixture o f 17. (a) Compounds as covalent or ionic
sodium chloride and sand. N aCl Ionic com pound
N a ,0 Ionic com pound
WASSCE 2007 Nov Answers NH. C o valent com pound
15. (a) Covalent or ionic bond H CI(g) C o valent com pound
Compound Type of bond
Ethanol covalent (b) W hy ionic compounds have higher boiling
Potassium oxide ionic points
H ydrogen chloride ionic Ionic com pounds have high boiling points because
C opper (II) trioxonitrate ionic they have strong electrovalent bonds (electrostatic
Sulphur covalent force) betw een the ions. T herefore large am ounts o f
energy are n eeded to b reak the strong electrostatic
(b) Separation of a m ixture o f common salt force betw een the p articles in th eir crystal lattice.
and sand
A dd distilled w ater to th e m ixture in a beaker WASSCE 2010 Nov Questions
Warm the m ixture and stir to dissolve the salt 18. The atom ic num ber o f atom X is 17 and its mass
Pour the m ixture through a filter paper in a filter num ber is 35.
funnel, collecting the solution passing through (a) Indicate the num ber o f protons, electrons and
into another beaker. neutrons in the atom .
The sand rem ains in the filter paper, and it may (b) D ra w electron configuration o f the atom
be w ashed and dried. show ing positions o f the protons and the
5. E vaporate the filtrate in an evaporating basin over arrangem ent o f the electrons in the various
a steam bath shells.
6. The salt is crystallized and collected
WASSCE 2010 Nov Answers
18. (a) Protons, electrons and neutrons in atom
with m ass number 35

(b) Electron configuration o f atom, mass

num ber 35

WASSCE 2011 May Questions

19. Study the table below and use it to answ er the
questions th at follow.

WASSCE 2008 Nov Questions Atom/Element Atomic number Mass number

16. W rite the IUPAC nam es o f the follow ing V 10 18
inorganic com pounds: W 18 39
(a) C u ,0 , [Q. 4 d (i)| X 15 33
(b) P bO ,. |Q. 4 d (ii)] Y 10 20
Z 11 23
WASSCE 2008 Nov Answers
(a) H ow m any neutrons are there in atom X?
16. IUPAC names of
(b) W hich o f the atom s w ill readily form an ion?
C u20 C opper(I) oxide
(c) W hich o f th e atom s w ill form an ion w ith a
PbO, L ead(IV ) oxide
positive charge o f +3?
 (d) (i) Indicate the atom s th at are isotopes. TEST O F PRACTIC AL W O R K
(ii) Explain y o u r answ er in (a) (iv) (a) above.
jQ. 1 a] SSSCE 1993 July Questions
1. D escribe briefly how each o f th e follow ing
WASSCE 2011 May Answers m ixtures could be separated
19. (a) Number of neutrons in atom X (a) Iron filings and sand
N eutron num ber = m ass num ber - atom ic (b) C rystals o f iodine and charcoal.
num ber
N =A- Z SSSCE 1993 July Answers
N = 3 3 - 15 I . (a) Iron Filings and sand
N = 18 neutrons Iron filings could be separated from sand by using a
bar magnet.
(b) Atoms that will readily form an ion 1. P lace a m ixture o f iron filings and sand on
A tom s X and Z w ill readily form an ion a w atch glass
because they have an excess o f 5 and 1 2. G ently pass a bar m agnet over the surface
electron (s) in their outer shell respectively. o f the w atch glass
3. T h e iron filings are attracted by the
(c) Atom that will form an ion with a positive m ag n et and cling to it
charge o f +3 4. R em oved the iron filings into a separate
A tom X w ill form an ion w ith a positive dish
charge o f +3. 5. T h e sand is non-m agnetic and rem ains on
the w atch glass
(d) (i) Atoms that are isotopes
A tom s V and Y are isotopes o f the sam e (b) Crystals of iodine and charcoal
elem ent. 1. Place the m ixture o f iodine and charcoal in beaker
2. Stand the beaker on tripod gauze.
(ii) W hy atoms V and Y are isotopes 3. Fill a flask w ith cold w ater and place on the
B ecause both atom s V and Y have the beaker.
sam e atom ic num ber. 4. H eat the beaker gently over a low flame.
5. Iodine sublim es and form s dense purple vapour
WASSCE 2011 Nov Questions w hich condenses on the flask to form a sublim ate
20. (a) E xplain the term oxidation number o f an o f pure iodine.
atom . 6. C ontinued heating until no vio let vap o u r is seen
(b) D eterm ine the oxidation num ber o f ^ , to be coining from the m ixture.
m anganese (M n) in potassium perm anganate 7. T he charcoal is left at the bottom o f the beaker
(K M n 0 4). |Q. 1 ii] since it does not sublim e.

WASSCE 2011 Nov Answers

20. (a) Oxidation number o f an atom
JL \ cold water
T he oxidation num ber o f an atom is the V',| crystals o f
'V E/^io'dine
charge the atom carries in its pure state or in
its com pound. m ixture o f
charcoal a n d iodine
Or •
O xidation num ber is the num ber o f electrons
II hL\\
S ublim ation o f iodine
an atom share, loses, or gains from other
atom s w hen chem ical bonds are form ed.
S S S C E 1994 July Questions
2. (a) State one use o f the follow ing apparatus in the
(b) Oxidation number of Mn in KMnOj
laboratory?
L et x represent M n
(i) F u m e cham ber,
O xidation num ber o f K = +1 and O = —2
(ii) V olum etric flask,
T he algebraic sum o f the oxidation num ber in
(iii)Pipette,
the form ula is =0
(iv)B urette. |Q. I a] ,
x + 1 + (—2 x 4) = 0
(b) N am e the apparatus, w hich is used to
x- 7= 0
(i) Separate a m ixture o f palm oil and water.
x= 7
(ii) Isolate p recipitate o f silver chloride from
sodium trioxonitrate(V ) solution.
 (iii)G rind lum ps o f chem ical com pounds in (ii) Example of acidic gases
the laboratory. C hlorine, H y drogen chloride gas,
H y drogen sulphide, C arbon(IV ) oxide,
SSSCE 1994 July Answers Sulphur(IV ) oxide, S ulphur(V I) oxide
2. (a) (i) Use o f fume chamber
F um e cham ber is for prep arin g and (iii)Exam ple o f coloured salts
preventing o f poisonous gases from Iron(II) chloride, C opper(II)
spreading. tetraoxosulphate(V I) (blue) C u S 0 4,
Iron(II) tetraoxosulphate(V I) (green)
(ii) Use o f volumetric flask FeSO ,
V olum etric flask is used to m easure
required volum e o f liquid o r to prepare a (iv)Cations that give colour precipitates are
standard solution. Iron(II) ions, F e'" (green), Iron(IlT) ions,
F e ’+ (green), C opper(II) ions C u 'T (light
(iii) Use of pipette
blue)
Pipette is used to m easure a
predeterm ined v olum e o f a liquid or
(b) (i) Apparatus used to measure 10.0 cm3 of
taking and delivering o f a know n
a liquid
quantity o f a liquid accurately.
A pip ette/burette/m easuring cylinder

(iv)Use of burette
(ii) Apparatus used to weigh 10.0 g of a
B urette is used to m easure a known
solid
v olum e o f a liquid or u sed in acid-base
S pring balance or chem ical balance or
titrations to deliver variable volum e o f a
digital balance or beam balance or top pan
liquid.
balance

(b) (i) Separation o f a mixture o f palm oil a n d

(iii) Apparatus used to keep substances dry
water
D esicator
S eparating funnel
SSSCE 1996 July Questions
(ii) Separation o f silver chloride from
4. F or each o f the follo w in g m ethods o f separating
sodium nitrate solution
m ixtures, give one m ixture th at the m ethod can be
A funnel or filter paper and conical flask
used to separate;
(a) F iltra tio n ,
(iii)To grind lumps o f chemical compounds
(b) S ublim ation,
M ortar and pestle
(c) D istillation,
. (d) U se o f sep aratin g funnel,
SSSCE 1995 July Questions
(e) C hlorom atography.
3. (a) G ive two exam ples for each o f th e follow ing;
(i) O xidizing agent,
SSSCE 1996 July Answers
(ii) A cidic gases,
4. (a) Mixtures that can be separated by
(iii) C oloured s a l ts ,
filtration
(iv)C ations that give coloured precipitates
Sand and w ater, S uspension o f chalk dust and
w hen drops o f sodium h ydroxide are
w ater, W ater and stains through layers o f filter
added and do not dissolve w hen the
beds
sodium hydroxide is in excess. [Q. I a]
(b) N am e an apparatus you w ould use in the
(b) Mixtures that can be separated by
laboratory to
sublimation
(i) M easure 10.0 cm J o f a liquid,
Iodine crystals and sand, am m onium chloride
(ii) W eigh 10.0 g o f a solid,
and sand, N ap h th alen e and any other solid,
(iii)K eep substances diy.
w hich do not sublim e.

SSSCE 1995 July Answers

(c) Mixtures that can be separated by
3. (a) (i) Example o f oxidizing agent
distillation
Chlorine, Oxygen, Bromine, Hydrogen peroxide,
E thanol, nvuddy w ater, crude oil, palm w ine,
Potassium tetraoxomanganate(VII), Sulphiir(IV) oxide
akpeteshie
 (d) Mixtures that can be separated by the use SSSCE 2001 July Answers
of separating funnel 6. (a) Danger involved in sm elling an unknown
W ater and oil, any tw o im m iscible liquids gas
U nknow n gas could be poisonous, harm ful,
(e) Mixtures that can be separated by choking or irritating to the body
chromatography
Ink, dye, urine, flow er extracts, blood. (b) Experim ent without a control
C om parism cannot be m ade to draw
S S S C E 1999 July Questions reasonable conclusion
5. Som e hazard sym bols usually displayed on
chem ical containers are listed below. (c) Adding w ater to concentrated mineral
acids
Such a p ractice m ay generate heat or an
explosion

(d) W e a rin g r u b b e r s lip p e rs in the la b o ra to ry

O ne could slip and fall o ff as a result o f spills
(a) W hat does each sym bol signify? on the ground and cause breakages o r get
(b) G ive o ne nam e o f the chem ical, w hich can be burnt by solutions thus hurting oneself.
associated w ith each sym bol.
SSSCE 2001 Nov Questions
SSSCE 1999 July Answers 7. E xplain briefly one danger involved in each o f the
5. (a) Name of hazard symbols follow ing activities in the laboratory:
A H ighly inflam m able (a) w ashing th e hand w ith an unknow n colourless
B toxic/poison liquid in a beaker.
C irritant/harm ful (b) opening a gas tap before looking for a m atch
I) oxidizing to light the B unsen burner.
E corrosive (c) dropping a large piece o f sodium m etal into
water.
(b) Chemicals associated with symbol A (b) chew ing som e food substance.
Petrol, ethanol, ether, butanal, propanol
SSSCE 2001 Nov Answers
Chemicals associated with symbol B 7. (a) W ashing the hand with an unknown liquid
L ead com pounds e.g. lead or ethanoate, T he u n know n colourless liquid could be a
m ercury com pounds e.g. m ercury or iodide, dangerous chem ical, w h ich could cause
cyanide com pounds e.g. potassium cyanide serious burns to th e hand.

Chemicals associated with symbol C (b) Opening a gas tap before looking for a
E thanol, calcium oxide, b leaching pow der match
T he gas w ill leak into th e surrounding air and
Chemicals associated with symbol D lighting a m atch afterw ards w ill cause fire
Potassium tetraoxom anganate(V II), hydrogen outbreaks.
peroxide, am m onium trioxonitrate(V )
(c) Dropping a large piece o f sodium metal
Chemicals associated with symbol E into water
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, Sodium m etal reacts violently w ith w ater to
hydrochloric acid, traoxosulphate(V I) acid form sodium h ydroxide w hich is corrosive
and m ay cause burns w hen it explodes.
SSSCE 2001 July Questions
6. E xplain briefly the danger'in v o lv ed in each o f the (d) Chewing some food substance
follow ing activities in the laboratory; H and, counters and glassw are m ay contain
(a) Sm elling an unknow n gas w ith nose very substances th at can contam inate food. Som e
close to th e test tube containing the gas, chem icals em it radiations w hich w ill
(b) Setting up a biological experim ent w ithout a contam inate the fo o d being eaten.
control experim ent,
(c) A dding w ater to concentrated m ineral acids,
(d) W earing rubber slippers.
S S S C E 2002 N ov Q u e stio n s
8. Study carefully the diagram s o f the devices
illustrated below and answ er th e questions that
follow.

B
(a) Identify the device B above.
(b) D escribe how the device B is used.
(a) N am e the parts o f th e set up labelled I, II, III,
S S S C E 2002 N ov A n sw ers IV, V and VI.
8. (a) N a m e o f dev ice (b) E xp lain th e function o f the part labelled V.
B a pipette (c) R ead and record th e volum es V = V„ V, and
V3 o f the p u re liquid collected.
(b) H ow th e device B is used (d) (i) A rrange the three original m ixture M „ M ,
1. dip the tip o f the pipette w ell below the surface o f and M 3 in an ascending o rd er o f degree o f
the liquid purity.
2. fill pipette by sucking th e liquid from th e top (ii) S upport y o u r answ er for (cl) (i) w ith
3. use pipette filter if solution is poisonous reasons.
4. place the fore finger at th e open end and the tip (e) C alculate the percentage purity o f the original
5. hold pipette horizontally m ixture i\I2.
6. shake w ell and release the liquids through the tip
SSSCE July 2003 Answers
S S S C E J u ly 2003 Q u e stio n s 9. (a) Names o f parts
9. Som e pure liquid w hich w as stored in three I B oiling flask or distillation flask or
different containers w as found to have been round bottom flask
contam inated w ith w ater at different degrees. In II T h erm o m eter
order to obtain the pure liquid back, the set up III w ater inlet
below w as used to distil the m ixture, M „ M ,, M 3 IV' retort stand or clam p
in the laboratory. An initial volum e o f 250.0cm J V L eib ig condenser
o f each o f the three m ixtures w as used in the VI w ater o utlet
exercise. T he pure liquid recovered in each case
w as collected into a beaker and then transferred (b) Functions o f V
into a m easuring cylinder. 1. T he cold w ater in th e ja c k e t o f the
condenser cools th e v apour o f th e liquid
com ing from the flask.
2. T his causes the v ap o u r to condense and to
be collected as liquid w ithout the vapour
escaping.

(c) Volumes o f liquid collected

V, 95 cm 1
V2 180 cm 3
V3 130 cm 3

(d) (i) A scending o rd er o f degree o f purity

M ,< M ,< M ,

(ii) Reasons: T he m ost contam inated m ixture

F ig (b ) show s the volum es V = V „ V2 and V3 o f w ill y ield the least o f pure liquid (M ,)
each pure liquid recovered from the 2 5 0 .0 cm ’ w hile th e least contam inated m ixture w ill
volum e used w hich correspond to th e m ixtures y ield the g reatest pure liquid (M ,).
M „ M 2 and M j respectively.
Study the diagrams carefully and answer the
questions that follow:
 (e) % Purity o f M ,
180 x 100 (ii) How the pipette is used
250 1. D ip th e tip o f the pipette w ell below the surface
- 72% o f the liquid
2. Fill the pipette by sucking the liquid from the top
SSSCE 2004 July Questions 3. U se the p ipette filler i f the solution is poisonous
10. Study carefully the laboratory devices illustrated or dangerous
below and use them to answ er th e questions that 4. Place the fore fingers at th e open end and the tip
follow s. 5. H old pipette horizontally
6. Shake w ell and release the liquid through the tip

(ii) How the tong is use

1. Insert the thum b and th e fo refin g er into the
handles
2. Push the fingers apart to open the blades
3. Press the opened blade firm ly around the object,
w hile pulling to lift th e object

(c) Apparatus
(i) Apparatus to m easurement o f 25.0 cm3
of a solution
Pipette

(a) Identity each o f the devices A , B, C and D. (ii) Apparatus for picking a few pellets o f a
(b) (i) State o ne use o f each o f the devices A , C substance
and D. Spatula
(ii) D escribe how each o f th e devices C and D
is used. . (iii)Apparatus for keeping a substance dry
(c) N am e the apparatus th a t can be used in the Desicator
laboratory to undertake the follow ing
activities. (iv) Apparatus for grinding a solid in
(i) m easurem ent o f 25.0 cm 3 o f a solution. powder
(ii) picking a few pellets o f a substance from P estle and m ortar
a container. .
(iii)keeping a substance dry. S S S C E 2004 Nov Questions
(iv) grinding a solid substance into pow der. 11. (a) (i) State fo u r general rules w hich are to be
observed in a school science laboratory.
S S S C E 2004 July Answers (ii) E xplain the reason(s) behind tw o o f the
10. (a) Name of devices rules you have stated in (i) above.
A funnel (b) D istinguish betw een boiling tube and test
B tripod stand tube.
C pipette 12. (a) N am e four com ponents o f the experim ental
D tongs set up used for th e distillation o f liquids in the
laboratory.
(b) (i) (a) U ses o f a funnel (b) State o n e function o f each o f the com ponents
F o r pouring solutions into beaker, you have nam ed in (a) above,
bottles etc (c) E xplain the;
(i) C ircum stance that w ill m ake it necessaiy
(P) Uses o f a pipette to distill a liquid.
F or delivering a predeterm ined (ii) Physical property th a t m akes distillation
volum e o f liquid su bstance specially possible.
during titration (d) N am e one process th at can be carried out on a
liquid to achieve a sim ilar result as th at o f
(y) Uses of a tongs distillation.
F or holding hot object
SSSCE 2004 Nov Answers S S S C E 2005 J u ly Q u e stio n s
11. (a) (i) Laboratory general rules 13. T he figure below is an illustration o f a set used in
1. A lw ays w ear safety glasses • a schools laboratory to separate the com ponents
2. A lw ays add acid to w ater and n o t th e w ater to the o f a suspension.
acid Study the fig u re carefully and answer the
3. A lw ays w ear suitable footw ear questions that fo llo w
4. D o not taste any ch em icals unless y o u are told to
do so by y o u r teacher
5. D o heat flam m able liquids w ith a naked flame:
alw ays heat them in w ater o r som e other suitable
heating vessel
6. D o not run in the laboratory
7. D o not enter laboratories w ithout perm ission
8. W ash y o u r hands after any practical w ork, etc

(ii) Reasons behind the rules stated

1. Safety glasses protects the eye from dangerous
chem icals
2. A dding acid to w ater prevents the m ixture from
exploding

(iii)B oiling tube a n d test tube

(a) N am e th e parts labelled I, II, III, IV, V, VI,
B oiling tube is used basically for b oiling w hiles the
test tube is use for holding sm all quantities o f liquids. VII and VIII.
(b) (i) State one function o f each o f the parts
labelled V, VII and VIII.
12. (a) Components of the experimental set up
(ii) N am e two m aterials th at can be used for
used for distillation
the p art labelled V.
B oiling flask, distillation flask and round bottom
(c) G ive one exam ple o f a suspension w hose
flask, T herm om eter, retort stand or clam p, L eibig
com ponents can be separated w ith the set up.
condenser.
(d) State two p recautions that should be taken
during the perform ance o f the exercise
(b) Functions o f component
involving the set-up. [Q. 2]
B o ilin g flask : To hold the liquid being
distilled
S S S C E 2005 July Answers
Thermometer: To determ ine the tem perature
13. (a) Names o f the parts labelled
o f the liquid in th e flask
I beaker
Retort s ta n d o r clamp: To hold the flask and
condenser in place
II suspension
Leibig condenser: To condense vapour III funnel
(steam ) to liquid
IV resid u e
V filter paper
(c) (i) When to distill a liquid VI filtrate
W hen there are im purities in a liquid and VII reto rt stand
the pure liquid is needed- VIII glass rod

(b) (i) Functions of

(ii) Physical property that makes
distillation possible V To separate solids from the
Physical property th at m akes distillation suspension, in w hich they are
possible is the different boiling points o f suspended, w h ich can be rem oved
from th e filter paper and dried
the liquids.
VII To hold the funnel firm ly in place
VIII To carefully po u r the suspension
(d) Alternatives o f distillation
Fractional distillation, crystallization, dow n th e funnel
chrom atography, decantation
sedim entation (ii) Materials lor the part V
1. C otton w ool
2. A piece o f m aterial (gray baft)
 3. G lass w ool WASSCE 2008 Nov Questions
4. Foam 15. (a) T h e figures below are illustration o f
laboratory apparatus.
(c) Suspensions that can be separated by this Study the fig u re carefully and answer the
method questions that follow.
1. C halk w ater suspension
2. C lay w ater suspension
3. Sulphur in w ater
4. P ow dered charcoal o r carbon in w ater

(d) Precaution
1. A void splattering o f the suspension
2. E nsure that the filter paper is firm ly held in place
to prevent the residue from entering th e filtrate A B C
3. C are m ust be taken to avoid breakage o f glass
w are (i) Identify each o f the apparatus A, B and C.
(ii) State one u se o f each o f the apparatus
m entioned in (i).
SSSCE 2005 Nov Questions
(b) State one m ethod o f separation for each o f the
14. (a) State the colour o f each o f the follow ing
follow ing m ixtures:
substances:
(i) m uddy w ater and alcohol;
(i) tincture o f iodine;
(ii) palm oil and w ater;
(ii) m ilk o f m agnesia;
(iii)w ater and sand;
(iii)hydrogen peroxide.
(iv) iodine crystals and sand.
(b) State one uses o f each o f th e substances listed
(c) D escribe briefly w hat w o u ld be observed in
in (a) above.
each o f the follow ing activities in the
(c) T hree gas ja r containing hydrogen, carbon
laboratory:
dioxide and am m onia have lost th eir labels in
(i) a glow ing splint is placed in a gas jar
the laboratory. U sing a table, indicate the
containing oxygen gas;
tests, observations and conclusions that can
enable you to identify each o f the gases. [Q. 4] (ii) a drop o f m ethyl orange is p u t into 5 cm ’
o f sodium hydroxide solution;
(iii)a burning m atch is placed in a gas ja r o f
SSSCE 2005 Nov answers
14. (a) Colour of the following substances hydrogen. [Q. 1]
(i) T incture o f iodine - B row n
(ii) M ilk o f m a g n e s ia - W h ite , m ilky WASSCE 2008 Nov Answers
suspension 15. (a) (i) Identification of the apparatus
(iii) H ydrogen peroxide - C olourless A fiat bottom ed flask
B test tube holder
(b) Uses of the following substances C B unsen burner
(i) Tincture of iodine: as an antiseptic
(ii) Milk of magnesia: as antacid in laxatives (ii) Use of apparatus
(iii)Hydrogen peroxide: A ntiseptic, for A (flat bottom ed flask): F or holding
solutions in the laboratory
bleaching natural and synthetic fibres,
purifying gas and liquid w aste m aterials B (test tube holder): For holding test tubes
during heating
produced by industrial plants, etc.
C (B unsen burner): For heating substances
in the laboratory
(c) Tests and observation of gases
Test O b s e r v a tio n I n fe r e n c e /
C o n c lu s io n (b) Separation o f mixtures
G a s - r m o ist blu e L itm u s tu rn e d red H y d ro g e n o r
litm us paper c a rb o n d io x id e M ixture M ethod o f sep aratio n
G a s + m oist red L itm u s tu rn e d blu e A m m o n ia
muddy w ater and alcohol Distillation
litm u s p a p e r
G a s + lig h te d sp lin t Pop s o u n d is h e a rd H y d ro g e n g as palm oil and water Separating funnel
G as b u b b led th ro u g h L im e w a te r tu rn e d C a rb o n d io x id e
water and sand Filtration
lim e w a te r m ilky
D ip a tjJass rod in to W h ite fu m e s a re A m m o n ia iodine crystals and sand Sublimation
co n c. H y d ro c h lo ric form ed
acid a n d then in to
ja r c o n ta in in g gas
 ( c) Activity and observation W ASSCE 2010 Nov Answers
16. (a) Correct m ethod or conducting laboratory practices
Activity O bservation
Laboratory W rong m ethod Corrcct method
a g lo w in g sp lin t is p laced in a the g lo w in g sp lin t w ill burst
practice
gas ja r co n ta in in g o x y g e n gas in to flam es
sm ellin g ev o lv in g T h e gas m a y be D ire c t the te st tube
a drop o f m eth y l o ra n g e is pul Y ellow c o lo u ra tio n ap p ears
gas w ith the test p o iso n o u s and it aw ay fro m the n ose
into 5 cm ’ o f sod iu m tu b e p o in tin g at the m a y h av e irritatin g and m o v e the gas
h ydroxide so lutio n n ose o r c h o k in g sm ell to w a rd s the nose
a burning m atch is p la c ed in a A p o p s o u n d is h e ard an d the w h e n it is in h a le d usin g hand
gas ja r o f hy d ro g en fla m e g o es o u t (fan n in g ) and sm ell
the gas carefully
WASSCE 2010 Nov Questions co v erin g a re a g en t g la ss sto p p e r w ill W ooden cork or
16. (a) State the reason w hy each o f th e follow ing b o ttle co n tain in g g e t s tu c k in the ru b b e r sh ould be
so d ium hyd ro x id e re a g en t bottle used to c o v er the
laboratory practices is not appropriate
so lu tio n w ith a m a k in g it d ifficu lt re a g e n t bottle
and recom m end the corrcct m ethod o f g lass stopper to o p e n instead
conducting each o f the practices:
p ic k in g a h o t o bject T h e h o t o b je c t m ay U se test tube holder,
(i) sm elling evolving gas w ith the test tube w ith bare fin g ers bu rn the fin g e rs and a p air o f tongs or a
pointing at the nose; h a n d a n d cau se s c a r piece o f cloth
(ii) covering a reagent bottle containing
sodium hydroxide solution w ith a glass (b) (i) Names o f the parts labelled
stopper; I retort stand
(iii)picking a hot object w ith bare fingers. |Q. II hard glass test-tu b e
la] III ru b b er bung
IV delivery tube
(b) T he figure below is an illustration o f a sim ple
experim ent carried out by a student in the (ii) After heating wet calcium carbonate
laboratory. A fter strong heating the calcium carbonate
Study the figure carefully and answer the w ill decom pose to form calcium oxide
questions that follow . and carbon dioxide. W ater is also given
o ff.

(iii)Balanced chem ical equation in ( h) (ii)

C aC O j(s) —> C aO (s) + C O ,(g)

(iv )(a) W hat happens to the anhydrous

copper sulphate
T he w ater in the test tube evaporates
and condenses and turns the w hite
colour o f the anhydrous copper
sulphate to a blue colour.
C u S 0 4(s) + 5H ,0(1) -> C u S 0 „ .5 H ,0
w h ite w a te r b lu e
(i) N am e the parts labelled I, II, III and IV.
(ii) W hat w ill happen to the sam ple o f wet
(P) W hat happens to the lime water
calcium carbonate w hen it is strongly
T he lim e w ater turns m ilky
heated?
(iii >W rite a balanced chem ical equation
(v) Other substance instead o f the
for the reaction that takes place in (b) (ii).
anhydrous copper sulphate
(iv)A t the end o f the experim ent, w hat
A nhydrous cobalt(II) chloride crystals
happens to the,
CoC'l,(s) + 6H 20(1) -> C 'oC L 6H ;0
(a) anhydrous copper sulphate;
(P) lim e w ater.
(v) N am e o n e other substance th at can be
WASSCE 2011 Nov Questions
17. (a) D escribe briefly how a m ixture o f iodine
used instead o f the anhydrous copper
crystals and sand could be separated in the
sulphate.
laboratory.
(b) N am e the m ethod o f separating the m ixture
described in (i).
W A S SC E 2011 N ov A n sw e rs
17. (a) S e p a ra tio n a m ix tu r e o f io d in e c ry s ta ls a n d
sa n d
1. Place the m ixture o f iodine and sand in beaker
2. Stand the beaker on tripod gauze.
3. Fill a flask w ith cold w ater and place on the
beaker.
4. H eat the beaker gently over a low flam e.
5. Iodine sublim es and form s dense purple v apour
w hich condenses on the flask to form a sublim ate
o f pure iodine.
6. C ontinued heating until no v io let v ap o u r is seen
to be coining from the m ixture.
7. T he sand is left at the bottom o f the beaker since
it does not sublim e.

S ublim ation o fio d in c

Or
1. Put the m ixture in evaporating dish/test
tube/beaker
2. M ix m ixture w ith K I solution to dissolve iodine
3. F ilter to obtain sand
4. R ecrystalise iodine from solution
5. D ry solid iodine

(b) N am e o f s e p a r a tin g m e th o d
Sublim ation
1 D; 2 C; 3 D; 41); 5 B; 6 D;7
B; 8 C; 9 D; 10 B; 11 B; 12 B;
13 C; 14 D; 15 A; 16 C; 17 B;
18 A; 19 D; 20 C; 21 D; 22 A;
23 C; 24 D; 25 D; 26 C; 27 B;
28 B; 29 D; 30 B; 3 1 D; 32 B;
33 B; 34 C; 35 C; 36 B; 37 A;
38 B^39 C: 40 C; 41 B; 42 C;
43 B; 44 B; 45 B; 46 D; 47 B;
48 B; 49 D; 50B ;51 D: 52 C;
53 B; 54 D; 55 B; 56 B; 57 A;
58 D.
23. A m o u n t o f s u b s ta n c e

1 A; 2 A; 3 C; 4 B; 5 A; 6 D;
7 C: 8 C ;9 B; IOC; 11 C; 12
B; 13 A; 14 C; 15 B; 16 A; 17
D; 18 A; 19 C; 20 A; 21 B;22
B; 23 D; 24 D; 25 B; 26 D; 27
A; 28 A; 29 B; 30 C;31 B; 32
A; 33 D; 34 A; 35 D; 36 D;37
B; 38 A.
 50

The cell is the basic unit of life. All living things are made up of ceils, just as
bricks are building blocks of houses. Cells are basically made up of cytoplasm and
nucleus this is called the protoplasm,
Cells can be single, they are unicellular, and examples include paramecium,
amoeba, and eugiena. Other cells are in multiples, they are multicellular, and
examples include plants and animals.
Ceils are so tiny that they need to be stained with a dye (iodine or methylene
blue) for the different parts to show clearly under a microscope.

Table 1.5.1 Differences between plants and animals cells

Plant cells Animal cells
Definite shapes Irregular shapes
Cellulose cell wall outside the cell No cellulose cell wall outside the cell
membrane membrane
Large permanent vacuole Contain small tem porary vacuole
Possess chloroplasts containing No chloroplast, therefore no
chlorophyll chlorophyll
Stores starch as carbohydrate food Stores glycogen as carbohydrate food
reserve reserve

nucleus vacuole
___ A__
Chromatin nucleolus nuclear membrane 'cell sap tonopJast
smooth endoplasmic centriofes ceil membrane
reticulum

rough endoplasmic
reticulum

endopfasmic
reticulum-bound
ribosomes
free ribosomes
scattered throughout
mitochondrion
cytoplasm
cell membrane Golgi body

chloroplast - mitochond.

ribosomes

middle lamella rough endoplasmic

reticulum

Typical plant cel and typical animal cell

1.5.1 Structure and functions o f the cell

 51

❖ Organelles —> minute, membrane-bound structures in the cytoplasm e.g.

are nucleus, vacuole etc.
❖ Chloroplasts —» large, egg-shaped or disc-shaped organelles which contain
green pigment, chlorophyll which traps energy in sunlight for
photosynthesis.
❖ Vacuoles —» provide turgidity in plant cells. They are fluid-filled spaces in
the cytoplasm bounded by a single membrane called tonoplast.
❖ Cell wall —» protects and supports the cell contents. It is a structure
surrounding the cell membrane.
❖ Ribosomes —£■ are sites for protein synthesis. They are minute structures
found in large numbers in cells. Some are free in the cytoplasm while
others are bounded to the outer surface of the endoplasmic reticulum.
❖ Endoplasmic reticulum —> it is a network of channels bounded by a
membrane and founded throughout the cytoplasm which connects to the
nuclear and cell membrane.
❖ Nucleus —» is the life functioning unit of the cell. It contains threadlike
structures called chromosomes. This organelle controls the reactions
inside the cell and plays an im portant part when the cell divides.
❖ Mitochondrion —» it is the site for cellular respiration to produce energy.
❖ Lysosomes —» it contains enzymes involved in digestive breakdown of
material in the cell. These enzymes also defend the cell against attack by
bacteria, viruses and toxic substances. Chemicals from Lysosomes destroy
old and worn out cells including themselves, for this reason they are often
referred to as 'suicide sacs'.

Levels o f organization o f cells in living organisms:

A tissue is a group of specialized similar cells that perform the same function.
 52

N a m e o f tis s u e C e lls f o r m in g M a in f u n c t i o n
tis s u e
i n jp t a n t s
p h o to s y n th e tic p a lis a d e p ro d u c e s fo o d
t is s u e m e s o p h y I I c e lls
s tr e n g th e n in g s c ie r e n c h y m a p r o v id e s s u p p o r t
tis s u e c e ll s o f t h e
p e r ic y c le
e p id e r m a l t i s s u e e p id e r m a l c e ils c o v e r s t h e p la n t
s u rfa c e
v a s c u la r t i s s u e x y le m v e s s e ls , tr a n s p o r t s w a te r,
p h lo e m s ie v e t u b e tr a n s p o r t s o r g a n ic
e le m e n t s fo o d
in a n i m a t s
b lo o d t is s u e r e d b lo o d c e lls c a r r ie s o x y g e n
a ro u n d th e b o d y
a n d re m o v e s
c a r b o n d io x i d e
a n d o th e r w a s te
m a t e r ia l f r o m c e lls
s k e le t a l t is s u e o s te o c y te s p r o v id e s s u p p o r t
n e rv e tis s u e n e r v e c e lls c o n d u c ts a n d c o ­
(n e u ro n e s ) o r d in a te s n e rv e
im p u ls e s
m u s c le t i s s u e m u s c le c e lls c o n t r a c t s t o b r in g
about m ovem ent

Examples of plant and animal tissue.

An organ is a group of different tissues which perform the same function(s)

An organ system consists of tw o or more organs working together to perform a
specific function.
The organ system coordinate or work together to enable living organisms carry
out all life processes and exist on their own.
 53

gan systems and their functions

Examples of organs and their main functions
Name of sysie.- Main organs Functions
'Name of Si^an Names of tissues Main functions
forming oi'gan in plants ---------------------- -1
root system roots and their | absorbs water
in plants and mineral salts,
branches
root hairs, absorbs water
root supports the plant
piliferous and mineral salts
from soil and shoot system stems, leaves, makes food,
layer, cortex,
supports the plant buds, flowers, transports organic
endodermis,
fruits food, water and
pericycle, xylem
mineral salts,
and phloem
reproduces
epidermis, transports water
stem
collenchyma, and mineral salts, in animals
parenchyma, supports the digestive system stomach, digests and
vascular bundles leaves, flowers intestines, liver, absorbs food |
and fruit pancreas
leaf epidermis, makes food, circulatory system heart, arteries, carries food and
palisade transpires, veins, capillaries oxygen round the
mesopnyll, exchanges gases body
spongy eyes, skin, nose, detects stimuli
sensory system
mesophyll, ears, tongue
1vascular bundles

in animals
papillary muscles, pumps food and
heart
cardiac muscles oxygen around
| the Body
cortex, medulla 1excretes waste
kidneys
metabolic
substances,
regulates water 1
| levels 1

The levels of cell organization in plants and animals are five in all. They are as
follows: - Cells —» tissue —>• organ -> organ system -> organism. The arrow
means from.

Specialized cells are cells structurally adapted to perform a specific function,

examples are:
Animal specialized cells and their functions
• Stem cell —> this is an undifferentiated cell from which specialized cells e.g.
blood cells develop.
• Sperm cell —> to fertilize eggs
• O vum —> designed to be fertilized
• Red blood cell —» carries oxygen to parts of the body
• Muscle cells —» contracts for movement
• W hite blood cells —» fights diseases and infection
• Phagocytes -> these are some w hite blood cells in the lymph nodes and
blood that destroy bacteria by engulfing (swallowing up) and digesting
them in an amoeboid fashion.
 54

• Lymphocytes —> these are antibodies, proteins, produced by w hite blood

cells that destroy antigens, chemical substances produced by pathogens.
• Nerve cells —» transmits nerve impulses from one part of the body to
another

Plant specialized cells and their functions

• Root tip cell —» divides to give rise to different tissues
• Leaf epidermal cell —» allows light to enter the leafs so as to reach the
photosynthetic tissues below them
• The palisade cell —> absorbs C0 2 and light needed for photosynthesis
• Root hair cell —> increases surface area to absorb water and minerals
• Guard cells —J opens and closes to conserve water

• Xylem cells —» transports w ater and mineral salts.

muscle cdl root tip (sell

Examples of specialized cell

1.5.2 CELL DIVISION

This is the process whereby living organisms start life as a single cell and give rise
to all other cells of the organism. W ithout cell division, scratches would never
heal and blemishes will never disappear. If your red blood cells did not divide and
reproduce, you will die. There are tw o processes of cell division. These are
mitosis and meiosis,

Principle o f Mitosis
All living things are made up of one or more cells. Cells are formed from pre­
existing cells by cell division. Cell division occurs by a purpose of binary fission - a
form of asexual reproduction in which (nucleus + cytoplasm) one cell divides into
 55

tw o equal parts. It is by means of cell division that multicellular organism grows

starting from a single cell,
It occurs in both germ (sex) and somatic (body) cells. All the body ceils of a given
species have a definite number of chromosomes. These chromosomes exist in
pairs, in humans there are 23pairs making 46 chromosomes and onion 8 pairs
making 16.

A cell w ith the full number of chromosomes is said to be diploid.

• Mitosis involves an equal division of chromosomes into tw o cells.
• Each daughter cell receives exactly the same number and type of
chromosomes as were present in the parent cell.
• Mitosis is active during embryonic development, growth, repair of injury,
and the replacement of body-covering during moulting ( losing of outer
layer of skin hair, fur or feathers)
• It takes place during the growth of an organism and found in all parts
capable of growth and repair, differentiation and rejuvenation. In plants it
takes place at root of a seedling, in mammals it takes place in root hair
ceils, roots of nails, malphighian layer of the skin, bone marrow, lymph
nodes and injured area.
• Two daughter cells are produced which are diploid.
Continuous changes occurring in mitosis are divided into fou r stages:

♦♦♦ Prophase —> the chromosomes first appear as long, slender threads, they
dehydrate and become shorter and thicker. Each chromosome appears to
consist of tw o threads called chromatids and is joined together at a point
called centromere. The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disappear.
Spindle fibres then form in the cytoplasm.
♦♦♦ Metaphase —> at this stage the spindle form ation is completed. The
chromosomes then collect around the middle of the spindle w ith their
centromeres on the equator.
❖ Anaphase —> the centromere divides to separate the tw o chromatids of each
chromosome. Each of the separating chromatids is pulled by its spindle fibre
to the opposite poles of the spindle. The centromere takes the lead.
♦♦♦ Telophase —» at this stage sister chromatids arrives at the poles. A new
nuclear membrane is formed and a nucleolus reappears in each nucleus.
 56

In plant cells a new cell wall forms to divide the cytoplasm into tw o parts.
In animal cells the cell membrane divides the cytoplasm into two, to form
tw o daughter cells.

Significance o f mitosis
• It takes place during growth of organisms e.g. in the development of a
fertilized egg (zygote)
• It is significant in the repair of worn out tissues
• It is the basis of asexual reproduction.
• It ensures the constancy of the chromosome.

Cell division by mitosis

 57

Meiosis also called reduction division occurs to produce gametes in organisms

which reproduce sexually. It takes place in the form ation of gametes (sex cells). In
plants it can be found in the anther and ovaries of flowers. In mammals it is
observed in the testes and ovaries. It occurs w ithin the reproductive organs, prior
to the form ation of pollen and embryo sacs in flowering plants, and in the
form ation of sperms and egg in animals. In meiosis the daughter cells end up w ith
half the total number of chromosomes present in parent cells. The diploid cell
undergoes tw o successive divisions forming haploid (four daughter cells.
Meiosis occurs in tw o phases each of which involves five stages.
The four continuous changes are:
• Prophase I: chromosomes are single throughout their entire lengths at
their centromere. The pair of chromosomes, bivalent, lies closely together
for all parts of the chromosomes to correspond exactly. The bivalent
homologous pair lying side by side begins to shorten and thicken; here the
chromatids making up each chromosome begins to appear. The
chromatids get attached to those of its homologous pair at certain points
called chiasmata (singular: chiasma) while they repel each other at other
points.
• Metaphase I: the chromosomes lie at the equatorial region of the spindle
with bivalents keeping together.
• Anaphase I: members of the pair of the whole homologous chromosome
move apart, towards both poles.
• Telophase I: at the end of this first meiotic division only half the numbers
of chromosomes are found at each pole. The cytoplasm then divides, so
forming tw o daughter cells, each known as a haploid. A fter the second
meiotic division, the chromatids of each chromosome become separated
and lie in different cells resulting in the production of four haploid cells.
Thus the division is termed reduction division.

Importance o f meiosis

1. Meiosis halves the chromosome number. The normal number is restored

during fertilization. If this were not the case, the chromosome number
 58

would double at fertilization and the offspring produced would be

different from their parents.

2. The form ation of chiasmata brings about a new combination of genes in

the gamete which can lead to genetic variation.

Cell division by meiosis

Table 1.5.2 Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic (non -sex) cells such Occurs in reproductive cells such as the
as root and stem apices and cambium ovule and anther in flowering plants
in plants, and in dividing body cells in and in ovary and testis in animals.
animals.
Homologous chromosomes do not Crossing - over of homologous
cross over chromosomes occurs
Two daughter cells are formed Four daughter cells are formed
Occurs during growth, repair of the Occurs during the form ation of
body and as the basis of asexual gametes, as the basis of sexual
reproduction reproduction
Cell division occurs once Cell division occurs twice
 59

QUESTIONS:
1998 Questions:
1. (a) (i) What is a specialized cell?
(ii) Give tw o examples of specialized cells and in each case state its
function.
(b) (i) Draw and label a typical plant cell.
(ii) Give the functions of three labeled organelles.
2. Predict what would happen to a cell if its mitochondria failed to work.
3. (a) What is the function of chloroplasts?
(b) Why are chloroplasts not found in animal cells?

1. 6 ROCKS
Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. The major types of rocks
are Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks.

Igneous rocks: - are rocks formed when molten lava cools down and solidifies.
They are massive. Their texture varies from glassy to coarsely crystalline,
depending upon the rate of cooling of magma e.g. granite, gabbro, diorite, basalt.
They do not contain fossils. They are formed inside the earth, under great
pressure and heat. They do not occur in layers and most of them are crystalline.
There are tw o main groups:
• Volcanic (these have been poured out onto the earth's surface, and they
are called lavas) e.g. basalt.
• Plutonic (these have solidified deep in the earth's crust and then reach the
surface only by being exposed by erosion) e.g. granite.

Sedimentary rocks: - are produced by the breaking up of pre - existing rocks and
the deposits of their materials. They are usually composed of particles of rocks
which have been deposited, usually in layers (stratified), by water, wind or
moving ice. Sedimentary rocks are non - crystalline. They contain fossils e.g.
gravels, loess, limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, common salt, coal, clay,
gypsum, nitrates.
 60

M etam orphic rocks: - are rocks whose structure and appearance have been
changed by great heat, or great pressure, or both. Any rock can be changed to a
metamorphic rock e.g. Marble (from limestone), Slate (from clay), Gneiss (from
granite), Quartzite (from sand), Graphite (from coal) and Schist (from shale).

W eathering o f Rocks
Weathering: - is the gradual breakdown of rocks into smaller and smaller
particles by agents such as water, sudden change in tem perature, wind,
atmospheric oxygen and roots of plants.
Rocks can be weathered physically, chemically and biologically.

Physical Weathering
This occurs when rocks crack and crumble as a result of warming by the
sun and rapid cooling after sunset.
W ater may enter the cracks, freeze and expand, causing bigger cracks and
breakdown of the rocks.
Sharp edges of rock fragments, carried by rivers or streams, rub and wear
down rock surfaces over which they pass.
Wind may also blow sand against rocks and weather them.

Effects of Temperature on Weathering of Rocks

• high tem perature causes the rock to expand
• low tem perature causes the rock to contract
• the uneven expansion and contraction of rock minerals cause cracking and
disintegration of rocks into smaller particles.

Chemical Weathering
This occurs largely due to the action of atmospheric oxygen in the tropics.
The moist and hot conditions help bring about quick oxidation of iron compounds
in some rocks which break up easily to give rise to laterite soils.
• Oxidation: - is the combination of atmospheric oxygen and oxygen
contained in rain water w ith rock minerals or compounds which breaks
easily e.g. Fe20 + 0 2—> Fe2 0 3 + ferric oxide (hematite).
 61

❖ Hydration: - involves the rigid attachment of w ater to substances like rock

minerals making them soft and porous for easy breakdown.
❖ Hydrolysis: - minerals in rocks reacts w ith w ater and disintegrates
e.g. CaSi03 + 2H20 -» H2 Si03+ Ca(OH) 2
❖ Carbonation: - is the process by which hydrogen carbonate (HC03) ions
combine w ith rock minerals, which cause disintegration.

Biological Weathering
This involves the penetration of rocks by roots of plants exerting
considerable pressures, which eventually split some rocks. The activities of
earthworms, term ites and other soil organisms have similar effects.

2001 July Questions:

1. (i) Distinguish between igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks, giving one
example of each.
(iii) Describe briefly the effects of tem perature on weathering of rocks.

SECTION 2: CYCLES

2.1.0 AIR MOVEMENT

LAND AND SEA BREEZES

It requires less heat to raise the tem perature of a solid than it does for a
liquid. Liquids keep the ir heat longer than do solids. Fluids (liquids and gases)
expand when heated, so its density becomes less, it thus rises and takes heat
along w ith it. This movement of fluid forms a current, called convection current.
Convection current is thus, the flow of heat energy in fluids involving the mass
motion of the fluid molecules.
When the sun rises, it heats both land and sea. The tem perature of the
land becomes higher than the sea. The warm er air, over the land, rises, and is
replaced by cooler air coming in from the sea. Convection current is formed, and
produces a breeze (i.e. a light wind) coming from the sea; this is a sea breeze,
illustrated in Figure below:
 62

seabreezes

Land and Sea breezes

By midday, both land and sea are at the same tem perature and the breeze
stops. During the evening, the sun stops heating the land and sea, and both starts
to cool. By late evening, the sea is warm and the land is cool. This forms
convection current, due to the warm er air rising above the sea.
Land breeze is formed, as cooler air from the land blows out to sea to replace the
warm er air. At night, both land and sea are at the same tem perature and the land
breeze stops.

Convectional current involved at homes, offices and industries.

Ventilation of rooms: the supplying of fresh air to a room or building. In tropical
houses, windows should be placed low down near the floor for cool air to enter.
The air becomes warm in the room, and the warm air rises and escapes through
ventilation holes high up on the walls.
Cooling of engines

Domestic hot w ater system

Air conditioning: cold, dry air from the air conditioner sinks into the floor. It

becomes warm and moist, due to expired air from the occupants of the room.

The warm rising and the cold air sinking form convection current. The air

conditioner extracts the warm, moist, air, filters it, and then cools it for

recirculation.

Refrigerators: the freezer is part of the refrigerator which is cooled by the

refrigeration engine. The freezer is placed at the top of the refrigerator, as it

 63

forms convection currents by cooling the air. The cold air sinks to the bottom of

the cabinet.

<a) A ir in a room (b ) A ir cond itio ne c

C old &ir

Fig. 9.16

Applications of convection currents in air

Demonstration o f conventional current in gases using smoke box

1. Make a small box w ith a glass front; the box has no bottom , but stands on

a glass plate, and is made airtight w ith 'plasticine'.

2. Place tw o glass tubes in holes in the top of the box.

3. Put the lighted candle beneath tube (B) as shown below.

4. Place some smouldering paper (paper soaked in potassium nitrate

smoulders readily) on tube (A).Observe the air currents by means of the

smoke.

S m o u ld e r in g
paper

uV

G la s s ffo n i
C a n d le -
 64

Smoke box

Observation:
The smoke from the lighted candle travels in the opposite direction
indicating the movement of air in the smoke box. This is because the air above
the candle is heated and becomes lighter. Hence lighter air rises up the tube (B)
immediately above it.
In this way, cooler air from outside comes down through the other tube
(A) to take its place and so the air is set into circulation.
The smoke from the smouldering paper mixes w ith the cold air coming
down the tube (B).
This shows the direction of the convection current of air. This experiment
is applied by people using smoke to force out rat from their holes.

2.1.1 AIR MASSES

These are large, horizontally uniform bodies of air w ith similar

tem perature and humidity characteristics; which form over a source region; e.g.

cold land areas of northern Canada, the north central part of Russia, the warm

tropical areas in oceans closer to the equator.

Types of air masses:

• Continental polar (dry lower, upper moist)

• M aritime polar (moist)

• Continental tropical (dry)

• M aritime tropical (moist lower, upper dry)
Air masses move at speeds of up to 800km per day. They mostly retain the
tem perature and moisture characteristics of the source region. When it slows
and stagnates over a new location the air may again begin to acquire a new
tem perature and moisture equilibrium w ith the surface.

TRADE WINDS: - these are winds that blow towards the equator.
W esterlies are trade winds that blow towards the poles. When Westerlies
converge w ith cold air currents they are called Easterlies. Easterlies are therefore
sinking cold dense air moving from the poles to the equator.
 65

2.1.3 Effects o f moving air masses

• The air masses play a dominant role in transporting pollutants from the
industrialized countries to peasant farmers in Africa and Asia.
• CFC's are sent into the atmosphere by air masses, where they destroy the
ozone layer.
• Pollution of the air and destruction of biodiversity - when harmful gases
such as Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxides are blown from one region to
another.
• Moving air mass can spread smoke from burning bush when the warmer
and lighter smoke is displaced by the cold and heavier air.
• They produce thundery conditions - as tw o air masses meet over the
oceans (having moist lower layers but drier upper layers, one of them will
tend to be lifted up) causes instability. Large cumulus clouds develop to
produce intense thundery conditions.
• Moving air masses have effect on climate - as a cold fro nt passes the
weather changes very rapidly. The wind now blows from the north - west
and the tem perature falls. Short but often heavy falls of rain occur.
• Causes very severe and destructive damage when moving air masses come
into contact to form a fro n t to create storms.

A storm is created when tw o air masses come into contact to form a fro n t and
the contrasts in tem perature and humidity are sufficiently great, or if wind
directions of the tw o touching masses are opposite.
The changes that accompany some fronts may be so mild that they go
unnoticed. Others are noticed only as a day w ith breezes and dusty winds. Still
other fronts are accompanied by rapid and violent weather change, this is a
major storm.
In the transitional zones, (between latitudes 30° and 65° north and south
of the equator), unstable weather conditions create huge fronts called cyclones.
Cyclones are strong winds that whirl round while moving. This is as a result of
intermingling of polar and subtropical air.
Tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons are terms which describe cyclones in
different parts of the world.

Table 2.1.1 Differences between air masses and storms

 66

AIR MASSES STORMS

Have a source region Do not have a source region
Have large body of air w ith nearly the Have rapid and violent range of
same tem perature and moisture weather changes with wide range of
conditions tem perature, moisture and other
conditions
Generally not destructive even though Damage caused by storms are very
it can result in hazy periods of air severe and destructive
pollution
Are not associated w ith lightning and Storms are mostly associated w ith
strong wind even though it can speed lightning, cracking sounds and strong
up to 800km a day winds.

Early w arning signs o f approaching storms

• The air seems unusually calm as a few clouds appear, then thicken as the
wind begins to gust (a sudden brief rush of wind).
• Lightning is usually seen, accompanied by thunder.
• There is evidence of strong winds blowing in different directions
depending on the types of storm.
• Overall wind speed increases as strong gust and intense rain showers
occur.

Precautions against the effects o f storms

• Avoid being in an open space when storms are approaching.
• A safe place could be inside a car or a building w ith metal frames.
• Meteorologists should be able forecast procedures on early warning signs
for citizens to take cover.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. (i) What are conventional currents?
(ii) Explain briefly how smoke from burning bush is spread by moving air
masses
2. (i) What is sea breeze?
(ii) Sketch and label a diagram to show the occurrence of sea breeze.
 67

2.2.0 NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is essential fo r plant growth and reproduction because it is a
characteristic constituent element of proteins. Nitrogen starvation in plants is
characterized by a general yellowing of the leaf, and stunted growth.
Nitrogen compounds are being continuously added to and lost from the soil in
many ways. These compounds are often lost from the soil through 'leaching
action' of rain, when it rains nitrogenous compounds get washed out from the
soils and from cultivated soils as constituents of crops harvested thereof. To
retain soil fertility, a balance must be maintained between the supply and losses
of this im portant soil nutrient. This is normally achieved mainly by nature but can
sometimes be assisted by man artificially.
The whole process goes on in nature in the form of a cycle of addition and

depletion called the nitrogen cycle.

The natural nitrogen cycle:

Plants use nitrates to make proteins. Proteins are an im portant class of food

used for body building. They are nitrogen - containing organic compounds. The

plants are eaten by herbivorous animals; the protein is digested by animals. Some

of the protein is used to form flesh; any excess is excreted as urea. The urea

returns directly to the soil.

Bacteria decompose urea to ammonia (NH3). When animals die, bacteria feed

on the carcasses and decompose the protein to ammonia. Bacteria (nitrifying

bacteria) again, feed on the ammonia to form nitrites and then oxidized to

nitrates [trioxonitrates (V)] through a process called nitrification; Nitrates in the

soil are absorbed by plants and the cycle is repeated. N itrification is therefore

the process by which nitrifying bacteria oxidizes ammonia to nitrates. It is

hindered in waterlogged soils as well as in soil deficient in lime. It can only occur
 68

if there is sufficient air in the soil and if the

soil is not too acidic. N itrifying bacteria

prefer alkaline soils and are of tw o kinds.

(i) Nitrosomonas, which convert

ammonia to nitrites and;

(ii) Nitrobacter, which convert nitrites to

nitrate.

Leguminous plants (e.g. beans, peas) are

able to absorb nitrogen directly from the air
w ith the help of bacteria on their roots. It is this bacteria contained in their
nodules which use atmospheric nitrogen to make protein. The bacteria which
cause nitrogen fixation does no harm to the plants they live on. This species of
bacteria, Rhizobium enter the roots of leguminous plants by way of the root hairs
and cause swellings called nodules on the young roots. The bacteria live in the
nodules and synthesize organic nitrogenous compounds from the carbohydrates
of the host and nitrogen of the air. The nodules are hence a store of nitrogenous
compounds. When the host plant dies or is removed, any roots that remain in the
soil decay. When this happen the nitrogenous compounds are set free into the
soil where they can be used by other plants.

Nitrogen fixation can also occur by electrical discharges (lightning) during

thunderstorms. Oxides of nitrogen (nitrogen oxide) are formed from oxygen and
nitrogen and these react w ith water, form ing nitric acid {trioxonitrate (IV) acid}
which enters the soil. This acid combines w ith other salts to form nitrates
{trioxonitrate (IV)}.
A group of soil bacteria called denitrifying bacteria in waterlogged soils
break down nitrates. This releases oxygen and nitrogen into the air. The process
whereby certain bacteria and fungi reduce nitrates in the soil to nitrogen gas is
called denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria prefers acidic soils.
The nitrogen cycle is completed when plants absorb nitrates from the soil
and build them into proteins. These are then eaten by animals.
The natural nitrogen cycle
 69

2.2.1 Importance o f nitrogen cycle to plants and animals

• Improvement of soil fe rtility
• Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and build them into proteins.
• These plants grow and are eaten by animals
• Atmospheric nitrogen is used to manufacture ammonia by Haber process.
• The ammonia is then converted into nitrogen compounds essential to life.

The artificial nitrogen cycle

The farming and social

activities of humans break the

natural nitrogen cycle. All the

manure from excreta and

decay is not returned to the

soil. The soil therefore

becomes poorer in nitrates.

Artificial fertilizers are put into

the soil to supply sufficient

nitrates for the plants. More

fertilizers were needed, so the Haber process was invented to make ammonia

which is converted into a compound used as fertilizer. Another form of ammonia

is also manufactured, at the gas works from coal. Lime is also used to fertilize the

soil by making it alkaline; this increases the activity of the nitrifying bacteria and

decreases the activity of the denitrifying bacteria. The losses in nitrates due to

man's activities can be replaced by fertilizers.

 70

am m on»a

The artificial nitrogen cycle

SECTION 3: Systems

3.1.1 SKELETAL SYSTEM

A skeleton is the hardest part of an animal's body to which muscles are attached.

It is the body's fram ework bound together by bones, cartilages and ligaments.

Types of skeleton:

Exoskeleton: - covers outside the body and consists of chitin and cuticle. Common
in arthropods i.e. crabs, scorpions, prawns and some insects.
 71

Endoskeleton consists of 206 individual bones lying w ithin the main body
muscles. Found in humans, goats, monkeys, cats and dogs.

The endoskeleton consists of tw o divisions.

(a) The axial skeleton: - this is made up of 28 bones of the skull, the tiny bones

of the middle ear, the backbone, and the 12 pairs of ribs that join w ith the

breastbone. The axial skeleton is the central supporting part of the

skeleton and consists of the bones of the skull, backbone (vertebral

column), ribs and

mium \
Skull
breastbone. I51S2EP ---------- Facial Bones/

Clavicle \ Pectoral or
(b) The appendicular j shoulder
Scapula J
girdle

skeleton: - made Sternum (breastbone)

Humerus
Rib cage
up of the Vertebral column
(backbone)

shoulder blades Pelvic

girdle
Radius^ __ _
_
!•Forearm

(pectoral Carpals

girdles), hips
Phalanges

(pelvic girdles), Femur

(thigh)

Patella
and the arm, (knee cap)

Tibia
Leg
hands as well as { .Fibula

feet and leg

Tarsals

bones (limbs). Metatarsals

Phalanges

Functions o f the skeleton

• Support: - It provides a fram ework which supports all the softer parts of

the body.

• M ovem ent: - It provides a system of rods and levers for movement.

 72

• Protection: - It provides protection for delicate organs e.g. the skull

protects the brain, vertebral column protects the spinal cord etc.

• M anufacture o f blood cells: - Red blood cells and some white blood cells

are manufactured in the marrow of long bones.

• Shape: - The skeleton provides and maintains the shape of the body. It

enables organisms to be easily recognized by the shape given by the

skeleton.

• Storage o f mineral salt: - It helps to store im portant mineral salts such as

calcium and phosphorus, hence some bones are sources of food or

minerals for some animals e.g. bone meal as livestock feed.

• Respiration: - It also aids in respiration. The thoracic bone of the rib caged

together w ith the muscles attached to them assist in respiration i.e.

inhalation and exhalation.

• Muscle attachm ent: - It provides places for the attachment of muscles.

Muscles are attached to bones by means of tendons.

Joints

A jo in t is the point of contact of tw o or more bones of the skeleton.

Joints can be classified as:

(a) immovable or fibrous joints e.g. those of the skull which have no gaps

between the bones i.e. bones are fused together thus permits no movement,

(b) slightly movable or cartilaginous e.g. those of the vertebral

column that are capable of restricted movement, and

(c) freely movable or synovial joints e.g. th

in legs and arms that can move freely.

Movable joints can also be classified according to the type of movement

the joints perm it as shown in Figure below:

 73

a) F ib ro u s jo in t b) C a rtila g in o u s jo in t c ) S y n o v ia l joint

B a ll-a n d -S o c k e t H in g e P iv o t G lid in g

Classification o f joints

Types o f joints
> Hinge jo in t: - this jo in t allows movement in one plane only, examples are
found at the elbow and knee.
> Ball and socket jo in t: - allows movement in all planes examples are found
at the shoulder and hip.
> Gliding jo in t: - this jo in t can be found where one bone moves over the
surface of another, examples are found at the wrist and ankle.
> Fixed or im m ovable jo in t: - this jo in t does not allow movement; example
is the skull, cranium/coccyx.
^ Pivot jo in t: - This jo in t allows rotation of certain parts of the body on other
parts, example can be found between the atlas and the axis.

Components o f joint
• Bone
• Cartilage - prevents bones rubbing together.
 74

Ligament - attach or hold bone to bone. It is made up of yellow elastic

tissue therefore a certain amount of flexibility.
Tendon - attach muscle to bone. Made up of w hite fibrous tissue
therefore are strong and flexible. This is necessary as when muscle
contracts the bone w ill therefore move.
Synovial membrane - secretes synovial fluid into the synovial cavity.
Synovial fluid - this is contained in the synovial cavity. It lubricates the
bones and enables them to move smoothly over each other thereby
reduces friction.

3.1.2 Interaction o f muscle and skeleton

Many muscles work in pairs, causing

Biceps
the limbs to either bend or straighten.
(flexor)
contracts.
Muscles cannot push bones into the desired

position, antagonistic pairs alternate to move

the long bones in opposite directions. The

biceps and triceps muscles are antagonistic

Arm contracts

(extensor) pairs. The contraction of the biceps muscles

contracts.

causes the arm to bend, while the

contraction of the triceps muscle causes the

A rm extends.

arm to extend. The central nervous system

ensures that the biceps and triceps do not attem pt to pull against each other.
 75

Skeletal Disorders:
• Osteoporosis: - occurs when bones become thinner, more porous and
easily broken. It accompanies ageing and related hormonal changes.
• Arthritis: - an inflammation of the joints which causes swelling. The
swelling and pain may be caused by wear and tear of cartilage tissues,
hardening of cartilage etc.
Injuries to bones and joints:
• Fractures: - are always the results of accidents. They are broken bones
associated w ith wounds.
• Sprains: - are injuries to the tendons and ligaments around joints, which
occur as a result of less serious accidents.
• Dislocation: - results from injuries to joints. The most common ones occur
in the shoulder joints and the joints in the fingers and toes.
3.2 REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH IN PLANTS

A flow er is the sexual reproductive part of a flowering plant, which may produce

fruits and seeds.

A half flow er of Delonix

Parts o f a flow e r
 76

There are four whorls of a flow er namely Calyx. Corolla, Androecium and
Gynaecium.
Calyx: - This is the outerm ost whorl which consists of a number of sepals. Sepals
are small, green leaf like structures that surround the carpel and stamen. They
protect the flow er at the bud stage.
Corolla: - This lies w ithin the calyx and consists of a number of petals. Petals are
colourful parts of the flow er that attract pollinators. A slight swelling at the base
of each petal is called nectary which produces sugary liquid called nectar.
Androecium: - This is the male reproductive parts of the flow er and consists of a
number of stamens. Stamen , the male part of the flow er consists of a stalk, called
the filament and an anther in which pollen grains are formed.
Gynaecium: - This is the female reproductive parts of the flow er and is composed
of one or more carpels (pistils). Pistil, the female part of the flower, consists of
three main parts namely: stigma, style and ovary.
The stigma: is the sticky part on which pollen grains will land and grow.
The style: is the slender stalk by which the pollen grains reach the ovary.
The ovary: contains the ovule which is attached to the ovary wall by a short stalk.
The ovule: contains the embryo sac that holds the egg cell. A small hole in
the wall of the ovule is called the micropyle through which sperm nuclei enter.
A com plete flo w e r having all four floral parts i.e. carpels, stamens, petals sepals
e.g. lilies and tomatoes.
An incom plete flo w e r lacks one or more of these structures.
Types o f flowers
1. Bisexual: - This is a flow er that has both the male and female reproductive
parts. Also called hermaphroditic flow er e.g. Flamboyant, Pride of Barbados,
Hibiscus, tom ato etc.
2. Unisexual: - This is a flow er w ith only one of the reproductive parts, i.e. either
the androecium or gynaecium e.g. Pawpaw, Paretusa, W atermelon, Gourd etc.

3.2.2 Pollination and Fertilization

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flow er to
the stigma of the same flow er or another flow er of the same species, which may
or may not be on the same plant.
Types o f pollination
 77

Self Pollination: - is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a

flow er to the stigma of the same flow er or another flow er on the same plant.
Cross Pollination: - is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one
flow er to the stigma of a flow er on another plant of the same species thus,
involving tw o separate plants.

Agents o f Pollination
The major agents are: Insect and Wind.
Others agents include:
• W ater currents in aquatic habitats
• Gravity - pollen grains can accidentally fall by gravity onto the stigma of a
flow er
• Bats - flowers of silk cotton tree opens at night, bats that are active use
their long tongues to lap nectar. Pollen is thus transferred from flow er to
flow er

Comparison of adaptations of insect pollinated and wind pollinated flowers.

INSECT POLLINATED WIND POLLINATED
Large and conspicuous Small and inconspicuous
Petals are brightly coloured Petals are dull in colour
Highly scented Not scented
Petals have nectar Petals have no nectar
Small, compact stigma enclosed in the Large, feathery stigma hanging outside
flow er the flower.
Produce large, heavy rough pollen Produce small, light, smooth pollen
grains. grains
Produce small quantities of pollen Produce large quantities of pollen

grains grains

Stamens have short, thick filam ent and Stamens have long, thin filaments with
small anthers not swinging freely in the the anthers swinging freely in the air
air
Table 3.2.1

Fertilization
 78

The process of fertilization entails the male cell/gamete/nucleus fusing w ith the
female cell/gamete/nucleus in the ovule to form a zygote. The other male
nucleus fuses w ith the definitive nucleus to form the endosperm.
A fter fertilization the zygote develops into an embryo by repeated
divisions. The embryo consists of the seed leaves (cotyledons), plumule (future
shoot), and the radicle (future root).

Stages o f fertilization
> Pollen grains germinate to form a pollen tube
> Pollen tube grows down the style towards the embryo sac
> Tip of pollen tube breaks and sex cells enter the embryo sac through the
micropyle
> Matured male sex cells from the pollen grains fuse with the female sex
cells to form a zygote or the embryo and endosperm.

of
ovule

gamete
gametes

end of tube nucleus

tube in micropyle

tube

(b) pollen tube enters the micropyle "M one ot the male S ^ e te s wl1 fuse
Is} germinating pollen grains produce
a n d carries male gametes towards with the female gamete ;
pollen tubes which grow towards the
micropyle of the ovule female gamete

Stages of fertilization

3.2.3 FRUITS

A fru it is a fertilized ovary containing seeds. After fertilization, the ovary

wall develops into the fru it wall or pericarp. A fru it has tw o scars (1) point of
attachment of the stigma (2 ) point of attachment of the receptacle.
The outerm ost layer of the fru it is the epicarp.
The middle layer of the fru it is the mesocarp.
 79

The inner layer of the fru it is the endocarp.

A typical fru it

Types of fruits:

*Dry *Succulent

Dry fruits: the pericarp dries out when the fru it ripens e.g. cowpea, cotton,

okro, cola, maize grain, and cashew fru it. Dry fruits are either dehiscent or

indehiscent. Dehiscent fruits are those whose pericarp splits open to release

seeds e.g. legumes and pods. Indehiscent are those whose pericarp does not split

open e.g. maize, sunflower, cashew nut, rice plant etc.

Succulent fruits: the pericarp remains juicy and fleshy when the fru it

ripens. A succulent fru it can be:

Serosis: it is a fleshy false fru it e.g. pineapple

Pome: it has a fleshy outer covering e.g. pear, apples,
Berry: it has thin or membranous epicarp, fleshy mesocarp and endocarp
are fused w ith many seeds e.g. tom ato, guava, pawpaw, pepper.

Drupe: the mesocarp is fleshy and fibrous w ith a hard or stony endocarp
containing only one seed e.g. mango coconut.
 80

endocarp.

epicarp.
.mesocarp.

.rem ains o f c a ly x

berry o f to m a to (L .S .) b e rry o f orange <T.S,J d ru p e o f your»g m ango (L .S .) f ib r o u i d ru p e o f c o c o n u t (L.S.)

Berries and drupes

Functions o f fru it
1. Protection: - they protect ovules from damage by rain, and also winds which
would absorb all the moisture from them, eaten by animals, from bacteria and
fungi, which would cause their death and decay.
2. Nourishment: - fru it supplies young developing seeds food and water. Food
materials are stored in the fru it wall of succulent fruits, and from here they reach
the young seeds through the placenta and seed stalk.
3. Seed dispersal: - man/animals eat fleshy fruits, and discard the seeds some
distance away from the parent i
plant. Sometimes some small
seeds with very hard covering are j h l!u m
swallowed, passes through the \
animals digestive system
undamaged. They may be te sH a i*

scattered far away from the

parent plant depending upon the animals' habits and movement.
In certain fruits, the fru it wall bursts or splits open when the fru it is ripe as
occurs in the fru it of the balsam and the flamboyant. Tension in the fru it wall
causes the seeds to be throw n at a great distance away from the parent plant.

3.2.4 SEED STRUCTURE

Seed is a fertilized ovule consisting of an embryo, endosperm and a testa (a

protective tissue)

A typical seed
 81

Testa or seed coat: - a protective tissue formed from the outer layers of the

ovule. It has a scar, the hilum, which is where it was attached to the seed stalk

inside the fru it; the micropyle is a smail hole near the hilum, which is where the

pollen tube enters the ovule. It is also the place where most of the w ater is

absorbed before germination.

Embryo: - consists of one or more seed leaves (cotyledons ), the young shoot

{plumule) and the young root {radicle).

Endosperm: - a massive tissue in which food is stored. Its function is taken over

by cotyledons in most seeds.

Cowpea (non - endospermous seed)

Endospermous seeds: in such seeds the endosperm is not completely used up
and therefore persists as a large food storage tissue e.g. maize.
Non-endospermous seeds: in such seeds most of the food in the endosperm is
absorbed by the cotyledons e.g. cowpea

External v ie w Lontymdinsil section

Castor oil seed {endospermous & dicot}

At one end of the seed is a spongy knob, caruncle, which absorbs moisture during
germination. The endosperm stores the oil and is covered by a thin tegmen.
 82

remains o f style
fus^d pen carp
and testa

jw s it io u o f p !u jrlu k
plu m u le sjjcatjj
position
of raditla (coleopiife)
scutelluni
attachment radicle sheath
to cob (eoleorhtza}
External view
Longitudinal section

Grain of maize (endospermous)

The grain is a monocotyledonous and endospermous. The endosperm contains
starch and protein.

Features and functions of maize grain

> Coleoptile: - serves as a plumule sheath and protects the plumule while in
the soil.
> Coleorhiza: - serves as a sheath which protects the short and blunt tip of
radicle.
> Endosperm: - serves as food store and absorbs w ater during germination.

Table 3.2.2 Differences between a seed and a fru it

Seed Fruit
Has a single scar Has tw o scars
Developed from the ovule Developed from the ovary
Testa formed from integuments Pericarp formed from ovarian wall
Contains embryo Contains seeds

Table 3.2.3 Differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Has one cotyledon Has tw o cotyledons
Endosperm present Endosperm absent
Pericarp and testa fused together Pericarp and testa are separated.
 83

Leaf has parallel veins long and narrow leaf broad and branching network of
veins
No leaf stalk Leaf stalk present and leaf blade.
Examples are: maize, guinea corn, Examples are: mango, peppers, beans,
onions, lilies, palms, plantain and yam, silk cotton tree, Flamboyant,
bamboo Caesalpinia

One cotyledon Single ssai Vascular bundles Veins parallel Floral parts In
last distributed threes or
ttanasbud fbw multiples th m iit
stem

TWo cotyledon VasPiiiar bamHes Voift* amtllke Floral im ft h ;

in stum arrantBtl fours n .f ijm at
En ring multiples
tHeraaf

The differences between monocotyledon and dicotyledon

3.2.5 Dispersal o f fru its and seeds
Agents of dispersal
(a) Wind (b) W ater (c) Animals (d) Explosive mechanism/Self

Wind Dispersal
Fruits and seeds dispersed by wind develop features to make them light
and easily carried away by wind from their parents e.g. Tridax sp, Combretum
sp/Samara, Maple, Ash, Hopea.
The main adaptations are: small sizes, light in weight, development of
floss/entangled mass of thread, calyx modified to form a pappus/parachute,
expansion of testa to form wing.
 84

te s ta f e f o r m w in g ,

Tecom a s o « d

pore
T rtd a x f r u i t

seeds
f rs .i;

POPPY C APSU LE

Wind dispersal

W ater dispersal
Such fruits and seeds dispersed by water have spongy/fibrous mesocarp/
numerous air spaces which reduces the relative density causing it to float
passively in water. When washed ashore the pericarp rots and the embryo grows
out through the endocarp e.g. w hite mangrove Avicennia nitida

W ATER LILY FR U IT

W ater dispersal

Animal dispersal
Those animals include humans, monkeys. Fruits dispersed by animals are
succulent or have features which cause them to become attached to the fur or
clothes of mammals. Some are large and brightly coloured, some are eaten and
the seeds throw n away, some have hooks/spines on the seed coat by which they
may become attached to fur, skin or clothing, some fruits may also be sticky.
 85

f r u it s o f m im o s a

Animal dispersal

Self Dispersal/Explosive mechanism

Turgidity of the pericarp makes the fruits split open and seeds are hurled
out away from parent plant.
Unequal drying of pericarp sets in tension, which develops gradually until a
large force develops, to split open the fru it and throw away the seeds. Such fruits
are: balsam, Cowpea, Crotalaria, Pride of Barbados, Rose periwinkle, Okro,
Flamboyant etc.

Self dispersal

Advantages of seed and fru it dispersal

• It eliminates com petition for space and avoids overcrowding.
• It eliminates com petition for nutrients and sunlight.
• There is colonization of new habitats and distribution of plants
• It eliminates or minimizes epidemic diseases as seedlings are not
overcrowded

Disadvantages of seed and fru it dispersal

 86

• External agents of dispersal may not be available at the right time.

• The fru it may be carried to areas where conditions may not be favourable
to establish.

3.2.6 SEED GERMINATION

Germination is the process whereby the embryo of a seed grows into a

seedling.

Viable seed: - is a live and mature seed that can germinate under favourable

conditions.

Dormant seed: - is a live, mature and dry seed that fails to germinate under

favourable conditions. During this state of dormancy the embryo is resting and its

metabolic activities are low, lasting for a few days to several months.

Types of germination

The seed absorbs w ater through the testa and the micropyle, the seed

swells and the testa splits, allowing the radicle to emerge and grow downwards

into the soil.

In some seeds the cotyledons are pushed above the ground and become

the first new leaves, due to the rapid elongation of the hypocotyl. This type of

germination is known as epigeal germ ination e.g. can be found in castor oil seed,

flamboyant, cowpea, groundnut, tom ato, garden eggs, lettuce, and cabbage.
 87

Stages of germination of cowpea - epigeal

In others the cotyledons remain below the ground as a result of rapid

elongation of the epicotyl. This type of germination is known as hypogeal

germ ination e.g. can be found in wheat, maize, yam bean seeds, Bambara beans,

Hypogeal germination of yam bean seed

 88

Conditions necessary fo r germination

• Adequate moisture
• Suitable tem perature
• oxygen
Aim: - Investigating the conditions necessary for germination
1. Set up four test tubes labeled A, B, C, and D as shown in Fig 3.2.16.
2. Put tubes A, C and Di n a warm place.
3. Put tube B in a refrigerator.
The test tubes should have the following conditions:
A. Water, warm th and air.
B W ater and air (no warm th).
C Warmth and air (no water).
D W ater and warm th (no air)
4. Observe the test tubes for about a week.
Observation:
A. Seeds germinated because it had all the conditions necessary for germination.
B. Seeds did not germinate because of lack of favourable temperature.
C. Seeds did not germinate because of lack of water.
D. Seeds did not germinate because of lack of air.
Conclusion:
This shows that, viable seeds can germinate only when water, air and
suitable tem perature are provided. If any of them is absent, germination will not
occur.

Activity for investigation

3.2.7 Vegetative reproduction

 89

Vegetative propagation is an asexual form of production in which parts of

the plant detached from the parent plant and then developed into an adult plant.

Methods of vegetative propagation

1. Natural propagation methods
2. Artificial propagation methods

1. Natural Propagation:
• propagation by bulbs
• propagation by rhizomes
• propagation by corms
• propagation by stolons or runners
• propagation by sucker
• propagation by stem tuber

Propagation by bulb:
A bulb has a short, brown conical stem which grows vertically
underground. Adventitious roots arise directly from the base of the stem with
very short internodes. The food is stored in fleshy inner leaf bases (bulbs) which
serve as storage organ for the plant e.g. onion, garlic, spider lily etc.
The whole bulb is planted and the terminal buds produce aerial shoots,
while axillary buds produce daughter bulbs.

Bulb of onion
 90

Propagation by corms:

A corm is a short, modified stem surrounded by brown scale leaves which

grows vertically underground w ith long internodes and adventitious roots arising

from the nodes. The stem is thick w ith stored food e.g. cocoyam. Caladium sp,

Colocasia sp, Gladiolus etc.

Corms are propagated by planting the whole corm or sections of the corm

singly in soil. The axillary buds develop into daughter corms.

Corm of cocoyam (Xanthosoma)

Propagation by rhizomes:

A rhizome is a horizontal, underground stem, w ith terminal buds that form

aerial shoots, and buds that develop into lateral branches e.g. Canna lily, ginger,

turmeric, Zoysia grass.

The whole rhizome can be planted or cut into pieces, each piece having

tw o or three buds and planted in the soil and watered regularly. The buds sprout

and grow into new aerial shoots after a few days.

 91

Rhizome of canna-lily (Canna)

Propagation by sucker:

A sucker is a lateral outgrowth from the underground part of the stem of

certain plants. They grow obliquely to the soil level and produce new aerial

shoots w ith adventitious roots e.g. plantain and banana.

A sucker is propagated by cutting carefully, and uprooting the young

sucker close to the parent stem and transplanting in the soil.

Common planting materials of bananas

Propagation by Stolons or runners:

 92

A runner is a thin, creeping stem which grows horizontally along the

surface of the ground. The stem has long internodes and produces adventitious

roots at its nodes. Aerial shoots develop from the nodes e.g. sweet potato,

Desmodium, doob grass, moss verbena.

The stem of runners is cut into pieces w ith each piece having at least tw o

nodes. One end of the piece of stem is pushed into the soil. The buds at the

nodes sprout into new plants.

root

A runner of Desmodium.

Propagation by stem tu b e r:

Stem tuber is swollen underground stem e.g. potato and yam. It is

propagated by cutting the big tuber into setts, each sett containing many eyes.

/
root

remains ot vine
S T E M TU B E R
Yam
axillary bud
rudimentary scale leaf

Stem tuber of yam

2. A rtificial Propagation:

> Stem cutting

> Budding
 93

> Grafting

> Layering

Propagation by stem cutting:

Cut stem obliquely (at an angle) just below a node. Each cutting has 3 to 5

nodes. Push lower end with one node of cutting into the soil. Adventitious roots

develop from the node in the soil while aerial shoots grow from the nodes above

the soil surface e.g. cassava, sugarcane, Croton, Hibiscus.

Stem cuttings

Propagation by budding:
Budding is a form of grafting but the only difference is that, in grafting a
shoot is used for the scion, whereas a bud w ith part of the bark of the plant is
used as the scion in budding. Both systems have the same advantages and are
based on the same principle. However, w ith budding many buds can be obtained
from a single plant, while in grafting shoots have to be taken from several plants
if many operations are to be performed.
The scion (a dormant bud on a silver of stem) is carefully removed from
one plant with a sharp knife and inserted into a T - shaped cut in the bark of
another plant called the stock. A polythene bag is used to bind firm ly together
the scion and stock.
The bud on the scion develops and bears fruits of the plant from which it
was removed e.g. citrus trees and roses.
 94

A
BUD

I SHAPED INCISION
| M ADE IN THE STOCK

GROWING BUD WITH BUDOEO P LA N T C U T BACK

STOCK CUT BACK TO PRODUCE SIDE SHOOTS

Budding
Advantages of budding
❖ Changing undesirable variety to a desirable variety.
❖ Combination of good qualities of tw o different plants of the same species
into one plant.
❖ Perpetuation of some varieties which cannot be propagated by any other
means.
❖ Growing of tw o or more kinds of fruits/flow ers on one plant/tree.
❖ Rapid method of developing new varieties of plants/crops.
❖ Hastens seed selection
❖ Hastens m aturity or fruiting tim e / develops faster

Propagation by grafting:
Grafting is the art of joining parts of a plant together in such a way that
they will unite and continue to grow as one plant OR the union of the cambium
layers of tw o woody stems/stock and scion. The part of the graft combination
which is to become the upper portion of the plant is called the scion and the
lower portion of the graft called the stock or rootstock.
Grafting is usually done in the peak of the growing season e.g. grape fru it
trees and lime trees to orange trees and also grafting a w hite flowered
bougainvillea to a pink or red one. Grafting and budding are normally done on
plants which either cannot be reproduced from seeds or are liable to produce
different characteristics when propagated from seeds.
 95

The scion (short length of stem w ith one bud) is cut slanted and joined to

the stock (cut end of the stem of another plant). The cambia of the stock and

scion must make contact and then bound together. The cuts soon heal and then

continue to grow as one plant and bear the fruits of the plant from which the

scion was removed.

SCfON A N D S TO C K A S U C C E S S F U L SCtON A N D
W RAPPED W ITH T A P E S T O C K U N IO N W IT H T A P E
REM O VED

Grafting

Differences between Scion and Stock

SCION STOCK
The part of the plant that is attached to The part of the plant to which the scion
the stock is attached/part of the root in the soil.

Propagation by layering:
Layering means bending a branch of the stem or shoots down to the
ground w itho ut breaking it. It should have a number of nodes. It is pushed into
the soil and held in place w ith tw o pegs. The tw o ends of the shoot are allowed to
remain above ground level. It is then watered regularly till adventitious roots
develop, then the rooted twig is cut o ff and transplanted in a fertile soil e.g.
Roses, Bougainvillea, Petra volibilis, Cocoa, Coffee, Kola etc.
Marcotting (air layering) is another way of layering, but this tim e round
the layering is done on the branch as it still stands. A ball of soil is tied around the
stem of a plant. Mangoes, Citrus and roses can easily be propagated by air
layering.
 96

Layering and Marcotting

Table: 3.3 Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
Requires tw o parents unless a parent is requires only one parent
hermaphrodite
New varieties are produced due to no new varieties are produced as
mixing of characters of both parents identical characters are repeated over
generations
Involves fusion of nuclei of gametes to does not involve fusion of nuclei,
form zygotes zygotes are not formed

Advantages of vegetative propagation

1. Desirable characteristics are retained, as the offspring are identical to the

parent plant.

2. Plants that do not produce viable seeds can only be propagated through

vegetative means e.g. cassava, Irish potato etc.

Disadvantages of vegetative reproduction

❖ No new varieties are formed

❖ Less resistant offspring/progeny

 97

❖ Lack of dispersal leading to com petition

❖ Diseases are carried from parents to offspring

❖ Colonization of new areas unlikely

❖ Many individuals can be destroyed by natural disasters.

REVISION QUESTIONS
2000 Questions
1. Describe briefly the process of fertilization in flowering plants
2001 July Questions
2. (i) Distinguish between epigeal and hypogeal germination, giving one
example in each case.
(ii) State three factors necessary for germination.
2001 Nov Questions
3. (i) Distinguish between self pollination and cross pollination.
(ii) State five characteristics of insect pollinated flowers.
4. Describe briefly the characteristics of fruits dispersed by each of the
following agents. (a) w ater ((3) Mammal (y)
Wind
2002 July Questions
5. (i) What is a complete flower?
(ii) Name three parts of a flow er and state one function of each part you
have named.
2002 Nov Questions
6 . (i) Distinguish between pollination and fertilization.
(ii) State four adaptations of wind dispersal fruits and seeds.
2004 Nov Questions
7. Describe briefly the events which occur in a flow er from pollination to the
form ation of the embryo.
2005 July Questions
8 . (i) What is a flower?

(ii) Draw and label a fully complete flower.

PRACTICAL QUESTIONS

1. Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
 98

(a) Identify the type of seed illustrated in A and B.

(b) Name the parts labeled I, II, III and IV.

(c) Tabulate tw o structural differences between the tw o types of seeds.

(d) (i) State what would be observed when a drop of iodine is added to

the part labeled in B

(ii) Give reasons for your answer.

2. The diagram below is an illustration of the longitudinal section of a fruit.

Study the diagram carefully and answer the questions that follow.

(a) Name one fru it which has its parts similar to the one illustrated.

(b) Name the parts labeled I, II, III and IV.

(c) (i) State the type of fru it illustrated.

(ii) Support your answer w ith one reason.

(d) Describe each of the parts labeled III and IV when the fru it ripens

(e) (i) Explain how the fru it is dispersed.

(ii) Give tw o advantages and tw o disadvantages of dispersal of fruits.

(f) Name tw o plants whose fruits are dispersed by wind

 99

CHAPTER 2: SECTION 1

DIVERSITY OF MATTER

4.1 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS: According to the Bronsted - Lowry's concept acid is a proton donor. They

produce hydroxonium H3 0 + (aq); often w ritten as H" (aq), ions in its aqueous

solution. E.g. H2 S04/ HN03/ HCI etc.

Strong acid: it is an acid which ionizes completely in aqueous solution e.g.

HCI.

Weak acid: is an acid which ionizes only partly e.g. ethanoic acid

(CH3COOH). Thus a strong acid gives solutions with a high concentration of

hydrogen ions. In a solution of a weak acid the hydrogen ion concentration will

be many times smaller.

Properties of Acids

1. Acids have sour, sharp taste, e.g. of sour taste in acids in everyday life are

vinegar & lemon. Their sour taste is due to acetic and citric acid.

2. Acids turn litmus red, methyl orange red and phenolphthalein colourless.

3. Acids react w ith bases to form salts and w ater only

e.g. H2 S0 4 + CuO —» CuS04 + H2 0.

4. Acids react w ith many metals to form salt and produce hydrogen gas

e.g. Zn + 2HCI -» ZnCl2 + H2

5. Acids react w ith carbonates to form salts and w ater and liberate carbon

dioxide e.g. CaC03 + 2HCI —» CaCl2 + H20 + C0 2

6 . Acids are very corrosive when concentrated

7. Acids have pH less than 7.

Uses of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid —> H2S 0 4

> Paints and pigments
 100

> Detergents and soaps

> Fibres and fabrics

> Dye stuffs

> Car batteries

> Agricultural chem icals/fertilizers

> Chemicals and plastics

> Metallurgy in cars

BASES

Base is a proton acceptor. They produce hydroxide (OH ) ions in their

aqueous solution. Bases which are soluble in w ater are called alkalis. Some

common alkalis are: NaOH, KOH, Ca (OH) 2 and NH3. Ail these form colourless

solutions.

Insoluble bases occur naturally in the earth examples include: Al2 0 3, Fe2 0 3, & Cu

(OH) 2

Properties of bases
1. Bases have a bitter taste
2. Bases have a soapy or slippery feel.
3.Bases change red litmus blue.
4. Bases react w ith acids to give salts and w ater only in neutralization
reactions.
5. Bases react w ith ammonium salts to give ammonia gas,
6 .Bases are very corrosive in solid or concentrated forms
7. Bases have pH greater than 7.
Uses of Sodium hydroxide —> NaOH
> In the manufacture of soap
> Manufacture of paper
> Manufacture of synthetic fabric / textile
> In the purification of bauxite / the extraction of Aluminium
> In the laboratory as strong alkali / for neutralization reaction
> For absorbing carbon dioxide.
When Sodium hydroxide solution is said to be alkaline it means:
 101

- it contains an excess of hydroxyl ions

- it turns red litmus blue
- its pH is greater than 7
Laboratory preparation of ammonia gas —> NH^
Ammonia is produced when proteins decay or are burnt. It can be made in small
amounts by heating animal products such as hooves and horns.
> Put a mixture of slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] and ammonium chloride in a round
- bottom ed hard glass flask.
> M ount the flask on a retort stand in a sloping position, mouth downwards.
> Connect a delivery tube to a drying tow er which contains quicklime
(Calcium Oxide) is used to dry ammonia gas because it does not readily
react w ith the gas or it does not dissolve the gas.
> Place an inverted gas - jar above the drying tower.

> Heat the solids in the flask and collect ammonia gas by upward delivery

(because the gas is less dense than air). It will have been dried by the quick
lime

A balanced equation fo r the reaction of ammonia is as follows:

2NH4CI + Ca (OH) 2 -» CaCl2 + 2H20 + 2NH3

Precaution: The round bottomed flask points downwards to prevent the water

produced from running back into the hot flask which can easily crack it.

a m m o n ia (c o l le c t e d
u p w a rd

s ta n d a n d
slaved lime
4-
a m m o m u m c h lo r id e

Preparation of ammonia gas

 102

Laboratory tests for gases

(a) Test for Ammonia
hold moist red litmus paper to gas
litmus paper turns blue
- OR dip glass rod into concentrated HCI. bring the glass rod close to the gas.
- dense w hite fumes forms to indicate the presence of ammonia.

Identifying ammonia gas physically

- it is colourless
- it has a pungent smell / choky smell / smells like urine.
- changes red litmus paper blue
- insert the end of the delivery tube in a beaker of w ater and the w ater is
pushed up the delivery tube / fountain is formed
pass the gas through copper sulphate solution and it will turn deep blue

(P) Test for Carbon dioxide

pass gas through lime water
lime water turns milky / chalky
Carbon dioxide is used in putting off fire because
- it does not support combustion
- it is heavier than air
- it produce no toxic compounds
 103

concentrated
hydrochloric
a cid

cardboard cover

or marble dioxide
and water
(a) over water (b) downward
delivery

Preparation of carbon dioxide

Place CaC03/M arble chips into flat bottom flask

- Tightly fit cork / rubber bung w ith thistle funnel and a delivery tube

Pour dilute acid / HCI / HN0 3 through thistle funnel into the flask

- The gas generated passes through the delivery tube

- This is then collected by downward delivery (because C 0 2 is denser than

air) in a gas jar.

A balanced equation fo r the reaction is as follows:

CaC03 + 2HCI -» CaCl2 + H20 + C0 2

Properties of carbon dioxide: -

• It is a colourless gas w ith a very faint smell.
• It has a sharp pleasant taste.
• It is slightly soluble in water, which
dissolves its own volume at room
tem perature, and forms carbonic acid.
This is a weak acid and turns litmus
pink.

(%) Test for Oxygen

 104

- dip a glowing splint into the test tube

- it rekindles / busts into flame indicating

the presence of oxygen.

Properties of oxygen
- Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas
It is neutral to litmus
Its soluble in w ater and this supports marine life
It is slightly heavier than air
It supports life and combustion
Oxidation: this is the addition of oxygen to a substance / loss of hydrogen OR
Increase in oxidation number or state.
Natural processes that require oxygen
- tissue respiration
burning / combustion
rusting / corrosion
Artificial processes that require oxygen
- welding
- cutting of metals
manufacture of steel
- diving / mountain climbing
- artificial respiration
- extraction of gold
H2 S0 4 preparation

(8 ) Test for Hydrogen

- a mixture of hydrogen and air explodes w ith a shrill noise when lit
- OR w ith oxygen or air it forms an explosive m ixture/ pop sound.
Uses of hydrogen
%. For filling meteorological balloons
2. For converting coal to petrol
3. In hardening of oils into fats / production of margarine
4. As a rocket fuel (liquid gas).
5. In the oxy - hydrogen flame usedfo r welding
 105

6 . In the industrial manufacture of hydrochloric acid.

7. In the manufacture of ammonia by Haber process.

Physical properties of hydrogen

- it is colourless, odourless gas
- it is not soluble in w ater
- its density is less than that of air; it is the lightest gas known
Chemical properties of hydrogen
- it does not support combustion (test b).
It burns readily in air to form w ater (test f).
- W ith oxygen or air, it forms an explosive mixture (test d).
It reduces some metal oxides to the metal (test e)

The properties of hydrogen

Effects of egrbon monoxide on humgn health

- Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin more strongly than oxygen
 106

It readily combines w ith haemoglobin to form a stable compound.

- The stable compound is called carboxyhaemoglobin
- Tissues are starved of oxygen
- Suffocation / death may follow.
SALTS
A salt is a substance formed when the hydrogen atom of an acid is
replaced w ith a metal or ammonium ion in a reaction. Salt is dissolved to form
brine.
OR It is the main product formed when an acid reacts w ith a base.
Examples of salt include NaCl, CuS04, Zn (N 03)2, MgCl2, MgS04, KCI etc
Salts occur in larger amounts in nature than acids and bases. Common salt
i.e. Sodium Chloride occurs in sea w ater and in the earth as the mineral rock salt.
These equations show the reaction between each of the following pairs of
substances
(a) HCI + NaOH NaCl + H20
((3) H2 S0 4 + Cu (OH) 2 -> CuS04 + 2.H20
Types of salt
• Normal Salt
• Acidic Salt
• Basic Salt
• Double Salt
A normal salt is formed when all the hydrogen atoms in an acid are completely
replaced by a metal. Examples include NaCl, Na2 C03, MgS04, NaN03, CaC03,
K2 S04, ZnCl2, K2 CQ3, CaS04, (NH4 )2 S0 4 etc.
An acid salt is formed when the hydrogen atom in an acid is partially or
incompletely replaced. Examples include NaHS04, NaHC03, Ca (HC03)2; KHS04.
Basic Salts are formed when insufficient acid is present to neutralize a given base
/ alkali. Examples include Basic magnesium chloride - Mg(OH)Cl, Basic zinc
chloride - Zn(OH)Cl, Basic lead carbonate - Pb(OH)2. 2PbC03
Double salts are made from equimolar aqueous mixture of tw o salts normally
called alums e.g.
(i) Aluminium potassium bistetraoxosulphate (VI) decahydrate —» KAI
(S0)4 .12H2 0,
(ii) Aluminium potassium (Potash) alum —» Al2 (S04)3K2S04.24H20
(iii) Chromium potassium (chromic) alum —» Cr (S04).K2S04.24H20
 107

(iv) Iron (III) ammonium alum —> Fe2 (S0 4 )3 (NH4 )2 S0 4 .24H2 0

1.1.3 Methods o f preparation o f salts

(a) Neutralization: is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base to produce
a salt and w ater only.
A solution of tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid is neutralized by potassium
hydroxide solution of the same concentration. The balanced chemical equation
for the reaction is as follows: H2 S0 4 + 2K0H —» K2 S0 4 + 2H20
To demonstrate that all the reactants in neutralization reaction has been
used up:
• Dip red litmus paper and blue litmus paper in a solution
• If litmus papers do not change colour then all the reactants have
been used.
(P) Precipitation: involves the mixing together of tw o solutions of tw o soluble
salts or compounds resulting in the form ation of insoluble salt. The precipitate is
filtered, washed w ith distilled w ater and dried.
These pairs of chemical solutions can react to give a precipitate
• Lead nitrate and Sodium Carbonate
• Lead nitrate and potassium chloride

• Silver nitrate and calcium chloride

• Barium chloride and sulphuric acid

• Lead nitrate and sodium chloride

Example of the reaction between lead nitrate and sodium chloride is as follows:

Pb (N 0 3 ) 2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq) -» PbCl2 (s) + 2NaN0 3 (aq)

(y) Acid + Salt. The method of adding acid to salt results in the form ation

of salt.

e.g.H 2 S0 4 + 2NaCl -» Na2 S0 4 + 2HCI

Worked example:
State the reagents that can be used to prepare each of the following salts:

• C11SO4 —» H2 S0 4 and Cu (OH) 2 / CuO / CuC03

 108

• KCI HCI and KOH/

• ZnC03 H2 C0 3 and ZnO

• NH4CI -> HCI and nh3

• KNO 3 -> HNO3 and KOH/

Uses of salts:

Many common salts are used for everyday purposes. Fig 1.4 shows some of these

salts:

s o d i u-m
chlor ide d rs o d ium
trioxocarbonate { IV)

s o d lu m ste a rat9
zinc; c h lo r id e
lead (II)
t r i o j c o c a r b o n a i e ^1 V )

ta rta ric a c td

s o - c f i u m i T-ycfro-cjen ( V J )
tric u to c a rb a n a ie ( I\/) iron (M) tefraoxo-
sulphaie (VO

Some uses of salts

Table 4.1 Solubility's of some common salts

The table below summarizes the solubility's of common salts in water

Salts Solubility

Nitrites All are soluble

 109

Sulphates All are soluble except barium and lead sulphate (calcium
sulphate is only slightly soluble)
Chlorides All are soluble except silver and lead (lead chloride is
soluble in hot water
Carbonates All are insoluble except potassium, sodium and
ammonium carbonates
Sulphides All are insoluble except sodium, potassium and
ammonium sulphides

NOTE: All common salts of potassium, sodium and ammonium are soluble in

water.

Common chemicals and their classification

ACIDS NEUTRAL BASES SALTS

Vinegar (2.9) Urine (6.0) ammonia (11.9)

common salt

HCI (0.0) Rainwater (6.5) milk of magnesia (10.5) soap

Orange juice pure water (7.0) lime w ater ( 1 1 .0 ) health

salt

Bee sting blood (7.4)

Lemon juice (2.3) toothpaste (9.9)

Wine (3.5) borax solution (9.2)

Coffee (black) 5.0 baking soda solution (8.4)

Tomato juice (4.1) NaOH (14.0)

Acid - base Indicators are used to:

> determine the end-point in acid-base titrations

> determine whether a substance or solution is acidic, basic or neutral

3 common indicators
Indicator In acids In alkalis

Litmus red blue

 110

Methyl orange red yellow

Phenolphthalein colourless pink

Universal Indicator and pH scale

The concentrations of acids and alkalis are measured in terms of pH. This pH

varies from 0 to 14. A concentrated solution of a strong acid will give a pH value

of 0, while a strong solution of a strong alkali will have a pH value of 14. In neutral

solutions, the pH is 7. When w ater is said to be neutral for instance, it means it

contains equal amounts of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions OR it has no effect on

litmus OR the pH is 7.

The pH value of a solution can be measured by its effect on indicators.

Indicators are chemicals which change colour when the pH of the solution

changes. For example, litmus is red in solutions of pH up to a value of about 6.5,

and blue in solutions of pH from 7.5. When the pH value is from 6.5 to 7.5, litmus

is purple. Litmus is extracted from the microrganic plant lichen.

There are many other indicators which have different ranges. By selecting

suitable indicators, they can be made to cover the whole range from pH 0 to pH

14. A good example is the 'Universal Indicator' paper. They are made just like

litmus paper. By testing a solution w ith this 'universal indicator', the pH of a

solution can be found approximately by comparing the colour obtained w ith the

given scale.

However, there are limitations w ith the use of the pH scale for highly

dilute and concentrated solutions this is because their pH falls outside pH = 0 to

pH = 14.

Testing with universal indicator

 Ill

To find the pH of a solution, just take a piece of indicator paper and dip it

into the solution. The part which is dipped changes colour. Compare the colour

obtained w ith the colour on the given scale and read the pH.

If the pH is more than 7, the sample is alkaline. If it is below 7, it is acidic.

Universal pink yellow blue in d ig o violet

indicator
colour
H------h
13 14

acidic ■ afkaline-

The pH scale

REVISION QUESTIONS

1993 Questions
1. (a) What is a salt?

(b) Name one example each of the following (i) a normal salt (ii) an acidic salt

(iii) a double salt.

1995 Questions
2. (i) What is pH scale?

(ii) Give the range of a pH scale and explain its significance.

(iii) Compare the H+ concentration of 0.1M CH3COOH w ith 0.1M HCI.

3. What is neutralization?

1999 Questions
4. (a) State the reagents that can be used to prepare each of the following salts.

(i) CuS04 (ii) ZnC03 (iii) KCI

(b) Indicate w hether a reaction will occur or not when each of the following

pair of substances are mixed.

(a) Copper and dilute hydrochloric acid

 112

((3) Red hot iron and water

(y) Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) and trioxocarbonate (IV) acid. In cases

where a reaction occurs, w rite down a chemical equation for the reaction.

2001 Questions
5. Give tw o main uses of sodium hydroxide

2002 Questions
6 . What is the difference between a normal salt and acid salt? Give one example

of each type of salt.

7. (a) (i) Explain the following statements:

(a) Pure w ater is neutral ((3) sodium hydroxide solution is alkaline.

(b) Give tw o uses of each of

(a) Acid-base indicators (|3) sodium trioxocarbonate (IV)

8 . (i) Define the term acid and base according to Bronsted-Lowry concept

(ii) Describe how it can be demonstrated that all reactants in a neutralization

reaction have been used up.

INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE
Simple farm tools and implements
Agricultural tools or implements are designed to help the hands to apply
force in farm operations. The simple tools such as cutlass, hoe, rake etc. are used
by small scale farmers. The functions of such tools are: -
Cutlass: - is used for clearing land and for all operations requiring cutting of
sticks. It may also be used for transplanting seedlings and digging holes.
Hoe: - is mainly used for making heaps. It is also effective in turning up soil, thus
loosening the surface soil in order to promote plant growth and to destroy
weeds. The West Indian hoe is used for making ridges and for uprooting stumps
of tough plants such as elephant grass.
Spade: - is used for lifting the soil and completely turning over. It is also used for
leveling and for digging holes when transplanting.
Garden fork: - is used for turning manure during compost making and for
spreading manure in the open field. It is also used for loosening the soil before
transplanting and for uprooting obstinate stumps.
 113

Rake: - is used for leveling soil surface and breaking large soil crumbs into smaller
ones. It is also used for removing stones and weeds from seedbeds and for
covering vegetable seeds when they are broadcast.
Digging m attock: - is used for digging and uprooting small stumps.
Axe: - is used for felling trees and cutting logs and for uprooting big stumps
during land preparation.
Hand tro w el: - is used for transplanting seedlings from the nursery to the bed
and for spreading manure and digging shallow holes on beds.
Head pan: - is used for harvesting crops, mixing fertilizer, collecting seeds,
removing weeds and stones, and for transporting soil and compost to various
parts of the garden.
Garden line: - is used for lining up beds and for making straight rows when
planting.
Measuring stick: - is used for measuring out beds and spacing seeds and
seedlings.
W atering can: - is used for sprinkling water over young seedlings and for general
irrigation during the dry season. The spout has a perforated metal sheet over its
mouth called rose.
Arrows and pins: - are steel pins w ith a ring at one end and a point at the other.
They are used for marking chain lengths.
Tapes: - are used for taking short or detailed measurements. There are steel
tapes and linen tapes of varying lengths.
Ranging poles: - are wooden poles used for marking surveyed stations or
intermediate stations. They are particularly useful for marking straight lines.

WAYS OF MAINTAINING FARM TOOLS

• Keep tools clean after use.
• Keep tools in a term ite free area.
• Use tools for the purpose for which they were intended.
• Keep tools in a safe and dry place.
• Oil or grease tools when they are to be stored for along time.
• Sharpen tools before use.
• Repair all broken or damaged parts.
• Keep tools in a tool box.
 114

metaf tip

Some farm tools and implements

BACKYARD GARDEN
A piece of land usually located near a house, used for the cultivation of
crops or the rearing of farm animals.

BENEFITS OF BACKYARD GARDEN

• Serves as a hobby/leisure.
• Provides supplementary food.
• Provides supplementary income.
• Gives the gardener practical experience in farming.
• Helps in exercising the body.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A SITE FOR A GARDEN

• Nearness to the farmer's residence.
• Topography or nature of the land.
• Nearness to a market.
• Access to road
• Nearness to a source of water.
• Protection against stray animals.
• Availability of labour.
• Fertility of the soil
 115

• Soil type.
IMPORTANCE OF PRICKING OUT IN A VEGETABLE NURSERY
• Reduces com petition fo r w ater and nutrients
• Improves light penetration
• Hardening the seedling

CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH SEEDBEDS ARE USED

Raised seedbeds
• In high rainfall areas
• Poor drainage or waterlogged areas
• During rainy seasons.
Sunken beds
• Low rainfall areas
• When there is the need to conserve moisture
• During the dry season

FARM RECORDS: - are the documents w ritten down for the day-to-day activities
on the farm.

REASONS FOR KEEPING FARM RECORDS

• It gives account of performance on the farm
• Enables weaknesses in the farming enterprise to be traced.
• Provides inform ation fo r evaluation and decision making.
• Makes it possible to exercise managerial control.
• Enables the farm er to assess income generated.
• Provides inform ation on tax assessment.
• Provides inform ation fo r planning and budgeting
• To check movement of tools.
• To help the farm er to obtain loan.

SOIL AND SOIL CONSERVATION

Soil is the weathered part of loose organic and inorganic materials of the earth
crust where plants grow.

FUNCTIONS OF SOIL
 116

• The soil serves as a major source of nutrients, which are essential for plant
growth and development.
• The soil provides mechanical support for the root system of plants.
• The soil supplies air as a source of oxygen which plant roots require for
respiration.
• The soil is a habitat for macro and micro organisms such as earthworms,
termites, bacteria and fungi which influence soil fe rtility
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

The kind of soil which finally develops from the parent material derived from

weathered rocks is dependent on such factors as: -

• Climate

• Vegetation

• Nature of parent material

• Topography/slope of land

• Length of time

Climate: - factors which are directly related to the climate such as rainfall,

tem perature, sunshine, relative humidity and wind help in soil form ation because

continuous chemical and physical weathering releases nutrients into the soil.

Rainfall for instance facilitates leaching which could make a soil acidic or alkaline.

Wind may also blow sand against rocks and weather them. Continuous chemical

and physical weathering releases nutrients into the soil. Continuous expansion

and contraction of rocks causes rocks to weather to form soil.

Vegetation: - provides organic m atter for the soil through absorption of nutrients

from various depths within the soil by plant roots. Decaying organic m atter also

produces some acids, which aid in the weathering of rocks so speed up mature

soil form ation.

Nature o f parent m aterial: - the texture and mineral composition of the soil is

influenced by the nature of parent materials for example sandstones gives rise to
 117

sandy soils and limestone give rise to shallow soils. However, when a rock

undergoes chemical decomposition, w ater dissolves certain minerals in a rock; it

therefore, results in elements and chemical compounds that differ from parent

material.

Topography or slope o f land: - may either hasten or delay the effect of climate

on soil reaction. Topography helps in drainage: the movement of water down a

slope is often coupled w ith the movement of im portant nutrients and fine

particles, so vegetation in hollows is often better supplied w ith nutrients than

those on ridges.

Time: - w ith tim e the parent material is exposed to weathering forces which

disintegrates into minerals of the soil, it will also take tim e for the plants to grow,

die and decay to become part of the soil.

COMPONENTS OF SOIL
• Minerals supply nutrients to green plants. Most soils have 80% of the soil
particles minerals.
• Plant and animal matter consist of organic material in various stages of
decay. Soil organisms include plant roots, microbes and such animals as
worms, insects and small mammals. Bacteria and fungi decompose dead
plants and animals.
• Water/moisture is absorbed by plants through their roots. It enters the
soil, dissolves minerals and nutrients and forms a soil solution. Much
drains away but some remains in the pore spaces.
• Air/oxygen replaces the w ater that drains from the larger pore spaces.

SOIL SEDIMENTATION: - experiment to show that soil is made up of different

sized particle.
Procedure: -
• Put a sample of soil in measuring cylinder.
• Add about four times its volume of w ater to it.
• Add sodium bicarbonate to the mixture to aid in the dispersion of the
particles.
 118

• Cover the mouth of cylinder; shake vigorously for about 2 minutes.

• Place the cylinder on bench to allow the contents to settle.
Observation: - it will be seen that the fractions have settled in layers.The heavy,
coarse gravels have settled first. This is followed in succession by sand,silt and
clay. The humus or organic materials remain floating in the water or settle on top
of the clay.
Conclusion: - garden soil is a mixture of particles of different sizes.

SOURCES OF ORGANIC MATTER

• Compost / decayed plant and animal materials.
• Farmyard manure / poultry droppings / dung of cattle, goats and sheep.
• Green manure - annual legumes in rotation to fix nitrogen in the soil.
• Human waste / night soil / sewage.

FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIC MATTER / HUMUS

• Improves the fe rtility of the soil thus enhances plant nutrition.
• Improves the moisture holding capacity of the soil.
• Improves aeration or drainage of the soil.
• Enhances microbial activity.
• Improves soil structure
• Regulates the tem perature of the soil.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

• Soil texture - refers to particle size of soil determined by feeling soil when
wet.
• Water retaining ability - proportion of w ater that soil holds.
• Air content - proportion of air in soil.
• Porosity/ Permeability - implies how easily w ater passes through the soil.
• Capillarity - refers to how well w ater risesup in soil depending on size of
airspace between soil particles.

PROPERTIES OF SANDY SOIL

• Particles are large / coarse / loose / rough / gritty.
• Well aerated / large air spaces.
• Cannot retain water.
• Low nutrient / low mineral holding capacity.
 119

PROPERTIES OF CLAY SOIL

• Particles are small / fine /sm ooth / compact.
• Poorly aerated / small air spaces,
• Poor drainage / can retain w ater / waterlogged / holds water.
• Can be moulded / sticky when wet.
• Easily cracks when dry.
• Has high mineral nutrient / high mineral holding capacity

PROPERTIES OF LOAMY SOIL

• Particle sizes are between that of sandy soil and clay soil.
• Fairly or moderately aerated / has air spacing between that of clay and
sandy soils.
• Has moderate w ater holding capacity.
• Contains right proportion of plant and animal nutrients.
• Contains equal quantities of clay and sand particles.

Suitability of loam for crop production

• Easy to till.
• Good w ater retention capacity
• Good aeration
• Good humus content
• Minimum leaching of nutrients.

SOIL PROFILE: - this is a total sequence of layers and bedrock in vertical section,
description of the subsections is as follows: -

HORIZON A /T O P SOIL
• Colour is dark brown.
• Contains a lot of organic m atter / humus / nutrient.
• Layer is exposed to frequent erosion or weathering.
• Good crumb structure
• Region of eluviations; on account of leaching of nutrients from it to the
subsoil.
 120

• Soil organisms are found here e.g. earthworms, ants, termites, beetle,
centipede etc.

Benefits of soil organisms to crops

• They feed on dead plant materials / leaf litte r which they pull into their
burrows.
• Dead and decaying soil organisms increase the organic m atter / humus in
the soil.
• Their burrowing activities create holes /spaces in the soil which improve
soil aeration and drainage.
• They assist in the decomposition / disintegration of organic m atter leading
to the release of nutrients to the soil.
• Their activities assist in the mixing of soil w ith organic m atter/im prove
nutrient recycling in the soil.
• Their faeces are also useful.

Destructive effects of the organisms

• Eats the roots of crops such as tubers or corms which destroy the plants.
• They interfere with root absorption.
• They feed on useful soil organisms.
• They cause damage to roots of crops / underground storage organs.
• They make mounds which are impediments to agricultural implements.

HORIZON B / S U B SOIL.
• Colour is reddish brown.
• Contains materials leached from the top soil or contains little organic
matter.
• Layer is sandy clay.
• Layer is exposed to frequent erosion or weathering.
• Good crumb structure.

HORIZON Ci / WEATHERED ROCK

• Contains no organic matter.
• Contains gravels / crumbs of parent rock material.
• Hard / not permeable to water.
 121

HORIZON C2/ PARENT ROCK / BED ROCK

• Contains no organic matter.
• Hard / compact / not permeable.
• Contains mainly unweathered rocks.

Vegetation
L(copsoil)

i (subsoil) „

W eathered, b ed rQck
p a re n t m a te ria l)

(B ed ro ck )

Soil profile

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL PROFILE

• The depth and quality of the top soil helps the farm er to decide the types
of crops to grow.
• To know the type of implement to use.
• To know the w ater retaining capacity and aeration of soil, using the
texture and structure of the soils.
• The colour of the top soil can be used to predictthe organic m atter
content of the soil.

Characteristics a farm er would look out for in a soil profile

• Colour and depth of the top soil.
• Looseness or compactness of the subsoil.
• Nature and chemical composition of the bedrock / weathered rock layer.

FERTILE SOIL: - is the one that supplies the right types of plant nutrients, under
appropriate conditions of soil pH and toxicity.

SOIL FERTILITY: - is a measure of the nutrient supplying ability of a soil.

Factors contributing to soil fertility
 122

• Adequate supply of nutrients.

• Organic m atter content.
• Soil reaction of pH.
• Physical characteristics (texture, depth, structure, consistency).
• Absence of injurious substances.
• Nature of the soil.
Ways by which soil can loose its fertility
• Soil erosion - the removal and carrying away of the top soil by the action
of w ater and wind.
• Bush fire/burning of vegetation before cropping - im portant mineral
elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur burn away
and are lost. Humus in the top soil may also be burnt and lost. Burning also
kills im portant soil organisms. The soil laid bare after burning, may be
eroded leading to loss of fertility.
• Over cropping/continuous cultivation - crops remove minerals from the
soil during growth in little amounts so over cropping will exhaust all
nutrients so also the soils fertility.
• Denitrification
• Crop removal or overgrazing.
• Excessive or improper irrigation and drainage practice,
• Surface mining and quarrying,
• Excessive use of fertilizer
• Deforestation
• Poor farming and tillage methods,
• Dumping of non-biodegradable waster on land
• Leaching - w ater rapidly seeps through the soil during heavy rainfall and
washes down some im portant nutrients to lower levels below the reach of
shallow rooted crops.
• Surface compaction - this is caused by people and livestock continually
walking over farmlands to cause soil particles to compact or compress,
reducing air content and absorption of oxygen as in footpaths.

EROSION BY WATER
There are four distinct types namely: -
 123

1. Raindrop erosion - this occurs when raindrops splash on bare lands as a

result of the impact on soil surface. In vegetations not much soil is
splashed.
2. Sheet erosion - this is the uniform removal of soil on sloping lands. It takes
place gradually and often continues until small channels start forming on
the soil surface.
3. Rill erosion - is the removal of soil by w ater through well defined small
channels (rills). The channels are wavy and dispersed.
4. Gully erosion - the rills are capable of becoming bigger and deeper in time
to form gullies.

CONTROL OF EROSION CAUSED BY WATER

• Steepest slopes should be left under forest and permanent pastures and
not cultivated.
• Soil fe rtility and productivity must be maintained to ensure continuous
vegetation.
• The use of fertilizer, lime and manure can be used to promote vegetation
growth.
• Conservation methods such as contour ploughing, strip cropping and cover
crop planting must be practiced.
• Whenever appropriate mechanical control measures such as terracing and
silt pits construction must be applied.
• Ploughing across gullies and planting grass crops reduce speed of run offs.
• Dam well developed gullies or grassed to reduce the rate of w ater flow.

EROSION CAUSED BY WIND

This is brought about by strong winds example harmattan winds from Sahara
desert of West Africa. When the soil dries up it is carried by wind easily.

CONTROL OF EROSION CAUSED BY WIND

• Vegetative cover - the plants on the land slows down speed of wind,
prevent movement of particles, improve soil structure and prevent
evaporation of water.
• Moisture content of the soil - avoid working the soil dry. W et soils do not
move easily thus are stable.
 124

• Soil characteristics - keep the soil surface rough. When the soil has clods
with rough surfaces they are not blown by winds, lighter ones are blown
away easily.
• Creating wind breaks
• Any other mechanical measures could be taken.

Effects of erosion on agricultural productivity

• Humus and other soil nutrients and soil microbes are normally confined to
the top soil, erosion transports this top soil and its content away hence the
soil nutrients are not available for plant use.
• The microbes which cycle nutrients are not available leading to poor
agricultural productivity.

SOIL CONSERVATION: - this is the rational use of the soil to yield the greatest
sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its fe rtility and
protecting it from deterioration through natural and human-induced causes.

SOIL CONSERVATION PRACTICES / MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY

Soil is a renewable natural resource, to retain its fe rtility these soil conservative
practices could be employed. Most of these soil conservation methods also
control erosion. Controlling erosion ensures the retention of plant nutrients in
top soils. The methods include: -
• Cover cropping - growing cover crops such as grasses, sweet potatoes,
crotalaria (rattle box) or any broad leaved crop to hold soil particles
together and prevent rainfall directly hitting the soil to loosen it.
• Re-afforestation
• Bush fallowing
• Terracing - terraces (flat horizontal areas where crops are cultivated) are
constructed following the contours of land (across the sides of the hill).
This reduces the speed of w ater running down the slopes.
• Contour ploughing - ploughing is carried out along the contours and not
up and down the hill to reduce the speed of w ater running down the
slopes.
• Crop rotation - the alternation of legumes and non-legumes in rotation
improves the nitrogen content of the soil through the ir ability to fix
nitrogen in their roots.
 125

• Manuring - this is the addition of organic m atter to the soil

o Green manuring - growing of green manure crops, example
annual legumes in rotation (short lived) should be planted to fix
nitrogen in the soil,
o Application of compost - applying decomposed heaps of plant
and animal remains to the soil. The mixture could include
household refuse, weeds and animal excreta,
o Farmyard manure - applying rotten mixture of bedding straw and
excreta of farm animals.
• Mulching - is the act of covering the soil surface w ith a layer of any
suitable material.
Advantages of mulching
■ Keeps soil cool,
■ Increases water infiltration.
■ Keeps the soil moist / prevents loss of water.
■ Improves soil structure
■ Increases organic m atter content of the soil.
■ Keeps down weeds.
■ Increases microbial and marcrobial activities.
■ Controls soil pH.
■ Prevents soil erosion.
• Controlling soil acidity - dissolved minerals provide additional H' and OH
in varying amounts. Soils w ith more hydrogen ions than hydroxyl ions are
acidic, while those with more hydroxyl ions than hydrogen ions are
alkaline. Low soil pH, (below 4) or high pH, (above 9) inhibits the activities
of soil microorganisms causing most soil mineral elements to become
insoluble (precipitate out) which are in themselves toxic to plant roots.
Factors contributing to soil acidity
■ Excess irrigation - this increases leaching which leads to soil acidity.
■ Leaching - this leaves behind a high concentration of hydrogen
ions, enough to cause acidity.
■ Continuous cropping of heavy feeders (tuber crops) - over a
number of cropping seasons removes considerable amounts of
basic ions from the soil leaving behind a high concentration of
hydrogen ions making the soil acidic.
 126

■ Excessive use of organic manure

- The decomposition of organic m atter by bacteria leads to soil
acidity.
Large amount of humus produced holds on its surface hydrogen
and aluminium ions making the soil acidic.
During decomposition carbon dioxide produced is hydrolyzed
into carbonic acid that causes soil acidity,
Effects o f soil acidity
■ Acidic soils render the action of agro-chemicals like herbicides and
nematicides ineffective.
■ In acidic soils essential elements such as phosphorus and
molybdenum are precipitated and made unavailable to plants thus
making them toxic to plants.
■ Trace elements like aluminium and manganese are soluble in acidic
soils making them toxic to plants.
■ Inhibits the performance of soil microorganisms in nitrogen fixation
as well as inhibits the absorption by plants of essential elements
like calcium and magnesium.
Correction of soil acidity
■ Reduction in the use of nitrogenous acid forming fertilizers on the soil can
improve the practice of acidic soils.
■ The use of liming - this is the process whereby certain calcium compounds
or ashes are added to the soil to reduce acidity of the soil.
The materials used include:
Limestone — ► CaC03
- Quicklime — ► CaO
- Slaked lime — ► Ca(OH) 2
- Calcium silicate- ► CaSi03
- Shell meal and palm bunch which contains calcium and magnesium.

Benefits of liming
■ It corrects soil acidity
■ Makes phosphorus and molybdenum available to plants or enhances the
absorption and utilization of essential elements.
■ Increases calcium which promotes soil particle aggregation or improves
soil structure.
 127

■ Soil microorganisms perform their function of nitrogen fixation.

■ Efficiency and effective use of agrochemicals such as herbicides.

Improvement practice adopted for vegetable crop production in saline soils

- W ater regularly to leach the excess salts beyond the root zone
- Add gypsum (CaS04 .2H2 0) to the soil to remove the salt elements.

Functions and deficiency symptoms of some selected essentials plant

nutrients

Nutrient Function Deficiency sym ptom s

nitrogen a major constituent of plant protein; found in chlorosis (yellowing) of older leaves; stunted
some other organic compounds associated growth
with plant life
phosphorus required for respiration and metabolism; older leaves have purple/green colour; slender
required for cell division because it is a stems in grass plants; poor root and bark
constituent of nucJeoproteins; required for development; stunting of green parts of plants
seed germination, root development, seed and
fruit formation; hastens maturation of crops
and fruit ripening; strengthens plant structure
against insects lodging
potassium catalyses most physiological functions; chlorosis of leaves; marginal browning of
regulation of water; aids nitrate absorption from leaves; curling of leaves; deiayed maturity of
the soil; neutralises organic acids; strengthens plants
plant straw and stalk against lodging, fungal
and bacterial attack
calcium constituent of leaf lamina; aids growth difficulties in nitrogen absorption by plants;
process in the meristematic regions; corrects plant seedlings die; reduces soil cation
sail acidity; strengthens plant cell walls with exchange capacity
calcium pectate; controls the toxicity of trace
elements like Al3*, Mn24 and N a^ in plants;
neutralises acidity in plants; helps in the
translocation and storage of carbohydrates
magnesium constituent of plant leaf chlorophyll and chlorosis of leaf veins (vein clearing); necrosis
therefore essential for photosynthesis (death) of older leaves; stunted growth
sulphur occurs in amino acids, hence it is a constituent stunted growth; reduction tn plant hormonal
of plant protein; influences protein synthesis, activities
chlorophyll formation and biological nitrogen
fixation
manganese regulation of oxidation-reduction reactions in the top of young leaves show yellowish-green
plants; catalyst in chlorophyll activities discoloration
molybdenum nitrogen fixation through its influence in the reduced nitrogen fixation; poor nitrogen
plant enzyme system; metabolism of nitrates transformation into plant protein
into amino acids and proteins
boron regulation of various plant physiological death of young plants; irregular spots on
activities young leaves and buds; decreases the rate Of
water absorption and of the translocation of
carbohydrates

PLANT NUTRIENTS
• Major or macro nutrients
• M inor or micro nutrients (trace elements)
 128

Macro nutrients - are required in large amounts for efficient performance of

plants examples are carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium,
and magnesium.
Sources of macro nutrients
• Carbon and oxygen - obtained directly from the air by higher plants.
• Hydrogen - obtained from soil moisture.
• Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK) - can be supplied in the form of
commercial fertilizers and farm manures.
• Calcium and magnesium - supplied through liming w ith CaO, Ca(OH)2,
CaC03 etc.
• Sulphur - goes into the soil in rain w ater or superphosphate, sulphate of
ammonia and farm manure.
Micro nutrients - are nutrients required in small amounts mg/ha or less. They
include boron, copper, zinc, molybdenum, iron, cobalt, manganese, sodium and
chlorine.
Sources of micro nutrients
• These come from parent rocks onwhich the soil will besitting.
• A secondary source is soil organic m atter which releases the elements on
decomposition for plant use.

Ways by which nutrients are lost from the soil

• Crop removal
• Leaching
• Erosion
• Burning
• Oxidation of organic materials
• Reduction of organic materials.

FERTILIZERS: - are substances naturally or artificially composed, added to the soil

to lead to increased growth and bigger yields.

KINDS OF FERTILIZERS
• inorganic fertilizers also called artificial manures are imported by the
Ministry of Agriculture and soil to farmers. It does not contain humus so
continual application must be avoided.
• Organic fertilizers are manures or decomposed organic m atter derived
from plant and animal sources.
 129

The advantages of organic fertilizers over inorganic fertilizers

■ improves the structure of the soil or improves the fe rtility and physical
conditions of the soil or binds the soil together.
■ Helps the soil to retain water.
■ Helps the soil to resist leaching,
■ Serves as mulch for the soil.
■ Enhances the growth of microorganisms.
■ Supply both micro and macro nutrients.
■ Makes the soil less compacted aiding in the increase of airin the soil.
■ Release nutrients slowly into the soil and henceremains in the soil for a
long tim e or have a more lasting effect.
■ It is relatively cheaper.
■ Prolong application does not cause pollution or has no negative side
effects.
TYPES OF FERTILIZERS
• Complete or compound fertilizers - they contain 2 or 3 major plant
nutrient such as NPK, NP, NK or PK.
• Simple or straight fertilizers - they may contain only one of the three
major nutrients. They are divided into three classes namely:
Nitrogenous fertilizers - supplied in tw o forms either in nitrate or in
ammonia examples include urea, potassium nitrate and ammonium
nitrate.
Phosphatic fertilizers - examples are triple super phosphate, single
super phosphate, basic slag and rock phosphate.
Potash fertilizers - examples are muriate of potash (KCI), sulphate
of potash and magnesium sulphate.

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

• Broadcasting - in this process fertilizer is spread as uniform ly as possible.
It may be either left on the soil or ploughed into it before planting or after.
• Localized placement - fertilizer is applied w ith special reference to the
position of plant or seed, examples are as follows:
■ Band placement - a 5cm deep furrow is made 5cm away from seed
or seedling along the row and fertilizer put in.
 130

■ Drilling method - the fertilizer is applied w ith a drill as the same

tim e as the seed is sown.
■ Plough sole method - fertilizer is placed in a continuous band at the
bottom of the plough furrow . Each band is covered as the
succeeding furrows are turned over.
■ Ring method - fertilizer is applied in a circular way equidistant from
the plant. The fertilizer is not made to touch the plant.
■ Side dressing - fertilizer is applied as a second application to plants
already grown in the field
■ Foliar method - special liquid fertilizer is diluted to the required
concentration before it is applied to the leaf of some plants.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING FERTILIZER APPLICATION

• Type of crop - some crops need more nutrients and others need just a
little therefore, the amount to be applied will vary w ith the crop type.
• Type of soil - the type of nutrients supplied should depend on the fe rtility
status of the soil.
• Climatic factors - in high rainfall areas where leaching of nutrients is likely
to be greater more frequent application of fertilizer is required.
• Economic factors - addition of fertilizer may increase crop yields which
come w ith the added cost of the fertilizer.
• Management - other inputs are required for crop production thus, it will
be a management decision on the amount of fertilizer to be used.
REVISION QUESTIONS:
1. a. (i) State three types of soil erosion.
(ii) Explain the effects of erosion on agricultural productivity. (6

marks)
b. Describe a simple experiment used for the determination of soil
texture. (4 marks)
c. (i) State four advantages of incorporating organic m atter into the
soil.
(ii) State tw o conditions under which raised seedbeds are used. (6

marks)
d. (i) What is a fertilizer?
(ii) Describe briefly tw o methods of fertilizer application. (4 marks)
 131

2. a. (i) State the major components of soil.

(ii) Give tw o farming practices which prevent soil erosion. (5 marks)
b. (i) What is a fertile soil?
(ii) State three ways in which earthworms improve soil fertility. (5
marks)
c. (i) What is soil?
(ii) State three factors that affect soil form ation. (5 marks)
d. (i) Explain the term liming as applied to soil.
(ii) State three advantages of liming. (5 marks)

3. a. (i) What are macronutrients?

(ii) List three macronutrients required for crop production.
(iii) State tw o ways in which nutrients are lost from the soil. (7
marks)
b. State three qualities of loam that makes it suitable for crop
production. (3 marks)
c. (i) Describe briefly the effects of tem perature on weathering of
rocks.
(ii) Distinguish between igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks giving
one example of each. (7 marks)
d. List three sources of organic m atter to the soil. (3 marks)

4. a. (i) Explain the term mulching.

(ii) Give tw o advantages of mulching. (4 marks)
b. (i) State three factors that cause depletion of soil fertility.
(ii) State tw o conditions under which sunken beds are used. (5 marks)
c. (i) What is a backyard garden?
(ii) State three importance of backyard garden. ( 6 marks)
d. (i) State tw o ways of maintaining farm tools.
(ii)State three reasons for keeping farm records. (5 marks)
5. Describe an improvement practice that could be adopted for vegetable
crop production in the following soil conditions:
(i) Acidic soil;
(ii) Saline soil. (4 marks)
4 3 WATER
 132

% of our body is composed of water. As we loose water through excretion,

perspiration etc stock should be replenished through drinking, foods etc. Meat
and fish =75% of water, green vegetables = 90% of water.

Sources of water: -
- Rivers - Streams
- Boreholes or wells - Springs
- Lagoons - Rain
- Lakes - Sea
- Pipe-borne - pond

Uses of water: -
• Domestic - drinking to prevent dehydration, cooking, bathing, washing,
irrigation, cooling.
• Industrial - to turn turbines of hydroelectric generators to generate
electricity; fishing along the banks of lakes created by Akosombo, Weija,
Bui, Kwanyaku dams etc; #For irrigation to provide w ater for plant growth
throughout the year e.g. Bui, Dawhenya and Okyereko dams support
irrigation; #ln brewing and textile industries to produce finished goods.
• Transport - bulk cargo like petroleum products and tim ber is transported
over w ater from one place to the other.
• Recreational - in such activities as swimming, skiing and surfing.
• Extinguishing fire - fire service personnel use w ater under high pressure
to put out fire.
• Life processes : -
- as a solvent to transport and distribute food nutrients;
- as a solvent medium fo r chemical reactions to take place;
- as a liquid medium through which waste products are flushed out e.g. in
urine and sweat;
means of keeping the body cool.
Physical properties of water:
1. Pure w ater is colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid.
2. W ater freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C at one atmospheric pressure.
3. The density of w ater at maximum at 4°C is 1.00g/cm3. Ice and cold water
(less than 4°C) floats on top of warm w ater and freezing takes place from
 133

the surface of w ater downwards. This is very W ATER PRESSURE C A N

im portant for maintaining underwater life in

cold environments.
4. W ater is a very weak electrolyte (poor
conductor of electricity, it becomes a good
conductor when a small amounts of ionic
compounds is dissolved in it.)
5. It is neutral to litmus
6 . It has high surface tension; it appears to form
a thick skin on its surface.
(The purity of w ater is tested by its physical properties)
Investigating the pressure exerted by w ater at different depths
Pick an empty Milo tin and make three holes A, B and C.
- Cellotape the holes and fill the tin w ith w ater to the brim
Remove the cellotape and observe.
Observation: -
W ater gushes out furthest from the hole made at the lowest part (A) of
the column of water, thus pressure in w ater increases w ith depth.
Application: -
• Reservoirs used to store water should have their base made thick and
strong to be able to withstand the high pressures at the lower part of the
column of water.
• The concrete barrier built across rivers during the construction of
hydroelectric power stations is made thick w ith a lot of reinforcement to
be able to withstand the high pressures on the river bed. This is because
large volumes of water collect behind the concrete barrier.

Types of dissolved substances that may be present in water

> A ir/ Oxygen/ Carbon dioxide/ gases
> Dissolved salts of potassium, sodium and ammonium
> Acids/soluble base-alkali.

Investigating the presence of dissolved substances in water

> Clean an evaporating dish
> Pour some w ater into the dish
 134

> Heat the w ater gently until all of it evaporates

> Concentric rings of solids remain in the dish. This indicates the presence of
dissolved substances in w ater

> Clean a beaker

> Pour some w ater into it
> Heat the w ater gently
> Bubbles of air appear on the sides of the beaker.

Chemical properties of water:

1. It is a universal solvent; it is an excellent solvent and most substances
dissolve in it to some extent forming aqueous solutions. (Substances
dissolved in w ater are said to be aqueous)
2. Oxides of non-metals dissolve in w ater to form acid solutions. Oxides of
metals which are soluble in water form alkaline solutions.
3. W ater reacts w ith many metals liberating hydrogen.
4. W ater molecule is said to be polar: W ater has one oxygen atom bounded
to hydrogen atoms to form one water molecule. The overall result is a
molecule which has positive side and negative side, instead of being
electrically neutral, the charge is unevenly distributed between the H-
atoms and the O-atom; the bond is thus said to be polarized. This allows
tw o molecules of w ater to attract each other.

Test for water in the lab

> W ater added to anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI), the
reagent turns from w hite to blue. OR
> W ater added to anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride, the reagent turns from
blue to pink.
Investigating the polarity of water molecules
> Pour w ater into a burette
> Rub a piece of lint or car duster on a glass rod
> Open the top of the burette to allow a gentle stream of water flow
out of it.
> Bring the glass rod close to the stream of water flowing out of the
burette.
 135

> Repeat the activity by pouring kerosene into a clean dry burette.
CONCLUSION: - the stream of w ater is deflected towards the glass rod. Unlike
charges attract. Since the rod is charged, it could be inferred that the water
molecules are also charged to explain why water molecules get attracted the
glass rod.
Kerosene is non-polar since kerosene molecules are not attracted by the
glass rod.

Reasons why water serves as a solvent for most substances

> W ater is dipolar i.e. it has positive and negative ends
> Most substances are polar like water
> Since like dissolves like/polar substances dissolve in polar solvents (they
dissolve in water).
Hardness of water:
Hard water is w ater that does not lather easily w ith soap. This results from
rain w ater trickling across rocks and through the ground and dissolving various
amounts of chemical compounds as it does so. Calcium and magnesium ions in
w ater are the most common cause of hardness. There are tw o types of hardness,
tem porary and permanent.
Chemicals used to remove both tem porary and permanent hardness of w ater
> Na2 C0 3 - washing soda
> Ca(OH) 2 - calcium hydroxide
> NaAl(C0 3 ) 2 - Sodium Aluminium carbonate

Temporary Hardness:-
Temporary hardness of w ater is hard w ater that can be softened by
boiling. This occurs when calcium and/ or magnesium hydrogen carbonates are
dissolved in the water. This happens when rain w ater which has dissolved some
carbon (IV) oxide from the atmosphere forming a weak acidic solution falls on
rocks containing calcium or magnesium carbonate.
CaC03 (s) + H20 (I) +C0 2 (g) ---------- ► Ca (HC0 3 )2 (aq)

Softening hard water

Ways by which Temporary Hardness of w ater can be removed.
- On boiling
 136

- the bicarbonates of calcium/magnesium breakdown

- to give a precipitate of caicium/magnesium carbonate

Ca (HC03 ) 2 (aq) heat___ * CaC03 (s) + C0 2 (g) + H20 (I)

Mg (HC0 3 )2 (aq) ------t e at — ► MgC0 3 (s) + C0 2 (g) + H20 (I)

Alternate:
- adding washing soda (sodium carbonate)
- the carbon reacts w ith calcium ions/ magnesium ions
- to give a precipitate of calcium/magnesium carbonate.
Na2 C0 3 + Mg (HC03 ) 2 -------- ►2NaHC0 3 (aq) + MgC0 3 (s)
Na2 C0 3 + Ca (HC0 3 ) 2 ---------- *2NaHC0 3 (aq) + CaC03 (s)

Permanent Hardness:-
This is caused by calcium and/or magnesium sulphates dissolved in the
water. These compounds occur naturally and, although, calcium sulphate is only
slightly soluble it dissolves sufficiently to cause hardness. Permanent hardness
cannot be removed by boiling. It can be softened by:-
• Precipitation: - i.e. addition of washing soda, (sodium carbonate) to the
water. CaS04 (aq) T i\ia2 LU 3*(aq) CaC03 (s) +
Na2 S0 4 (aq) this removes calcium ions from the solution as
insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate (IV), (CaC03) which precipitates out and
can be filtered off.

Ion exchange: - certain complex sodium compounds remove dissolved ions from
hard w ater and replace them w ith their own.
CaS04 + Na complex ----------► Ca complex + Na2 S0 4
This is done w ith a modern ion exchanger which contains a solid mixed-bed resin.
The mixed-bed resin made of beads of polymers such as polystyrene is treated to
absorb sodium ions. The hard w ater containing the calcium/magnesium ions is
allowed to wash through the mixed-bed resin and sodium ions replace the
calcium ions to obtain the useful resin.
D istillation: - this removes all the dissolved solids, but is expensive. W ater is
more volatile than minerals and when heated, it vapourises first leaving minerals
 137

behind. The water vapour is condensed back to liquid on contact w ith a cooler
surface and is called distilled water. Mineral salts including those responsible for
hardness remain in the container.

Disadvantages of hardwater: -
1. Wastes soap
2. Tends to make white clothes grey when they are laundered.
3. Prevents efficient reaction of chemicals in dyeing and tanning industries.
4. Deposits 'fur' (calcium carbonate) in kettles, pipes and boilers causing
inefficiency and wastage of fuel, The build up of scale in boiler pipes can
cause blockages which may result in serious explosions.
Advantages of hardwater: -
1. Provides calcium which is essential for bones and teeth.
2. Does not dissolve lead from lead pipes.
3. Is better for some manufacturing processes such as brewing.

Disadvantages of soft w a te r: -
1. Dissolves lead in lead pipes.
2. Lack of calcium and magnesium salts for strong bones and teeth
form ation.
3. May cause lead poisoning
4. Unpleasant taste

Advantages of soft water: -

1. It lathers easily w ith soap.
2. It is better for some manufacturing processes such as dyeing and tanning.

Treatment of w ater fo r public consumption: -

In tow n w ater plants, the following processes are carried out: -
1. W ater is exposed to the atmosphere and sunlight to add oxygen to water

and remove undesirable odour.

2. W ater is passed through sand and gravel beds to remove both organic and
inorganic debris/ large suspended particles.
3. Alum is added to quicken the rate of sedim entation/ removal of fine
suspended particles.
 138

4. Chlorine is added to kill the bacteria, microbes and other germs.

5. Addition of calcium hydroxide to control or adjust the pH of the water.

4.3.1 WATER MOVEMENT

W ater movements along the sea side vary at various levels. Sometimes it is
higher up on the beach and at other times it is lower. Tides are the rhythmic
rising and falling of the sea. It occurs on daily basis. Tides can be high or low and
these are the daily pattern of changes in the level of the sea.
Causes: - the gravitational pull of the moon on the earth causes the tide. The
earths pull on the moon, makes it orbit the earth, the moons pull makes the
oceans move.
Spring tides and neap tides are caused by the position of the moon,
relative to the earth and the sun.
Spring tides: - occurs as a result of the combined pull of the sun and the moon
causing a very big change in the level of the sea when the earth, sun and moon
are in a straight line at the same tim e of full moon or new moon. It occurs twice
in a month, that is, at full moon and new moon.
Neap tides: - are weaker tides in the sea level when the sun and the moon are
perpendicular or at right angles to each other and their pull partly cancels each
other out. It occurs twice in a month, that is, at a quarter moon and last quarter
moon.

Tidal waves: -
This refers to the swell of w ater created by the tides
Flood tides: - the incoming or rising tides. Flood tides move and deposit
any floating material onto and up the beach.
Ebb tides: - the outgoing or falling tides. Ebb tides wash away sand from
the shore or coastline as they recede.
Effects of tidal waves
1. They cause currents/strong flow of w ater which leads to the loss of large
portions of land to the sea by washing away stones, sand, houses and
other debris around the areas of coastline/shore; this has been a problem
in Keta and this has led to the construction of a sea defense wall to protect
the whole town from being washed away.
 139

2. Tides flush out the water in estuaries and lagoons (shallow channels or
lakes next to the sea) and cause sea currents near the shore.
3. The swell or surge of tidal wave deposits sand and debris on the coastline.
4. At very high tides fishermen are not able to go fishing.

Advantages of tidal waves

• Rocky intertidal zone inhabits a variety of marine plants and animals.
• Sea creatures (horse shoe crab & grunion fish) lay their eggs on the spring
high tide because they have evolved strong tidal and semi-lunar rhythms.
They therefore time their mating to coincide with the high spring tides.
• Tidal energy could be harnessed to generate electricity. (A large mass of
w ater flows through a narrowing channel (bay or estuary); the funneling
process tends to accelerate the movement of the water. The mass of
w ater at the fro n t slows down, however resulting in a wall of w ater that
surges towards the channel which could be harnessed to generate
electricity.
• The tides mix salt w ater and fresh w ater in the estuaries (where river
meets the sea) a nursery area for many sea animals.

4.4 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Distribution of earth's w ater
Of the earth's total w ater supply, almost 97% is salty or saline
(seas/ocean) and only 3% fresh. Out of the 3% fresh w ater supply almost 70% is
frozen and locked up in ice and glaciers and about 30% is in or below the ground.
Out of the earth's total w ater supply only 0.3% can be used by humans.
Though this quantity is minute yet it does not run out because the w ater cycle
renews the supply of fresh water. The earth is called a blue planet because more
than % of its surface is covered w ith water. The w ater cycle is a continuous
movement of w ater between the earth's surface and the atmosphere.
Heat from the sun evaporates water from the sea. As vapour rises into the

atmosphere it cools and condenses into liquids to form clouds. Winds carry the

clouds above until it becomes saturated and falls back as rain, hail or snow by the

process of precipitation.

After precipitation the following occur: -

 140

• Infiltration: - w ater seeps or percolates into the permeable and dry

soils.

• Run off: - w ater runs or flows over the earth's surface into streams

and rivers and eventually into the sea.

• Evaporation: - the w ater evaporates and the cycle begins

Underground water gets back into the w ater cycle through natural springs and

wells. Plant roots also take up some w ater and give it off as w ater vapour through

transpiration.

clouds are cooled

lurthsr al higher
cloud is blown altitudes, water
upwards b y the wind
vapour condenses
and falls as rain
or snow

pV*crpltatlOT\
T r a n s p ir a tio n \ %' v „v
ioss of water tty . ' \ \ \ > ' R A ,N s' ,'
plants through , \ \
R e s p ira tio n the leaves 1 Vs,
b y plants and animals
a dd s water vapour
to the atmosphere

water vapour cools

to form small w
d roplets as clouds
E v a p o ra tio n

sun warms seas,

rivets and lakes to form
water vapour

river water fksws

into the sea

The w ater cycle

Importance of hydrological cycle to plants and animals

1. The cycle helps to maintain the earth's total water supply which sustains
animal and plant life.
2. It causes cooling; when the w ater evaporates it takes away some heat
(during perspiration in animals and transpiration in plants).
3. Plants need the cycle for photosynthesis.
 141

4. Animals drink w ater directly to quench their thirst and indirectly through
foods to avoid dehydration.
5. W ater softens the soil for plant growth,
6 . Rain falls to infiltrate permeable and dry soils to maintain underground
water which virtually comes out as natural springs and wells.
7. Supply of constant fresh w ater supply to animals to prevent water-
related diseases.
8 . Animals respire to give out w ater vapour whiles plants also transpire to
give off w ater vapour which help to continue the cycle.
9. It affects the even distribution of tem perature on the earth's surface as

w ater vapour regulates the tem perature as is carried from one place to

another.

1 0 .lt prevents the poles from getting increasing hotter; this is because

whenever the w ater freezes into ice heat is released and when the ice

melts it absorbs heat. It is this absorption and release of heat that

prevents the poles from getting hotter.

Sources of w ater contamination

Agricultural waste: - these include commercial fertilizers and pesticides. When
these are washed into w ater bodies poisons animals and plants or disturbs the
balance of the ecosystem. Eutrophication occurs as a consequence of the
accumulation of nitrates and phosphates in w ater bodies. These nutrients cause
rapid growth of algae to spread over the surface of w ater blocking out light and
producing toxins. The algae dies, decomposes using up oxygen in the process to
produce harmless products such as carbon (IV) oxide, w ater and other
compounds w ith unpleasant scent. This will kill fish and other animals from lack
of oxygen.
Industrial waste pumped into rivers and w ater bodies contaminates the water
and kills animals.
Domestic waste: -the effluent from septic system and cesspool can contain
bacteria, viruses, nitrates, heavy metal, detergents and a variety of household
hazardous chemicals that are poured down the drain.
M ining waste: - contains toxic materials such as mercury and cyanide which
contaminates w ater bodies as a result of improper disposal practices.
 142

Hospital and Radioactive waste: - waste from hospitals contributes to water

contamination in communities where hospitals are located. For instance Korlebu
Teaching Hospital in Accra is a major source of contamination to the Korie
Lagoon.

Harmful effects of w ater contamination

W ater-borne diseases: - these are diseases that spread through contaminated
w ater w ith faeces and urine. Such diseases are cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid or
enteric fever, amoebic dysentery, Hepatitis A. They are caused by
microorganisms or bacteria in the water.
Water-based diseases: - these are diseases that spread through water
contaminated w ith parasites. Such diseases are river blindness (Onchocerciasis),
Schistosomiasis or bilharzias, hookworm and guinea worm. They are caused by
parasitic worms which enter the human body through contact w ith infected
water.

Methods of controlling the vector of Schistosomiasis: -

Introduction of fish to eat immediate host (water snail)
Eliminate the w ater snail w ith molluscide
- Clearing vegetation around pond
Prevention of the infected person from urinating/defecating into water
- Avoid bathing in infected water.
W ater-related insect diseases: - these are carried by insects such as mosquitoes
and flies that breed in or near dirty and stagnant water.
W ater-washed diseases: - occur in places where w ater is scarce and people
cannot wash themselves or their clothes regularly. These include trachoma (eye
infection causing soreness and blindness), scabies (caused by mites, skin sores
and itchiness) and leprosy.
Pollutants: are substances which when released into the environment are
harmful to living organisms.
Summary of w ater pollutants
• Agrochemicals - pesticides/ weedicides/ fertilizers.
• Oxides of m etals/m ercury
• Release of factory waste in water (Industrial waste).
• Release of hot w ater from factories.
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• Oil spillage - (Crude o il/p e tro le u m products)

• Release of untreated sewage into water. (Urine, faeces/ sewage)
• Silt
• Dumping of domestic waste into w ater (Soap/detergent, rubbish)

Wavs of preventing w ater pollution

1. Treatment of raw sewage before discharged into water.
2. Recycling of industrial waste before discharged into w ater
3. Educating farmers about correct usage of fertilizers to lim it run-off into
w ater bodies

Effects of w ater pollution

1. W ater is rendered unsafe for domestic use
2. Depletion of oxygen in w ater bodies
3. Development of algae blooms/ eutrophication
4. It results in the death of aquatic organisms
5. W ater may be coloured

Wavs by which treated water is wasted

• Children playing w ith taps
• Washing of cars at washing bays
• Watering lawn and gardens during rainy season.
• Washing and brushing of teeth under running taps
• Dripping taps and leaking pipes waste a lot of water
• Homes that use w ater closets waste a lot of w ater through frequent
flushing of to ile t and urine.

W ater conservation methods

> Taking shorter showers
> Be prompt in repairing leaky pipes
> Run only full loads of laundry and dishes
> Grey w ater reuse( w ater from sink, washing machine, dish washer in the
home)
> Household w ater treatm ent which includes: -
- Boiling
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- Chlorine treatm ent: - adding of one teaspoon of chlorine to every 20L of w ater
- Flocculation: - adding alum to allow sedimentation and filtering the w ater off.
> Rain w ater harvesting system: - a method of collecting and storing rain
w ater for future use. This system should have four main parts
- A catchment's surface such as a roof
- A container for storage such as a plastic or tin w ater tank.
- A connection or delivery system between the catchment's and the
container such as a gutter
- A system for drawing the stored w ater out of the container such as a tap
or pump
> Safe storage water: - w ater should be collected in clean containers with
lids and covers. When cups are used to draw the w ater such cups should
always be kept clean.

Waste water treatm ent

To avoid contaminating natural or drinking w ater supplies such provisions should

be put in place.

- Septic tank: - an underground tank into which raw household sewage

flows. These tanks have long PVC pipes sticking out.

- Soakaway: - underground pit lined w ith stones to filte r the waste water.
The solid waste collects in the pit and the w ater soaks into the ground.

Rivers

A river is a collection of running w ater from springs, streams and rivulets.

Rivers contain dissolved mineral salts.

Some rivers are sources of w ater borne diseases, especially if human

sewage is allowed into it. Rivers, however, purify themselves a good deal. The

fish in them eat up some of the refuse; so do insects of all kinds living in the

water. W ater plants also aid by giving off oxygen which purifies the organic

matter. So great is the effect of these animals and plants that a river
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sometimes completely purifies itself even after receiving the sewage of great

cities. All the same, it is not safe to drink unboiled river water, though it may

be used for washing.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1993 Questions
1. (i) Name three sources of natural w ater and tw o cations which causes hardness

in water.

(ii) State three advantages of hard water.

1994 Questions
2. in the treatm ent of water supply, the w ater is first passed through a gravel and

sand bed. Potash is then added followed by the addition of chlorine. State the

reasons for each step in the process.

1995 Questions
3. (i) Differentiate between soft w ater and hard water.

(ii) Give tw o disadvantages of hard water.

(iii) Name tw o chemicals that can be used to remove both temporal hardness

and permanent hardness in water.

(iv) Give four economic activities associated w ith water.

1999 Questions

SECTION3: SYSTEMS

4.5 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion: - This is any process through which metabolic waste product is
removed from the body of an organism to avoid the accumulation of toxic waste
 146

which can harm the body e.g. of such materials include urea, mineral salts, uric
acid, bile pigment carbon dioxide etc.
Egestion: - is the removal of the undigested component of food from the body of
an organism (i.e. most materials in faeces).
3.1.2
Excretory Organs Excretory Products
KIDNEY Water, urea, uric acid, used hormones, other
nitrogenous substances, drugs, broken down alcohol etc.
LIVER Bile pigments, urea, excess cholesterol
SKIN Water, excess salts, traces of urea
LUNGS Carbon dioxide, w ater vapour.

Structure of the human excretory system.

The kidneys are dark red, bean shaped organs sited about the waist level
of humans connected to the urinary bladder by tw o ureters which carries flow of
urine from urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside.
Kidney is wrapped in a protective membrane called the renal capsule. It
has got tw o distinct layers. The outer darker part called the renal cortex and the
inner part called renal medulla. The central part is called the pelvis. A unit of the
kidney is the nephron and each kidney is made up of millions of these tubules.
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These tubules (nephrons) are responsible for forming urine. The nephrons empty
the urine it forms into a collecting duct which drains into the pelvis. The urine
flows out of the kidneys through the ureters into the urinary bladder. The
sphincter muscle relaxes periodically emptying the bladder through the urethra
to the outside.

FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEYS

• They form urine (they remove urea, excess w ater & salts and other
nitrogenous waste from the body)
• Through selective re-absorption, the kidneys are able to conserve useful
materials like glucose and mineral salts.
• They regulate the salt and water balance inthe body (osmoregulation)

URINE FORMATION

direction o f blood "flow

A single nephron and its associated blood vessels

Blood carrying urea enters the kidney through the renal artery, small
branches from the renal artery, the afferent arterioles, supply the nephrons with
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blood. As the afferent arteriole entering the capillary bed called glomerulus is
larger than the efferent arteriole, a high pressure is created in the glomerulus
causing certain substances such as amino acids, glucose, water, mineral salts,
vitamins, hormones, urea to filte r through the tw o thin layers of cells separating
the cavity of the capsule from the capillaries. The filtration under pressure of the
useful metabolites is ultra-filtration. Blood cells and blood proteins are not
filtered out because they are too large to pass through the filter.
The filtrate, {glomerular filtrate) undergoes selective re-absorption back
into the blood of the useful metabolites (glucose, amino acids etc). This happens
as the filtra te passes along the proximal tubule and about 75% of w ater as well as
glucose are reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis.
The concentrated filtrate now passes into the loop o f Henle where w ater is
reabsorbed according to the body's needs, thus, an exercising person who has
lost a lot of w ater through perspiration will have more w ater being reabsorbed
from the urine making it concentrated and dark in colour.
As the filtra te moves into the distal tubule a general 'tidying up' occurs.
The pH of the blood is regulated and any useful material is reabsorbed.
The urine now trickles down the collecting duct into the pelvis. It then
moves down the ureters by gravity and peristalsis to the urinary bladder where it
is stored.
When approximately 200mL of the urine has been collected, the bladder
stretches lightly, and nerves signal the brain about the condition of the bladder.
Should the bladder fill to 400mL, more stretch receptors are activated and the
message becomes more urgent. If one continues to ignore the messages, the
bladder continues to fill, and after 600mL of urine accumulates, voluntary control
is lost. The sphincter relaxes; urine enters the urethra and is voided.

3.1.3 DISORDERS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

> Bedwetting: - (a) medical causes include infection and relaxation of
sphincter muscles. This can be treated w ith antibiotics or surgical
operation.
(b) Laziness, psychological problems, eating or drinking too much in the evening.
- Kidney stones (renal calculi): - they may form in the kidney or renal pelvis
from crystals of calcium oxalate deposited from urine, which may be infected.
Stones may occasionally develop when uric acid level is too high, usually from
 149

over consumption of meat and low fluid intake. Stones may cause bleeding
(secondary infection). Small kidney stones tend to travel down the ureter
towards the bladder; their movement is accompanied by severe pain. If stone is
too large, surgery is conducted to remove it or w ith lithotripsy - a procedure that
uses shock waves generated outside the body to disintegrate the stones. Sound
waves bounce off soft tissue but penetrate the stone, the collision of waves that
bounce off soft tissue w ith those that penetrate the stone cause the stone to
explode. A fter a few days, tiny granules from the stone can be voided through
the excretory system.
> Urine retention: - this is the inability to pass stored urine.
Causes- (1) caused by spasm of the urinary sphincter
(2) Or blocking of the sphincter by a calculus or stone.
(3) Loss of muscle tone in the bladder after a shock or surgical
operation
(4) Due to nerve damage resulting from spinal cord or injury or multiple
sclerosis
> Kidney failure: - results from damaged kidneys after an infection, shock to
the body or an accident. The waste products (urea & salts) of such a
person may not be filtered out thus, stay and accumulate in the body and
cause poisoning. Treatment: - a dialysis machine can be used to filte r and
clean the blood.

THE SKIN OF MAMMALS

The skin excretes salts, water, traces of urea in the form of sweat when the body
is exposed to the tem perature in excess of internal body temperature. The water
component absorbs heat from the skin cells as the sweat passes up the duct of
the sweat gland. When the external environment is sufficiently hot and dry, the
w ater evaporates; if not it wets the skin.
The skin is made of tw o layers: -
> The outer layer (epidermis)
> The inner layer (dermis)

The epidermis comprises three regions namely: -

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> Cornified or horny layer: - It is the upper region which consists of flat dead
cells. Its function is to protect the skin against mechanical injury, the entry
of microbes and prevents excess w ater loss.
> Granular layer: - It lies below the cornified layer w ith deposits of keratin
which replaces the cornified layer as they continually peel off. It contains
live cells.
> Malpighian: - It lies below the granular layer, made up of living cells and
contains the pigment melanin which determines the colour of the skin.
These pigments protect the body against harmful ultra violet rays.

M a lp ig h ia n la y e r sw e a t p o re
fro m
hair s w e a t g la n d
h o rn y
la y e r

li v in g la y e r
c a p illa r y lo o p s
epidermis

{ fre e n e rv e e n d in g

hair follicle

s e b a c e o u s g la n d

t>utb

adipose cell

e re c to r
m u s c le

Vertical section through the mammalian skin

The dermis lies below. It is made up of relatively few cells and many fibres that
make the skin tough and slightly elastic. It contains blood capillaries, nerve
endings, lymphatic vessels, muscles, fat cells, hair follicles, skin glands (sebaceous
& sweat gland). The sebaceous gland secretes sebum an oily substance which
helps to keep the hairs supple and waterproof. It also keeps the epidermis supple
and acts as a mild antiseptic.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

> Protection: - it protects the underlying tissues from mechanical injury.

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It prevents the entry of pathogens & microbes

It prevents w ater loss from the body.

> Sensory organ: - sensory nerve endings receive the stimuli of touch, pain,

heat and cold so protects the body against harm. It makes the body

sensitive to touch, pain, heat, pressure etc.

> Excretory organ: - the sweat glands remove traces of urea, salts and water

from the blood and excrete them in the form of sweat.

> Therm oregulator: - the skin helps in regulating body tem perature. Heat in

the body produced from respiration and muscular exercise is distributed

to all parts of the body by the blood. Excess heat is lost from the body

mostly in sweat and also in urine, faeces, breath by conduction,

convection and radiation. Evaporation of sweat from the body causes

cooling. The body loses or gains heat directly through the skin.

EXCRETION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Unlike animals, flowering plants lack structured excretory organs, but they

do have special ways of getting rid of their waste. The main waste products

formed are: -•

> W ater —» by transpiration through guttation(excess w ater dripping out of

leaf surfaces)

> Carbon dioxide —» by-product of aerobic respiration

> Oxygen —» by-product of photosynthesis

Other waste products include:

> Tannins

> Resins,

> Alkaloids
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> Gums

> Mucilages

> Lignin

> Latex

> Excess salts

> Autocyanins

These are mostly stored in the leaves of deciduous trees, fruits, petals, and bark

of woody plants which falls off eventually and so removes waste.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the following terms:

(i) Ultra filtration

(ii) Selective reabsorption

(iii) Osmoregulation

(b) Name three structures found in the dermis of the mammalian.

(c) (i) Distinguish between excretion and egestion.

(ii) Give tw o excretory products of each of the following organs

(a) Lungs ((3) Kidney (y) Skin

(iii) Name three disorders associated w ith the urinary system in humans and

state the remedy for each.

2. (i) Enumerate fo u r functions of the mammalian skin.

(ii) Name one structure in the skin which is associated w ith each function

you have enumerated in (i).

(b) (i) Name tw o excretory products of plants.

(ii) Describe how urine is formed in humans.

(c)Explain why animals have specialized excretory organs but plants do not.
 153

(d) (i) List tw o excretory products of humans.

(ii) Indicate where each of the products listed in (d) (i) is formed.

4.6 FORCE, MOTION & PRESSURE

FORCE: - It is a pull or a push, which causes a change in the motion of a body /

changes the direction of a body in motion / changes the shape of a body.

EFFECTS OF FORCE: -
1. Makes objects move
2. Changes the shape and direction of an object.
3. Changes the speed of an object in motion
4. Stops a body which is in motion.
5. Transfers energy from one object to another.

GROUP OF FORCE: - Forces are grouped into two. They are contact and non-
contact.
1. Contact Force: - forces in which tw o objects are touching.
2. Non-contact Force: - forces in which the tw o objects do not touch.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FORCE: -

• Frictional force (contact force): - this is the force that opposes the
relative/sliding motion between tw o surfaces that are incontact with
another e.g. car tyre on road surface.
Usefulness of friction to humans: -
Friction enables humans to walk because it prevents the feet from
slipping.
Friction enables ladders to have a firm support on the ground to
support humans when climbing.
Bicycle or lorry tyres are able to move to carry humans because friction
prevents the tyres from sliding.
Enables humans to grip objects firm ly to enable us to pull, push and lift
objects.
Enables humans to use nails or bolts to fasten pieces together.
Enables humans to strike matches to make fire
Enables us to w rite.
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Advantages of friction: -
Prevents bodies from sliding off.
- Aids motion
Enables vehicles to brake w itho ut sliding.
Disadvantages of friction: -
Friction slows things down or resists movement.
- Generates heat in machines,
Promotes wear and tear.
Methods o f reducing friction: -
It can be reduced by polishing surface to make them smoother.
By using oil as lubrication.
- Greasing.
Painting.
- Galvanizing
Using rollers or ball bearing.
• Viscous drag (contact force): - this is often called air resistance. It is the
opposing force that resists motion of an object in a fluid e.g. a parachute
in flight. Viscosity is the measure of how much
resistance a gas or liquid offers; or the thickness of a fluid. Viscous drag on
a parachute slows the fall of a parachute - an advantage. Viscous drag can
slow a boat moving through water, thus most boats are streamlined with
pointed fronts or prows to reduce drag.

Rational behind the construction of aircrafts and boats in streamlined forms.

Streamlined shapes present a small surface area to air/w ater, thus air/w ater
resistance is minimum so aircrafts/boats easily move through them,

• Upthrust (contact force): - the force that pushes an object up and makes it
seem to weigh less in fluids. The upward pushing force of fluids (upthrust)
keeps boats and ships afloat and aeroplanes fly.
• Gravitational force (non-contact): - the force of attraction between
objects and the force w ith which the earth pulls objects towards itself e.g.
a mango falling from a tree. The force w ith which the earth pulls on an
object is also called the weight of the object IN - 1kg. Gravitational force
in space holds the stars and planets in place. The planets circle the sun,
 155

and the moon circles the earth because of gravity. Gravity on the moon is
six times more than gravity on the earth. This means that objects on the
moon weigh l / 6 th of what they weigh on earth. This means that when an
object is dropped on the moon it would take six times longer to reach the
ground than if you dropped it on earth. A kilogram of salt weighs 15N on
earth and would weigh 2.5N on the moon.
• Magnetic force (non-contact force): - this is the force of attraction or
repulsion between magnets or magnetic materials. Unlike poles of magnet
attract and like poles repel each other.
• Electrostatic force (non-contact force): - the force of attraction or
repulsion between charged particles which are stationary. Most objects
have an equal number of negative and positive charges, but rubbing
objects together can transfer some of the charges from one object to the
other e.g. combing your hair during dry harmattan season can generate a
crackling noise, which is a sign of static electricity.
• Centrifugal force: - the force that keeps an object in a circular motion
directed towards the centre of the circle. Centripetal force is the force that
causes acceleration towards the centre in a circular motion.

Archimedes Principle states that when a body is totally or partially immersed in a

fluid, it experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of fluid displaced.
Law o f floatation states that a floating body displaces its own weight of fluid in
which it floats.
A boat will float lower in fresh or warm w ater because it is less dense than salty
and cold water.
When the upthrust is greater than or equal to the weight of the object pushing
downwards, the object w ill float; but if the upthrust is less than the weight of the
object pushing downwards, the object w ill sink.
A boat will float if the weight of the w ater it displaces is more than or equal to
the weight of the boat.

THE ASCENT OF A KITE

- The kite has a streamline shape thus, offering less resistance to air;
- As the kite is pulled along it displaces its own weight of air causing it to
float.
 156

- The greater the speed at which it is pulled the greater the

upthrust/force underneath and the higher it ascends in the air.

PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING THE FLIGHT OF A PAPER KITE.

- As one drags the kite against the wind while running air pressure
underneath the kite becomes greater than the pressure on the kite.
- The kite is then lifted up by greater pressure.
- The kite being less dense than air ascends high into the sky.
In ascending, the kite displaces some amount of air
- When the weight of the air displaced is equal to the weight of the kite,
it ascends and floats.

FLOATATION OF BALLOON FILLED WITH HYDROGEN GAS

- The average density of the balloon containing hydrogen gas is less than
the density of air.
- The weight of air which w ill be displaced by the balloon w ith hydrogen
gas is greater than that of the balloon.
- The balloon is acted upon by a resultant upward force equal to the
difference between the weight of the balloon and weight of air / the
resultant force provides the lifting power of the balloon.

FLIGHT OF AEROPLANES
Aeroplanes have streamline shapes to create pressure differences. The
pressure difference is to produce forces acting on both surfaces of the
aerofoil to lift it up.
- The average density of the aeroplane must be equal to the density of the
surrounding air.
- The weight of the displaced air is equal to the weight of the aeroplane.

FLOATATION OF SHIPS
A ship floats on w ater because its hollowness makes it have a large volume and
its average density is smaller than that of the sea water. It displaces an amount of
w ater equal to its weight. A piece of metal on the other hand will sink because its
volume is small hence the density becomes greater than that of sea water.
FLOATATION OF SUBMARINES
initially a submarine floats on the sea as its weight is supported by the
upthrust from the water.
 157

- The upthrust is equal to the weight of the submarine,

- The submarine takes in w ater which increases its weight.
- Thesubmarine sinks when its weight becomes greater than the upthrust.
- The submarine rises to the surface when w ater is pumped out of it and its
weight decreases.

MOTION

A force can make an object move; it can change the direction of anobject,speed

up, slow down or stop an object in motion.

WAYS BY WHICH MOTION CAN BE DEFINED AND MEASURED

• Distance: - this is the measurement of length and this tells us the total

length travelled.

• Displacement: - this is the measurement of distance in a straight line

(direction).

• Speed: - tells us how fast something is moving.

Speed = distance travelled

tim e taken

• Velocity: - also tells us how fast something is moving in which direction.

Velocity = displacement

tim e taken

• Acceleration: -is the change or difference in speed or velocity w ith time.

Acceleration = change in velocity

tim e taken

• Deceleration: - the rate of decrease of velocity w ith time.

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U0 X

time

The graph shows the motion of a body. At U, the body is at rest. Between U and V

it is moving w ith increasing velocity. Between V and W it is moving w ith a

constant velocity. Between W and X it is moving w ith a decreasing velocity.

A body starts from rest and attains a velocity of 40ms ~ in 20seconds. It maintains

this velocity for 30seconds and then comes to a rest in 25seconds.

- Sketch the velocity tim e graph for the motion.

- Calculate the acceleration of the body.

- Calculate the total distance covered by the body.

Acceleration = velocity/tim e
= 40/20
= 2ms 7

Total distance = /zh (a + b); where a and b are parallel sides of the trapezium.

= 34 x 40 (30 + 75)

= 2100m

Acceleration can be positive when speeding up or negative when slowing down,

that is deceleration; the unit is ms" .

A full bus goes past tw o bus stops. When it passes bus stop 1, its velocity is
40kmh" . When it goes past bus stop 2 five minutes later, its velocity is 60kmh .
Calculate its acceleration.
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Acceleration = 6 0 - 4 0 = 2 0 km h 1
5 5m
Convert kmh to ms
=20 X 1000m = 66.7ms'2
60X5
Momentum: - is the measure of mass and velocity of a body in motion. All
moving objects have momentum. Stationary objects have no momentum
because their velocity is zero. Momentum comes from the Latin word meaning
_i
moving power. Unit = kgms ,
Momentum = mass x velocity
An object of mass 4kg moving w ith initial velocity of 20ms" accelerates for lOsecs
_-i
and attains a final velocity of 60ms’ . Calculate: (i) the acceleration (ii) initial
momentum.
Solution:
(i) Acceleration = change in velocity = 4 0 = 4ms'~
tim e taken 10
(ii) Momentum = mass x velocity = 4x20 = 80kgms

QUANTITIES
Scalar quantity: - is a quantity which has magnitude only.
Examples of scalar quantities:
Mass Time Volume Pressure Speed
Work Length Area Temperature
Energy Distance Density Power

Vector quantity: - is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction.

Examples of vector quantities:
Weight Velocity Acceleration
Force Displacement Momentum

TYPES OF MOTION

Motion can be uniform - the same speed in a straight line, it can be accelerated -
speeding or slowing down. The different types of motion include:
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Linear motion: - the motion between tw o points in a straight line e.g. an athlete
running a 1 0 0 m dash race.
Circular motion: - the motion of an object in a circle e.g. a car moving in a
roundabout.
Rotational motion: - the motion in which a body spins on its own axis e.g. the
movement of a wheel or the rotation of the earth on its axis resulting in day and
night.
Vibrational motion: - the back and forth movement of a particle or body e.g. the
movement of a plucked stretched skin.
Random motion: - The direction of motion is undefined and can change at any
instant e.g. the movement of a drunkard or the motion of a car whose driver has
lost control of it.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) studied forces and their effects; explained force of
gravity and how the moon's gravitational pull causes tides. The unit of force,
newton (N) is named after him.

Newton's first law o f m otion: - states that "a body continues in its state of rest
or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by an external force to act
otherwise".

According to this law all objects have Inertia - 'the measure of how easy or
difficult it is for a body to change its m otion'. This means that if a body is at rest,
it resists being set into motion, and when moving, resists being brought to a stop.
An object's mass is a precise measure of its inertia, the larger the mass of an
object, the greater its inertia.
Practical examples of inertia
Passengers being throw n forward when a moving vehicle stops suddenly
Passengers being throw n backward when a vehicle takes off suddenly.

When a vehicle stops suddenly, passengers are thrown forwards, sometimes with
disastrous results. The passengers' momentum carries them forwards even
though the vehicle has stopped. When a vehicle suddenly starts passengers are
thrown backwards. Seatbelts are worn to overcome this inertia.
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Importance of wearing seatbelts

- When moving vehicle brakes suddenly
- Passengers continue to move at the speed at which the vehicle was travelling
- This may cause passenger to hit their heads/bodies against objects in fro n t of
them or thrown out of the vehicle
- Seatbelts hold the passengers firm ly to the seats to avoid injuries.

Newton's second law o f m otion: - states that "the rate of change of momentum
of a body is directly proportional to the force acting on it and it takes place in the
direction of force". Mathematically F = m x a; the size of the force that acts on an
object is a product of its mass and its acceleration. This means that the
acceleration of an object increases w ith force and decreases w ith mass. Although
forces act in pairs and are always equal and opposite some forces do not cause
movement as others do. Consider pushing a wall, it w ill not move because it is
anchored to the ground and has much greater mass than you, now that you are
lighter; the force that you put on the wall causes you to move or accelerate
backwards.

Newton's th ird law o f m otion: - states that "fo r every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction" e.g. a ball throw n against a wall returns in the opposite
direction. This is because the wall also exerts some force on the ball as the bail on
the wall.

Forces act in pairs e.g. gravity pulls down on a book resting on a table and the
table pushes up on the book w ith the same sized force, but in the opposite
direction.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Centre of gravity is the point inside or outside the body where the resultant

weight of all the constituent particles appears to act; In other words the

balancing point of an object.

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For regular-shaped objects, the centre of gravity is at the geometric centre of the

body, e.g. for a circle it is at the centre; for a rectangle, it is at the intersection of

the diagonals; for a triangle, it is at the centroid, the point where the medians

intersect. For irregular-shaped objects it is determined by the use of a plumbline

- a string w ith small weight attached. The procedure is as follows:

- Cut an irregularly-shaped piece of cardboard

- Make three small holes well spaced round the edge of the cardboard.

- Suspend the cardboard, using the rod of a clamp, or a stout pin in a clamp,

from one of the holes.

- Suspend a plumbline in fro nt of the card.

- Mark the position of string of the plumbline on the card by tw o small crosses.

- Repeat the exercise for the other tw o holes.

- Join each pair of crosses w ith a straight line. The three straight lines pass

through a point P; this is the centre of gravity.

STABILITY AND EQUILIBRIUM

An object is stable if a small displacement of its centre of gravity does not cause it

to fall. Stability then is a measure of the difficulty of causing a body to fall over.

Stable objects have a low centre of gravity. It is not too difficult to balance a book

on your head. But balancing a pile of books is not easy because for a pile of books

the centre of gravity is raised.

An object is in a stable state if an imaginary vertical arrow drawn from the centre

of gravity passes through the base. When the centre of gravity passes the edge of

its base, its weight then has a turning effect and the object starts to topple over.

Ways to make an object more stable

Lower its centre of gravity

Widen its base.

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Why a body balances at its centre of gravity

W ith the pivot at the centre of gravity there is no turning force acting on

the body; OR when the pivot is not at the centre of gravity a turning force

acts on the body.

Location of load compartment o f a bus

A bus w ith its load com partment under the passengers' seat makes the

bus more stable. This is because its centre of gravity is low, when the load

com partment is on top of the bus; the bus becomes less stable and can

topple over when negotiating a curve.

When a body is moved slightly from a particular position, the centre of gravity is

also shifted. The shifting of the centre of gravity may result in: -

Raising the centre of gravity above its form er position,

Lowering the centre of gravity below its form er position or

The centre of gravity remaining at the same level.

This explains the three main types of equilibrium. A body is in a state of

equilibrium, if left undisturbed, will remain at its position. However, if the body is

displaced slightly, three outcomes results: -

Stable equilibrium: - if an object returns to its original position after a slight

force has been applied to it to displace it.

Neutral equilibrium: - if an object moves but remains in its position after a

slight force have been applied to it to displace it.

Unstable equilibrium: - if an object moves away from its original position and
assumes a new position after a slight force has been applied to it to displace

it.
 164

BALANCING

An object is balanced if its centre of gravity is directly above the place of support.

A simple demonstration of this is an acrobat who remains balanced so long as his

centre of gravity is

above the rope. His

hands are stretched out,

so that by lowering one

of them, he can rapidly

adjust his centre of

gravity to be above the

rope. If his centre of

gravity is to one side of

the rope, he tends to

Spinning a pan with a finger or stick involveslocating a point under a panwhere

you can support itsweight and start spinning. Itbalances, because half of its

weight tries to fall to one side, and half tries to fall to the other side. The tw o

forces cancel each other out. The balancing point is the centre of gravity.

MOMENT OF FORCE

This is the turning effect of force. When tw o or more forces act at different points

on a body, the forces tend to produce rotation of the body. Each of the forces
 165

produces a turning effect about a point on the body. The point about which the

moment acts is called the fulcrum or pivot.

Moment offeree depends on:

The size of the force

The perpendicular distance from the pivot.

Moment of force about a point can be defined as the product of the force and

the distance from the pivot to the line of action of force; expressed in Nm or

Ncm.

<------- ► 2 0 cm <---------►

X -----------------------------

The moment of the ION force

about the point X is 10 x 20 =

200Ncm,

ION

Moment of force

Principle of moments: - if the forces are in different directions at different points,

the resultant moment may be clockwise or anticlockwise. The principle of

moments states that when a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise

moments about any point is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments.

2 0cm 20 cm
7T
 166

50N SON

50x20 = lOOONcm 50 x 20 = lOOONcm

1. Calculate the force needed at the right hand end of the beam so that it w ill be
in equilibrium.
O .ffij_____________ 0 .8 m
7T SOLUTION: let X be force in
new tons
Clockwise moment =Xx
0.8Nm
Anticlockwise moment = 40 x
0.2Nm
40 N XN Using principle of
moments
40 x 0.2 = X x 0.8
X = 40 x 0.2 = ION
0.8

2. Calculate the force needed 25cm from the left hand end of the beam so that it

will hp in pqujjihrium. g ^5 m _____ Q^5m____ M__ 0 .2 m____^ 0 .3 m

A
15N YN 50N 20N

Solution: Clockwise moments = 20 x 0.5 + 50 x 0.2 = 20N

Anticlockwise moments = 15 x 0.5 + Y x 0.25 = 7.5 + 0.25Y

Using the principle of moments:

20 = 7.5 + 0.25Y

12.5 = 0.25Y

Y = 12.5

0.25

Y = 50N
 167

3. A boy of weight 80.ON sits at a distance of 2.0m from the pivot of a see-saw.

What distance from the other end should another boy of weight 40.ON sit to keep

the see-saw in equilibrium?

-4-Xm---------------- -------------------- 2Jlpn

I 80 x 2.0 = 40 x Y

8 0 x 2 .0 = Y

40

40 N 80N 4.0m = Y

• Explain why it is easier to roll a heavy barrel w ith a long crow than w ith a

short crow. A large moment can be produced w ith a small force if the

distance is long. The long crow bar produces a greater turning effect about

a given point than what a shorter bar produces,

PRESSURE: - this is the force per unit area. P = F/A. Unit of pressure is Nm 2 or

pascal (Pa).

Force which acts on a surface produces pressure. By increasing the surface area

of a solid you can decrease the pressure. For instance it is easier to break an egg

at the flat side than at the pointed side this is because

- The area at the pointed side is small and large at the flat side.

Pressure is evenly distributed in the egg,

- Since pressure is inversely proportional to area,

Much pressure is required to break the egg at the pointed edge,

EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON SOLIDS

The force per unit area is low enough fo r the surface when weight is spread over
a large surface for example heavy as the elephant is, does not sink into the soft
forest soil because its feet are broad thus reducing the pressure on the soil (force
 168

per unit area). However, a large force on a small area produces a high pressure
e.g. a nail w ith a pointed end being hammered to bore into a wood.

A cement block of weight 120N has sides of length 10cm, 20cm and
24cm.Calculate the pressure exerted by the block when it is lying on the side w ith
the (a) least area (b) greatest area.
(a) Least area: 0.1 x 0.2 = 0.02m 2 (b) greatest area: 0.2 x 0.24 =
0.048m2
Pressure exerted (F/A) = 120 pressure exerted (F/A) = 120
0.02 0.048
= 6000Pa = 2500Pa
Note that the greatest pressure results when the force is distributed over the
least area.

EFFECTS OF PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS.

The pressure deep in w ater is greater than it is near the top, for example when
swimming under w ater the swimmer feels the pressure of the water at the deep
end much greater than at the shallow end. This pressure in w ater is hydrostatic
pressure.

Factors that affect pressure at a point in a liquid:

• The depth of the liquid below the surface.
• The density of the liquid p.

To show the relation between pressure and depth, a tall can w ith holes at
different heights is filled w ith water. The w ater coming out of the can from a
lower hole is ejected further than the one above it. The reason is that water
lower down the can is at a higher pressure. Hence the pressure in a liquid
increases w ith depth.

A column of liquid has height, h and covers a surface area A. the density of
liquid p.

Volume of the liquid = base area x height (hA)

Mass of the liquid = density x volume (hAp)

 169

Weight of the liquid = mass x g (hApg)

Pressure liquid exerts = force/area

= hApg/A

= hpg
• Calculate the pressure at a point 2.0m below the surface of a lake [density

of w ater = 1 0 0 0 kgm \ g = 1 0 ms"2].

Pressure = depth, h x density, p x acceleration, g.

P =hpg

P = 1000 x 2 x 10

=20 OOOPa.

W ater finds its own level. The level of the surface of the liquid in the tube does

not depend on the shape of the tube or container. The level in all other tubes is

the same due to the pressure in the horizontal tube linking all other tubes. With

this amount of liquids in tanks could be gauged.

W A T E R F IN D S IT S tubes o f different shapes and sizes

W ater finds its own level

In the diagram above, five vessels of different shapes and sizes are connected by

a common horizontal tube. When water is poured into one of the vessels it will

flow into the other vessels. Irrespective of the shapes and sizes of the vessels,

their water levels are all at the same height. As there is no movement of water

along the horizontal tube, the pressure along it must be the same at all points,
 170

e.g. at A, B, C, D, and E. this demonstrates that pressure of any column of liquid

depends only on its height.

Transmission of pressure

The pressure at any point in a liquid acts equally in all directions. This is

sometimes called Pascal's principle. It follows that when pressure is transm itted

through a liquid, it is transm itted equally in all directions.

Demonstration:

Fill a plastic bag w ith water

Punch holes in the bag

Exert pressure on it, w ater squirts out the holes equally in all directions.

EFFECTS OF PRESSURE IN THE AIR/GAS

Atmospheric pressure is exerted on all things in all directions because air has
weight. The atmosphere exerts a pressure of approximately lOOkPa or 100 OOOPa
at the surface of the earth. Everything on the earth's surface is used to this
pressure. An average sized man w ith a surface area of 2sqmetres has to endure a
thrust on his body of 200kN. The blood exerts a pressure, a little above this, to
compensate.
When we use a straw to drink, the suction action reduces the
amount of air in the straw. Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the
drink forces it up the straw into our mouths.
 171

THE BICYCLE PUMP

When the piston is pushed in, the pressure in the barrel increases and air is
forced pass the tyre valve because the pressure in the pump is greater than the
pressure in the tyre. When the piston is pulled out, the pressure in the barrel is
reduced. The tyre valve is closed by a greater pressure in the tyre. Atmospheric
pressure forces air past the leather washer into the barrel ready for the next
stroke.

The bicycle pump

How the hydraulic press works

A small force is applied to the effort piston. The generated pressure is equally

transm itted throughout the liquid to the load piston; this produces a larger force

at the load piston to lift, compress or crush.

Hydraulic press
 172

W ater Pump

A pump is a device that moves fluids in one direction only, from chamber to

chamber w ith the aid of valves. The commonest is the lift pump.

During an upstroke valve A closes and valve B opens. A partial vacuum is formed

beneath the plunger and atmospheric pressure pushes the water up the pipe into

the barrel lowering the plunger (down stroke).

During a down stroke valve A opens and valve B closes, the water in the barrel is

pushed through valve A above the plunger. On the next upstroke, the w ater is

drawn into the barrel as before and w ater above the plunger is carried upwards

and leaves through the spout.

Atmospheric pressure can support a column of w ater 10m high. When the pipe is
longer than 1 0 m the atmospheric pressure cannot push w ater into the pump.
Practical working lim it is 9m because a complete vacuum cannot be formed due
to leaks at the valves.

Lift pump
 173

Hydraulic jack:
Effort is applied to handle; this forces down a small piston in a barrel. Valve A
opens and valve B shuts. The oil in the jack is forced into the main cylinder, where
the hydraulic pressure is applied to a piston which raises a jack. The handle is
now raised; valve A closes and valve B opens. Oil comes in from the reservoir and
fills the barrel below the piston. The effort is applied again, and the jack lifted
farther. The use of the reservoir allows a small barrel to be used w ith the piston
which supplies the effort. To lower the jack, valve C is opened, and oil is pushed
back into the reservoir. Valve C is closed after using the jack.

Hydraulic jack

Car brakes:

Hydraulic brakes use a system similar to the hydraulic jack. The handle is replaced

by the brake pedal, or the brake handle. The piston pushes into a master cylinder,

from which lead pipes to all the brakes. Valve B is closed when the pedal is

depressed; the pressure transm itted through the oil acts on small pistons in the

brake drums, and applies the brakes. When the pedal is released the springs on

the brakes (pedal) cause the oil to be returned to the master cylinder. The

reservoir supplies oil to the system, through valve B, if any oil is needed to

replace oil lost by leaking.

 174

p<pe to o th e f w h e e ls

wheei cylinder

return spring

The braking system of a car

REVISION QUESTIONS: FORCE, MOTION AND PRESSURE

1. (a) (i) Distinguish between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity.
(ii) Give one example each of a scalar quantity and a vector quantity. [4
marks]
(b) Explain briefly why it is easier to break an egg pressing its flat sides
rather than the pointed edges.
[3 marks]
(c) (i) Define pressure.
(ii) A block of metal 150.ON has dimensions of 10.0cm by 20.0cm by
25.0cm. Calculate the pressure exerted by the block when it is lying on its
largest surface. [4 marks]
(d) (i) State the principle of floatation.
(ii) Explain the principle underlying the flying of paper kite. [5
marks]
(e) Give an example each of the following types of motion.
(i) Linear (ii) Rotational (iii) Circular (iv) Random [4
marks]
2. (a) (i) What is moment of a force about a point?
(ii) Explain why it is easier to roll a heavy barrel w ith a long crow bar
than w ith a short crow bar
[4 marks]
 175

(b) State the type of equilibrium involved in each of the following

instances:
(i) A right circular cone resting on its apex;
(ii) An inflated ball lying on a horizontal ground;
(iii) A rectangular prism resting on one of its flat sides on a horizontal
surface. [Smarks],
(c) A uniform half-metre rule, pivoted at the 20cm mark, balances
horizontally when a mass of 50g is suspended from the 4cm mark.
Calculate the mass of the metre rule. [4marks]
(d) Explain each of the following observations:
(i) A balloon filled w ith hydrogen gas floats in air.
(ii) A ship made of steel floats on sea but a piece of metal sinks when
dropped in the sea.
(iii) Aircrafts and boats are constructed in a streamlined form . [9
marks]

3. (a) (i) What is friction?

(ii) Give tw o
(a) Advantages of friction.
((3) Disadvantages of friction.
(y) Ways of reducing friction. [8

marks]
(b) Explain
(i) Why it is more suitable to locate the load com partment of a bus
under the passenger seats than at the top of the bus.
(ii) The importance of wearing seat belts [7
marks]
(c) (i) What is inertia?
(ii) Give tw o practical examples of inertia. [4 marks]

4. (a) Name three devices whose operations depend on the effect of

pressure on fluids. [3marks]
(b) Explain how a submarine operates [4marks]
(c) (i) What is centre of gravity of a body?
 176

(ii) Explain why a body balances at its centre of gravity.

[4marks]
(d) A rectangular block weighing 5000N rests on its longer side on a table.
(i) Make a sketch to illustrate the forces acting on the metal block.
(ii) Calculate the mass of the metal block.
[Smarks]
(e) Explain how a kite ascends in flight.
[Smarks]

5.1 HEAT ENERGY

Heat is a form of energy that changes the state of m atter by increasing or

decreasing its tem perature.
It flows from a higher tem perature to a lower temperature.
When tw o objects of different temperatures are placed together, heat will be
transferred from the hotter one to the colder one until both attain the same
degree of hotness. The tw o objects w ith the same tem perature are said to be at
Thermal equilibrium .
The larger the mass of a substance, the more heat is needed to raise its
tem perature. Similarly, more heat is lost as a larger mass cools. Heat can
therefore, be thought of as the quantity of thermal energy that a body contains,
and represented by Q.
The quantity of heat contained in a body depends upon:
• The nature of the body
• The mass of the body
• The tem perature of the body
The SI unit for heat is joules (J). It is measured w ith Calorimeter.
SOURCES OF HEAT
> Sun
> Fire
> Friction
> Fossil fuels
> Electricity
> Chemical reactions
> Nuclear reactions
 177

> Biomass etc.

Conversion of different forms of energy to heat
Other forms of energy can be converted into heat energy.
> Kinetic and chemical energy are converted into heat energy when a match
is struck.
> Chemical reactions produce heat when a burning match is put into pieces
of paper.
Temperature & Measurement
Temperature, the measure of degree of hotness of a body is expressed in
degree Celsius C) and kelvin (K) as well as Fahrenheit which is now becoming
obsolete. Temperature is measured w ith the therm om eter.
Temperature is a scalar quantity because it has magnitude but no direction.

On the Celsius scale the upper fixed point is 100UC (temperature of boiling

water) and the lower fixed point is 0 C (temperature of pure melting ice).

The tem perature at which particles have no kinetic energy (i.e.

tem perature so cold that there is no vibration) is called the absolute zero and is

calculated to be -273°C.

On the Kelvin scale of tem perature the absolute zero is its lower fixed
point. Since there are no negative temperatures on the Kelvin scale and all
objects on the Earth have their molecules in continual motion, the ice point
becomes 273K and the normal boiling point of w ater is 373K. Therefore IK rise in
tem perature is equal to 1°C rise.
The Celsius and Kelvin scales are related by the expression T = 273 + 9,
where T is in Kelvin and 9 is in degrees Celsius.

Convert the following temperatures from °C to K

(1) 245°C —» 273 + 245 = 518K
(2) 75°C -> 273 + 75 = 348K
(3) -112°C —» 273 - 112 = 161K
Table 5.1: Distinction between heat & tem perature

HEAT TEMPERATURE
It is a form of energy Measures the degree of hotness or
 178

coldness
Measured in joules Measured in °C /K /°F
Measured w ith a calorimeter Measured w ith a therm om eter

Table 5.1.2: Thermometers & their specific uses

NAME SPECIFIC USES

( 1 ).Constant For very accurate tem perature measurements usually at
thermometers the national laboratories.
(2 ).Liquid - in - glass
thermometers
(a)Mercury-in-glass For measuring temperatures of substances in labs, homes,
therm om eter industries. Its tem perature range is -39°C to 360' C.

(b)Clinical Its tem perature range is about 34°C to 43°C to determine

thermometers the temperatures of humans and animals.

(c)Aicohol-in-giass Its tem perature range is -115°C to 78°C for measuring very
therm om eter low temperatures of substances in laboratories, homes
and industries.
(d) For measuring
Maximum & day maximum temperatures and minimum
Minimum night temperatures.
thermometers
(3)Pyrometers It is used in poultry farms. It can measure temperatures
up to 3000°C
(4) Thermocouples It ranges from 25°C to 1150°C. Used in industries and labs
for higher temperatures e.g. molten Aluminium and steel
factories.
(5)Resistance It is used to determine temperatures of substances w ithin
thermometers the range of -200°C to 1100°C.
Liquid- in- glass thermometers
Most liquids expand when heated and contract when cooled. This fact is
used in the constructing liquid- in -glass thermometers. Alcohol and Mercury are
the main liquids used in such thermometers.

Advantages of Mercury over Alcohol

> Mercury has a higher boiling point (357°C) than that of alcohol (78°C).
> Mercury is opaque and easily seen whereas alcohol has to be coloured.
 179

> Mercury does not w et glass but alcohol wets glass leading to inaccurate
readings.
> Mercury does not vapourise as alcohol does.
> Mercury is a better conductor of heat than alcohol and therefore responds
more rapidly to changes in temperatures.

Advantages of Alcohol over Mercury

> Alcohol has very low melting point (-115 C) than Mercury (-39 C) thus
alcohol-in-glass thermometers can be used to measure temperatures
below (-39 C).
> Alcohol expands more than Mercury for the same tem perature change
and so it is easier to detect a change in Alcohol than in Mercury.
Reasons why w ater is not a good therm om etric liquid
> W ater wets glass and clings to the tube making reading difficult and
inaccurate.
> It has irregular expansion at certain temperatures.
> It vapourises and later condenses in the tube i.e. it has very small
tem perature range.

Clinical therm om eter

This is a Mercury-in-glass therm om eter used by doctors and nurses to
determine the temperatures of patients.

A clinical therm om eter

Its usage:

• Place therm om eter under tongue or armpit

• Mercury expands and forces its way to pass the constriction

• Thermometer is removed
 180

• Mercury cools and contracts breaking mercury thread at the constriction

• Mercury beyond the constriction stays in the tube and shows body
temperature.
• Flick wrist to return mercury to the bulb.
• Sterilize w ith antiseptic solution or w ith methylated spirit.

Reasons why clinical therm om eter should not be sterilized in boiling water
• Clinical therm om eter has a short range of tem perature (34°C to 43°C),
• Boiling w ater has a tem perature of 100°C,
• Thus when a clinical therm om eter is sterilized in boiling water, the
mercury will expand excessively due to high boiling point of water,
[Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which a liquid changes to
vapour at atmospheric pressure]
• The excessive expansion of the mercury will then force the clinical
therm om eter to crack.

Measurement of heat
Objects are considered hot because their particles have a high kinetic
energy. Materials respond to energy changes in different ways. The ability of a
body to absorb energy is called heat capacity.
The heat capacity of an object therefore, is the quantity of heat energy
required to raise its tem perature by 1 kelvin (IK) or 1 degree Celsius (1°C).
SI unit for heat capacity = JK ' or J°C 1.
Two solids X and Y are of heat capacities 400JK~ and 546JK respectively. What
this statement means is that: Solid X needs 400J of heat to change/increase its
tem perature by IK while solid Y needs 546J of heat to change/increase its
tem perature by IK.
The specific heat capacity is appropriate for unit mass of a substance
rather than deal w ith different value for every object.
Specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat energy required to raise
the tem perature of IKg of it by IK or 1°C.

W orked examples:
1. How many joules of heat are given out when a piece of iron of mass 15kg cools
from 70°C to 10°C? Specific heat capacity of iron is 460Jkg V 1.
 181

Q = m c A T or me (0 2 - ©i)

Where Q = quantity of heat

C = specific heat capacity

0 2 = final tem perature

0 X= initial tem perature

Solution:

m = 15kg; c = 460Jkg~1K~1; AT = 70 - 10 = 60°C

Q = 15 x 460 x 60

=4140001

= 414KJ

2. A metal of mass 25kg was heated from 5°C to 10°C. Calculate the quantity of
heat given to the metal. (S.H.C of the metal is 4200Jkg"1K"1')..
m = 25kg; 0 2 = 10°C; 0! = 5°C;c = 4200Jkg‘1K4;Q = ?
Q = m c AT = 25 x 4200 x (1 0 - 5 ) = 25 x42 00 x 5 = 525000J
= 525 KJ

3. Some quantity of w ater of mass 4.0kg is heated from 36°C to 86 °C. If the

specific heat capacity of w ater is 4200J/kg' C, calculate the amount of heat used.

Amount of heat (Q) = m x At x c

= 4 x (8 6 -3 6 ) x 4200

= 4 x 50 x 4200

= 840000J

= 840KJ

4. Calculate the quantity of heat released when a piece of Aluminium of mass

800g and specific heat capacity of 900Jkg_1K"J cools from 75°C to 55°C.

Q = mcAt =0.8 x 900 x(75 - 55) =14400J = 14.4KJ

 182

5. Calculate the S.H.C of a substance of energy 400J, which is required to change

its tem perature from 15°C to 28°C. Given that the mass of the substance is 15g.

c = ?; Q = 400J; Q1 = 15°C; 0 2 = 28°C; m = ,015kg

Q = mcM ,'.c = Q c= 400

mAt mAt m it .015(28-15)

400

0.015 x 13°C

= 2051J kg 1

6 . The tem perature of a certain metal block of mass 60g is raised to 80 C. The
block is placed in 150g of w ater at 20°C. Suppose the final tem perature of the
w ater is 25 C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal.
S.H.C of w ater = 4200Jkg"1l<"1.
Heat lost by the metal = Heat gained by w ater
0.06 x c x (8 0 -2 5 ) J = 0.15 x 4200 x (2 5 -2 0 ) J
0.06 x c x 55 = 0 .1 5 x 4 2 0 0 x 5
make c the subject of the formula
C = 0.15 x 4200 x 5
0.06 x55
955J kg V 1

7. What is the final tem perature of the mixture when 200g of warm w ater at 80°C
is added to 300g of cold water at 10°C and thoroughly stirred?
S.H.C of w ater = 4200Jkg"1l<"1.
Heat lost by warm w ater = Heat gained by cold water
mcAt = mcAt
0.2 x 4200 x ( 8 0 - x) = 0.3 x 4200 x (x - 10)
divide both sides by 4200
0.2 x 4200 x ( 8 0 - x) =0.3 x 4200 x (x - 10)
4200 4200
0.2 (8 0 - x ) = 0.3 ( x - 10)
 183

16-0.2X 0 .3 x -3
bring like terms together
16 + 3 0.2x + 0.3x
19 0.5x
x 38°C
Effects o f heat
When heat is applied to a body there is:
• Expansion: - when a substance is heated, the molecules gain energy and
increases which results in the overall increase in length, size and volume of
the substance.
• Rise in tem perature: - when a substance is heated the average kinetic
energy of its molecules increases, since kinetic energy is directly
proportional to its absolute tem perature, thus an increase in kinetic
energy results in rise in temperature.
• Change of state: - when solids are heated, the molecules gain heat energy
(K.E) used in breaking down the forces of attraction between its molecules
which no longer holds them in the regular pattern. As a result, the space -
lattice collapses and the solid melts. When liquids are heated, the average
K.E of its molecules increases. Some molecules are able to acquire or gain
enough K.E to be able to break their barrier surfaces to exist as gas or
vapour.
• Vapourization: - is the process of changing or forming freely the molecules
of liquid into bubbles of vapour/gas when its molecules having acquired
maximum K.E are able to break through their surfaces.

Thermal Expansion
Expansion refers to the increase in size of objects when heated. Generally,
substances expand when heated because the distances between their molecules
increase w ith the rise in tem perature. As the tem perature of the body increases,
the particles vibrate more energetically, and therefore take up more space. This
increase in volume w ith increased tem perature is called therm al expansion.
Solids, liquids and gases normally expand when heated and contract when
cooled. Different substances expand at different rates. For example a thick glass
jug will crack when hot w ater is poured into it while a thin glass jug w ill not. The
reasons are that:
 184

> glass is a poor conductor of heat

> In thick glass expansion is not uniform
> Differential expansion causes glass to crack
> In thin glass expansion is uniform.

Again a glass filled w ith a fru it drink to the brim and placed in a freezer, cracks
after freezing. The reasons are that:
• w ater expands in volume
• when it changes from liquid to solid (freezes)
• no space was provided for expansion when it freezes
• as a result the glass bottle cracks due to the force exerted by the frozen

water.

Large structures, such as bridges, roads and buildings, would suffer structural
damage had it not been the precautions taken to lim it the effects of expansion
and contraction. For that m atter expansion gaps are built into roads and railway
lines.

Demonstrating expansion in solids

Procedure: Take a metal ball, a ring whose diameter is slightly greater than
the diameter of the ball such that the ball passes through the ring when both are
cold.
W ith the aid of a pair of thongs, heat the metal ball for a few minutes and try to
pass it through the ring carefully.
Observation: it will be observed that the ball no longer passes through the
ring and this shows that the ball has been increased in size when it was heated,

hence solids expand when heated.

 185

The ball- and- ring experiment

Expansion in Liquids
Liquids have no definite shape; they can only have volume expansion.
Expansion in liquids is made use of in liquid-in-glass thermometers
Space is left at the top of bottled drinks to allow room for expansion

Anomalous expansion of w ater

When water is heated between 0°C to 4°C, it contracts, as a result, there will be a
decrease in volume, an increase in density and attains a maximum density of
lg /c m 3 at 4°C.
Also between 4°C and 100°C, w ater behaves like all other liquids and expands
uniformly, which results to an increase in volume and a decrease in density. The
behaviour of water between 0°C and 4°C is termed anomalous/irregular
expansion of water.
Biological importance
In Polar Regions, where we have deeper waters when ice is formed on the
surface of w ater there is water at 4°C which is beneath the surface in which fish
and other aquatic organisms can survive.

Expansion of gases
Gases are compressible and can be stopped from expanding, the pressure
of a trapped gas, which is not allowed to expand increases.
The pressure increases because the molecules are always moving fast and
hitting each other and the sides of the container.
If the tem perature rises, the molecules move faster, the collision becomes
more vigorous and the pressure increases.
If the gas expands when heated, its expansion is used to do work as in the
car engine.

Various application of expansion

• therm ostat and bimetallic thermometers
• sagging of electric cables
 186

• bursting of inflated hot tyres

• gaps are left at regular intervals along a railway line to allow room for
expansion.
• Fire alarms: a form of therm ostat can be used as a fire alarm. A bimetallic
strip bends over, when made sufficiently hot by a fire, to make contact
w ith a screw. This completes an electric circuit which rings a bell and
sounds an alarm.
A R A IL W A Y T R A C K . J O IN T

Gaps left between railway lines

Advantages of expansion
• Liquid- in- glass thermometers work using the principle of expansion.
• Wheels can be fitte d into rims by applying the principle of expansion.
• Very tight metal lids over bottles can be removed by pouring hot water
over the lid.
• The bimetallic therm om eters work using the principle of expansion.
Disadvantages of expansion
• Cracking of glass when hot w ater is poured in it
• Bursting of plastic w ater pipes
• Sagging of overhead cables
• Buckling of railway lines: heat causes railway lines to expand, and coldness
causes them to contract. To allow fo r expansion or contraction, gaps are
left between the rails or the rails are tapered. Expansion of railway lines
causes the lines to push against each other and bend.
 187

• Crackling noises heard from metal roofing sheets during very hot weather
conditions.____ This is because during such weathers metal sheets expand
but the nails that hold the sheets prevent the metal sheets from moving
out of their place. The metal sheets thus bends and the bending
movement creates the noise.
• Buckling of steam pipes: when steam passes through the pipe, it causes
expansion. If the pipe is long, the expansion can buckle the pipe. To
prevent this, expansion joints are put in it.
• Deformed bridge structure: the iron girders of bridges expand and
contract w ith the changes in tem perature of the weather. To stop the
bridge structure from being deformed, one end only is fixed, and the other
end is mounted on rollers.
• Pendulums and balance wheels: the pendulums in clocks and the balance
wheels in watches regulate the time. Changes in tem perature cause
expansion; at higher temperatures, the clock, or watch, goes too slowly
because the pendulum or balance wheel expands; at lower temperatures,
an opposite effect is seen.
1 road surface
/
/

\
bridge

— support

Expansion of a bridge
The Bimetallic strip
It consists of tw o dissimilar metals (Aluminium & iron) joined together.
The metals expand differently on heating, causing the strip to bend.
 188

aluminium aluminium

iron iron
Bimetallic strip
It can be used to show that different metals have different degrees of
expansion. In the above set-up, Aluminium expands more than iron when
heated. It can be used in making a thermostat.
A thermostat is a device used to regulate tem perature changes or for
maintaining a steady tem perature in electrical appliances.

The principle on which the therm ostat functions

• A bimetallic s t r ip , _____ an electric circuit which gets heated by the
current
• the strip expands towards the metal w ith the least expansion and breaks
the circuit
• when the strip cools it makes contact for current to flow again

Devices that use therm ostat

Refrigerator/deep freezer/fridge Car radiator
Electric pressing iron Electric incubator
Electric kettle Air conditioners
Microwave oven Electric rice cooker

Modes of transfer
Conduction: - is a type of heat transfer in which molecules pass on their
energy by collision with neighbouring molecules .Only energy is transferred but
molecules retain their position.
Metals are good conductors of heat; other solids are poor conductors or
insulators.
A tem perature gradient is formed in solids conducting heat.
Liquids are generally poor conductors of heat w ith the exception of liquid
metal (mercury) which is liquid at room temperature. Gases are also poor
conductors however; conduction is not able to take place in vacuum.
 189

A girl holding a long metal rod w ith one end in fire w ill feel a burning
sensation in the palm; the reasons are:
• a metal is a good conductor of heat
• hence the heat travels from the end of the metal in the fire to the
opposite end
• nerves sensitive to heat in the palm/skin are stimulated and the heat is felt
in the palm.
Convection: - is the main method of heat transfer in liquids and gases (fluids).
The heat transfer is by movement of the molecules themselves. Heat is
transferred in liquids and gases by convection currents. Convection currents are
caused by density changes due to expansion of liquids and gases caused by
heating. Convection currents are used in: ventilation, air conditioning,
refrigeration.
Convection therefore, is the transfer of heat energy by the circulation of a fluid as
a result of tem perature difference w ithin the fluid,

Demonstrating convection

1. Set up a beaker of cold w ater on a gauze and tripod.

2. Place a small crystal of potassium permanganate at the bottom of the beaker

using a spatula.

3. Using a weak Bunsen flame, gently heat the beaker of w ater

4. Note the pattern of movement of the w ater as the potassium permanganate

dissolves.

Demonstrating convection
 190

Observation:
> W ater warms up at the bottom and expands as the beaker of w ater is
heated gently
> The heated molecule at the bottom move upwards and are then replaced
by colder and heavier ones above
> A current of coloured w ater is seen moving throughout the water.

Consider the set - up below carefully

1. Which mode of transfer occurs in liquids?

2. Why is the ice wrapped in metal gauze?
3. State and explain what will happen to the ice after 30 minutes of heating the
top of the tube
4. What conclusion can you draw from your results?
Solution:
1. Convection
2. To prevent the ice from floating to the top of the test tube
3. The ice will not melt

Explanation
During heating, the top region of the water becomes heated. Since water
is a poor conductor of heat, it cannot conduct heat to the lower region of the test
tube.
Convection of heat cannot take place because the hot w ater on top
becomes less dense and thus cannot sink to the bottom to transfer its heat.
4. W ater is a poor conductor of heat.
 191

Radiation: - this type of heat transfer requires no material medium for its
propagation and hence is the way in which heat is transferred across vacuum and
there is no movement of molecules. Heat reaches the earth from the sun;
between the sun and the earth is space, so there is no material medium to
transfer the sun's heat. This is how come the sun's heat energy reaches the earth.
Heat radiation does not need a material medium, it transfers heat through
vacuum.
One can feel the heat given out by a bulb when it has been switched on
and the hand is placed beneath it. The heat could not have reached the hand by
conduction (air is a poor conductor of heat); the heat could not have reached the
hand by convection (convection currents take heat upwards) the heat must have
reached the hand by radiation.
(a) An electric light bulb (b) A charcoal fire (c) An
electric iron

Demonstration of radiant heat

Black surfaces are good absorbers of heat; shining surfaces are poor absorbers.
Black surfaces are good em itters of heat; shining surfaces are poor emitters.
Application of heat radiation
> Vacuum flask
> Aluminium roofs

> Shining petrol tanks

> Black car radiators.

The Thermos Flask

 192

This is a device designed to keep hot substances hot and cold substances

cold. It has been designed to minimize heat loss or heat gain by conduction,

convection and radiation

Conduction is reduced by using good thermal insulator for the walls and
for the stopper. The stopper may be cork or plastic, and the glass inner vessel is
usually supported by a glass or plastic base.
Convection & conduction are eliminated by making the inner vessel a
doubled walled container, which is the evacuated.
Radiation is reduced by silvering the inner and outer walls of the inner
vessel, thus making it a bad absorber and a bad em itter of radiation.

The thermos flask

The laws of radiation of heat are:

> Heat radiation travels in straight lines.
> Heat radiation warms a body only if the radiation falls directly on the
body.
> Bodies radiate heat only if their tem perature is higher than their
surroundings.
> Good absorbers of heat radiation are good em itters of heat radiation.

Change of state of m atter

Heat causes a change of state and, during the time the change of state
occurs, the tem perature remains constant. The heat supplied at constant
tem perature to change the state of a substance is called the latent heat. If a solid
 193

changes to a liquid, the latent heat o f fusion is needed to cause the change. The
latent heat of fusion is absorbed in the change from solid to liquid, and given out
during the change from liquid to solid. If a liquid changes to a gas, the latent heat
o f vaporization is needed to cause the change. The latent heat of vaporization is
absorbed in the change from liquid to gas and given out in the change from gas to
liquid.
Latent heat of fusion: the amount of heat required to convert a substance
from the solid state at its melting point to the liquid state w itho ut change in

temperature.

Latent heat of vaporization: the amount of heat required to change a

liquid to gas or the vice versa w itho ut a change in temperature.

Worked example:
Calculate the amount of heat required to melt 150.Og of ice at 0°C
[specific latent heat of fusion for w ater is 336KJkg ] Heat required (Q) = specific
latent heat (L) x Mass of ice (M).
lk g = 336KJ
.'. 150g = 150 x 336
1000
= 50.40 KJ
Liquids become colder when it evaporates. Heat is required to cause
evaporation, and this is called latent heat. The latent heat needed for
evaporation is taken from the liquid, thus causing it to become colder.
When latent heat is lost a cooling effect is produced, for instance the
fingers feel cold after it is placed in alcohol and then removed this is because the
alcohol absorbs latent heat from the finger for it to evaporate. The loss of water
from the skin leaves the finger colder.
Again Iced cubes produce a better cooling effect than cold water, the
reason is that iced cubes absorbs extra heat called latent heat from the material
it is cooling, for it to change from the solid state to cold water. It thus absorbs
more heat than cold water.

Effects of latent heat

 194

> Steam possesses a large quantity of heat energy due to the high specific
latent heat of vaporization of water. It is a fact used in various types of
steam engines
> An im portant factor in body tem perature control in mammals is the
evaporation of sweat. The rate of evaporation of sweat depends on the
relative humidity of the atmosphere. In conditions where the relative
hum idity is high, the rate of evaporation is reduced, causing physical
discomfort.
> The high specific latent heat of vaporization of w ater accounts for the fact
that rivers and lakes do not dry up rapidly in tropical climates.

Explain the following observations:

(i) Steam from boiling w ater causes severer burns on the body than boiling w ater
• as w ater boils at constant tem perature of 100°C
• bubbles of w ater vapour bursts and escape as steam
• thus steam has acquired extra energy (latent heat) than boiling water to
enable it to escape
• hence the amount of heat energy in steam is more than energy molecules
of boiling water
- steam releases latent heat of vaporization when it condenses,
(ii) An earthenware pot (local clay pot) keeps w ater cool.
- an earthenware pot has pores
- through which w ater evaporates
- taking latent heat from the water(thereby keeping the w ater cool)
Evaporation:
This is the process by which molecules escape from the surface of a
substance. Evaporation causes cooling by removing latent heat of vaporization.
The molecule of a substance that evaporates takes latent heat energy from the
surface, leaving the surface cold. Evaporation takes place when liquid changes to
vapour beneath its boiling point.
A fter a fall of rain, the pools of w ater left behind slowly dries up; the water
in the pools has obviously changed to w ater vapour at atmospheric pressure and
atmospheric tem perature and then disappeared. Hence water, or indeed any
liquid, can change to vapour w ithout the liquid being boiled. When a liquid
changes to vapour beneath its boiling point, it is said to have evaporated.
 195

Factors affecting rate of evaporation

> Temperature —» the higher the tem perature, the faster the rate of
evaporation. For this reason w et cloths dry faster on a warm day than on a
cool day.
> Relative hum idity —» evaporation is faster when relative hum idity is low
thus; w et clothes dry faster during harmattan season since hum idity is low
during harmattan. Humidity refers to the amount of water
vapour/m oisture in the atmosphere.
> Wind —» The higher the speed of the wind the higher the rate of
evaporation. For this reason also w et clothes tend to dry faster on a windy
day.
> Surface area —» the greater the exposed surface area, the faster the rate of
evaporation. W et clothes on line will dry faster when it is spread than
when folded.

Explain why a quantity of water in a large bowl evaporates faster than the
same quantity in a tall small bowl?
> A larger surface area of liquid is exposed to the atmosphere in the larger
bowl than the smaller one,
> Thus, a greater number of molecules on the surface have required energy
forescape Or
> Leave the surface of the w ater in the larger bowl than in the small tali
bowl.

Natural phenomena due to evaporation

Humidity is the cause of many natural phenomena this accounts for
hum idity measurements as im portant factors in weather forecasting.
Dew: During the night, the air tem perature drops, as the earth cools, and
if the tem perature falls below the dew point, then dew is deposited on grass and
leaves. The lower the air tem perature falls, the heavier the dew is. [Dew point is
the temperature at which cool air is saturated with water vapour].
Clouds: Warm air blowing along the ground may be forced to rise over a
mountain; this cools the air and also forms a cloud. Warm air rises from the
ground and gradually becomes colder as it ascends. If the tem perature of the air
falls below the dew point, condensation takes place and clouds are formed.
 196

Mist: Condensation of water into droplets in the air forms a mist of cloud
at ground level. Rapid cooling produces a mist.
Fog: Fog is caused when a mist condenses in a town or other dusty
locality. W ater condenses on dust or soot particles present in the air.
Rain: W ater vapour evaporates into the atmosphere to condense as
clouds. When condensation is sufficiently great, the w ater droplets in a cloud
become too heavy for upward air currents to support them. The droplets then fall
as rain.

Table 5.1.3: Differences between evaporation & boiling

EVAPORATION BOILING
Occur on the surface of the substance Occurs throughout the whole liquid
Can occur in both liquids and solids Occur in only liquids
It produces a cooling effect Does not produce a cooling effect
Can occur at any tem perature Occur at a fixed tem perature (called
the boiling point).

Ventilation:
This involves the removal of stale air and introduction of fresh air into the
building.

Importance of ventilation
> Removes excess heat from a building
> Removes bad odour and stale air in a room
> Prevents suffocation by providing sufficient oxygen and removing carbon
dioxide
> Reduces the growth and spread of certain diseases/infection (droplet
infection such as whooping cough, influenza and tuberculosis)
> Prevents the accumulation of unwanted gases (e.g. carbon dioxide) in a
building.

Factors affecting effective ventilation

> The position of the windows - windows must be oppositely placed
 197

> Windows - each room must have an adequate number of windows and
they must be large.
> Wind - the direction of the wind should be considered.
> Building alignment - houses must be oriented such that fresh air can easily
enter the rooms and move freely throughout the rooms.
REVISION QUESTIONS

1995 Questions
1. (i) Explain the statement, the specific capacity of w ater is 4200Jkg" K~ .

(ii) W ater of mass 400.Og at 30.0°C is mixed w ith 200g of w ater at 80°C.

Neglecting heat losses, calculate the tem perature of the mixture (specific heat

capacity of w ater is = 4200Jkg _1 K_1)

1996 Questions
2. Explain why clinical thermometers are normally sterilized in alcohol and not in

boiling water.

1998 Questions
3. State tw o differences between convection and radiation of heat.

2000 Questions
4. (i) Define latent heat of fusion

(ii) Distinguish between latent heat of fusion and latent heat of Vapourization

(iii) Two solids A and B are of heat capacities 400JK" and 546JK" respectively.

Explain this statement.

2002 Nov Questions

5. (i) Distinguish between heat and tem perature
 198

(ii) Explain why a thick glass jug would crack when hot w ater is poured into it

while a thin glass jug will not.

2004 Questions
6 . (i) Define latent heat of fusion

(ii) Determine the amount of heat required to melt 150.Og of ice at 0°C.

(Specific latent heat of fusion for w ater is 336kJKg )

2005 July Questions

7. Explain the following observations:

(i) A boy holding a long metal rod w ith one end in the fire feels a burning

sensation in the palm

(ii) A clinical therm om eter breaks when used to measure the tem perature of

boiling water.

2005 Nov Questions

8 . (i) Define specific heat capacity.

(ii) Some quantity of w ater of mass 3.0kg is heated from 260°C to 760°C. If the

specific heat capacity of w ater is 4200J/kg0°C, calculate the amount of heat used.

2006 Questions

9. (i) Draw and label a diagram of a vacuum flask.

(ii) Describe briefly how heat gain and heat loss are minimised due to the

construction of the vacuum flask.

2007 Questions
10. (a) (i) W hat is a thermostat?
 199

(ii) Name tw o appliances which use thermostat.

(b) (i) W ater of mass 1.5kg is heated from 20oC to 70oC. Calculate the

amount of heat absorbed (specific heat capacity of w ater = 4200Jkg K ).

(c) A glass bottle filled w ith water to the brim, corked and placed in a freezer

cracks after freezing. Explain this observation.

5.2 CO-ORDINATION OF LIFE PROCESSES

Co-ordination is the ability to receive stimulus and respond appropriately to

maintain a steady balance, ensuring survival of the organism.

Two main parts of co-ordination are:

Nervous system

Endocrine system

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Peripheral nervous system Central nervous systerji

Somatic divisioh Autonomic division Brain Spinal

cord
(Voluntary) (Involuntary)

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

(emergency activation) (calms body after emergendy)

 200

Breakdown of the nervous system

BRAIN: Parts and function

The brain is enclosed in the skull. It is wrapped in protective membrane called

Meninges. The space between the meninges is filled w ith fluid called

Cerebrospinal fluid which acts as cushion and provides cells w ith food and

oxygen. The fluid is also contained in the ventricles of the brain and the central

canal of the spinal cord.

The brain consists of:

Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain made up of tw o cerebral hemispheres.

The inner layer of w hite m atter is very thick. While the outer layer (cerebral

cortex) of gray m atter is thin, and responsible for such activities as vision,

emotion, memory, touch and taste. Also controls higher thought processes such

as learning, speech, reasoning, hearing and language.

Cerebellum: is a highly folded mass of nervous tissue found just below the

cerebrum. It is responsible for muscle co-ordination and balance; It maintains

normal muscle tone, posture and balance and also ensures that all of the skeletal

muscles work together to produce smooth and co-ordinate motions and also

reflex centers' for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping and swallowing.

Medulla Oblongata: the lower half of brain stem and controls many life activities

that one does not think about such as breathing, yawning, sneezing, regulating

heartbeat, blood pressure etc.

 201

The brain is made up of 100- cerebrum

hypotha lam u s

200 billions of nerve cells called p itu ita ry g la n d

neurons. These neurons allow

cerebellum
messages to travel from one part of
m e d u lla o b lo n g a ta

the body to another. Like all cells in spinal cord

v e rte b ra
the body, neurons have a cell body,

containing a nucleus, which incorporates the inherited material that establishes

how the cell will function. The messages that travel through the neuron are

purely electrical in nature.

Types of neurons:

- Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neuron) transm it inform ation from the sensory

receptors (Sensory organs)

to the spinal cord.

M otor Neurons (Efferent

Neuron) transmits
inform ation from the
spinal cord to the effector
organ e.g. muscles, glands.
Relay Neurons
(Intermediate Neuron)
transmits impulses
between sensory and
m otor neurons. It is found
in the CNS.

STRUCTURE OF A NEURONE:
- There are tw o main parts
of a Neuron; the cell body
and the Axon
/''•III | , • . | b, 3enaory maufOh
Cell body contains the («iipotar>
nucleus and other Diagram o f M otor Neurone and other Neurones
 202

organelles, and nucleus embedded in dense granular cytoplasm

- Short cytoplasmic strands called Dendron rise from the cell body and
branches into thread-like process called Dendrites.
- The cytoplasm of the cell body continues into a long process called the axis
cylinder; the Axon
Layer of fatty sheath called Myelin Sheath encloses the Axon
Myelin sheath protect the Axon and speed up impulse transmission
Myelin sheath is not continuous w ith gaps in it called nodes of Ranvier
Dendrites of one ceil body are in close proximity to the terminal dendrite
of other neurons, but are not in direct contact.
- A tiny gap known as synapse is left between them.

Function of neurons:
Dendrites (many fibres) detect and pick up inform ation from the receptors (other
neurons). The information is carried in the form of an electrical signal to the
nerve cell body. The cell body contains the nucleus and other cell structures
which keep the cell alive.
The electrical signal continues along the cell body to a single, long fibre called the
axon. Of special importance is the small gap between the axon of one cell and the
dendrite of another, the synapse. When an electrical signal reaches the tip of an
axon, a chemical at the tip of the axon spills into the synapse to receive and carry
the electrical signal to the dendrite of the next cell.
The relay process from one cell to the next can take place at the speed of one
hundred metres per second.

SPINAL CORD: It extends down from the medulla.

It is located in the neural canal of the vertebra which encloses this rope of
nervous tissue and protects it from injury.
It has a central canal containing cerebrospinal fluid; gray m atter is centrally
located and shaped like letter H and an outer w hite matter.
Gray m atter contains cell bodies and short non-myelinated fibres.
W hite m atter contains myelinated axons.
Dorsal root of a spinal nerve contains sensory nerve fibres which enter the gray
matter.
Ventral root of a spinal nerve contains m otor fibres exiting the gray matter.
 203

Function o f spinal cord:

It is the centre for reflex action.
It also serves as a means of communicating between the brain and much of the
body.

Reflex Action: a fast automatic response to stimulus and controlled by the spinal
cord w itho ut input from the brain. Reflex action enables us to quickly escape
from danger thus protecting the life of the individual.
Reflex Arc: the pathway through which reflex action takes place. The neurons
involved are Sensory, Relay and M otor neuron.

A girl accidentally touches a hot plate and quickly withdraws her hand; the
mechanism involved in this action is as follows:
The tem perature receptors are stimulated and
- message is passed along the sensory neuron to
- the spinal cord through the dorsal root
- Impulse/the message moves over a synapse and

- stimulates a relay and m otor neuron

- the impulse leaves the spinal cord through the ventral root to the muscle

- this contracts and pulls the hand away.

 204

Reflex arc involved in withdrawal from an unpleasant stimulus

Analysis of reflex action:

Impulse travelling down a neuron is thought to be due to changes in electrical
charge on the inside and outside of the nerve cell (axon).
Reflexes involves the spinal cord thus not under a person's control. Nevertheless,
when it happens a further impulse is sent along the spinal cord to inform the
brain, and we are made aware of it. Because they are not initiated consciously it
cannot be suppressed.
They are exceptionally quick in milliseconds, for instance it takes 100ms for a
damage report to reach the brain and a signal sent to the vocal cords.
Vapour arising from a cut onion passes into a nose causing the olfactory sense
ceils to react thus dissolving the moisture of the eyes. The eyes react by
discharging fluid from the tear glands to dilute the dissolved vapour.

Carriers of electrical impulses:

• Olfactory sense cells carry impulses from the nose to the brain.
• Optic nerve cells carry impulses from eye to the brain.
• Auditory nerve cells carry impulses from the ear to the brain.
• Spinal cord carries impulses from the rest of the body to the brain.

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

They are nerves which are bundles of axons and lie outside the (CNS) Central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
- They transm it impulse away from the CNS or into the CNS.
- The cell bodies of neurons are found in CNS or in Ganglia.
- Ganglia(Sing: Ganglion) are collections of cell bodies w ithin the PNS
- Humans have 12 pairs of cranial nerves (nerves from the brain) and 31 pairs of
spinal nerves (nerves from the spinal cord).
- The paired spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord by tw o short branches
called roots.
- The dorsal root contains Axons of Sensory Neuron which conducts impulses to
the spinal cord from sensory receptors.
 205

- The ventral root contains Axons of M otor Neurons that conduct impulses from
the spinal cord to the effectors (muscles, glands).

VOLUNTARY & INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

For voluntary actions previous experience is involved where a conscious choice is
made to run or sing.
SOMATIC DIVISION: These nerves carry messages to and from the sense organs
and skeletal muscles under voluntary control for example, the hand to turn a
page and motion of eyes to read a sentence as well as communication of
inform ation to and from the sense organs.

AUTONOMIC DIVISION: - They are mostly efferent nerves supplying the

involuntary muscles of the wails of organs like stomach, intestines, bladder,
heart, blood vessels and secretary organs. They control involuntary movements'
such as, the action of digestion, pushing of lungs in and out, and pumping of
blood through your body. The autonomic division branches into the sympathetic
and the parasympathetic nerves. Both branches are related to emotional
responses like crying, sweating, heart rate and other involuntary behaviours.

The sympathetic nerve branch is an emergency system that prepares the body for
fight, flight or freeze during times of danger or emotion. In short it arouses the
body for action.

The parasympathetic nerve is most active soon after a stressful or emotional

event. Its role is to calm the body and return it to lower level arousal. Both
branches are active at all times and their activities combine to determine if the
body is aroused or quieted.

Summary of activities controlled by autonomic nervous system

SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM PARASYMPATHETIC SYSTEM
Speeds up heartbeat Slows down heartbeat
Constricts arteries Dilates arteries
Dilates pupils Constricts pupils

Decreases saliva flow Increases saliva flow

 206

Slows down peristalsis Speeds up peristalsis

CAUSES OF DAMAGE TO THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD:

Accidents on roads, workplace, the air, homes etc may cause a permanent and
irreversible damage to the brain and spinal cord since damage nerve cells never
heal. However, partial recovery occurs when other parts of the brain take over
some of the life activities of the damaged part.
Diseases can cause impaired body function and changes in behavior. Such are
biochemical changes in the brain cells, infections like meningitis and organic
illness like brain tumours.
Depression is a mental disorder in which one feels extremely unhappy and has no
enthusiasm for anything.
• It may be endogenous i.e. of internal origin or
• It may be reactive i.e. response to environment.
Endogenous depression occurs when there is a change in balance of chemicals
produced at the synapses of nerve cells.
Reactive depression occurs as a result of stress due to the death of a loved one, a
deep disappointment or frustration, being an exaggerated reaction to the
situation, which causes it.
Drug Abuse is the im proper use of drugs.
Classes of drugs:
Stimulants: - speed up the central nervous system examples are caffeine and
nicotine in tobacco. Caffeine speeds up the nervous system, so that people feel
active and awake. However, people who drink 5 or more cups of caffeine-
containing beverages a day can show signs of loss of appetite, sleeplessness and
irritability,
When tobacco smoke is inhaled nicotine and the poisonous gas carbon monoxide
enter the bloodstream. These chemicals can cause the heart to work harder and
the blood pressure to rise. Tobacco smoke also contains many tiny particles
which when cooled, form a sticky, brown material called tar. Many of the
particles in tar are shown to be carcinogens, which mean they can cause cancer.
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Depressants: - slow down the nervous system example are barbiturates and
alcohols. Barbiturates can cause slow reaction time, confusion, drowsiness, and
even death. Barbiturates are extremely dangerous when they are mixed with
alcohol.

When alcohol is swallowed it is absorbed from the stomach and small intestines
into the bloodstream and soon reaches the brain. When taken in larger quantities
the controls that govern a person's behaviour are weakened. People can become
obnoxious and noisy, others w ithdrawn, sleepy and depressed. The ability to
make judgments lessens. Reflexes slow down, vision becomes blurred, hearing
can be less acute and people can have difficulty in speaking and walking. The
abilities to reason, to concentrate, to remember, and to make decisions are also
impaired. Alcohol can also damage the drinker's liver. It causes the liver to shrink
and to harden, cirrhosis. Blood cannot be filtered through a hardened liver.

Hallucinogens: - distorts our senses. They are drugs that cause people to see,
hear, and feel things that exist only in a person's imagination. Moods can switch
from complete joy to absolute terror. Hallucinogens can make people take
chances w ith the ir lives. The most common is (LSD) lysergic acid diethylamide ,
may affect the brain cells, distort one's perception and cause hallucinations. It
may affect one's judgm ent in dangerous situations as to ignore traffic dangers or
jum p from a high window believing they can fly. Marijuana is a drug that
produces hallucinogenic effects. It seems that a person's reaction time is slowed
and the ability to make interpretations takes longer than usual when an
individual uses marijuana.

Psychological dependence occurs when one becomes used to taking the drug and
feels the need to have it.
Physiological dependence or addiction occurs when the body develops tolerance
for the drug and can cope w ith large quantities. In this case changes are brought
about in the way one or more organs function.
An addicted fellow becomes very ill and suffers withdrawal symptoms.
Delirium tremens (frightening hallucinations, tremors and over-activity of internal
body organs) is withdrawal symptoms in an alcoholic.
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The effect of brain & spinal cord damage on the individualfam ily and society is
abnormal behavior and such a person will be unable to:
1. Look after his/her personal welfare including feeding and personal
hygiene.
2. Make rational decisions and plan for the future.
3. Form and sustain relationships w ith other people.
4. Tolerate behavior patterns different from his/hers.
5. Adjust to stress resulting from weather changes and changes in
attitudes and behavior in other people.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine glands make up the endocrine system. An endocrine gland is ductless

gland whose secretions do not pass through any duct before reaching any of its
target organs.
1. Name of gland : Pituitary gland
Position : base of the brain
Hormone secreted : growth, follicle stimulating anti diuretic
hormones.

Functions of hormone:
• Controls growth
• Stimulates production of follicles in female and testis in males
• Stimulates production of other hormones

Under-production of hormones causes dwarfism and overproduction causes

giantism. Pituitary secretes hormones which controls other endocrine glands of
the endocrine system it is therefore, called the master gland.

2. Name of gland : Thyroid

Position : Neck

Producing hormone : Thyroxin

Normal functions of hormones:

• Controls speed at which energy is released in your body.
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• It keeps the body tem perature at approximately 37°C.

• Helps the body maintain a proper weight (controls growth rate)
• Controls brain development
• Controls basic metabolic activities.
• Controls rate of chemical activities e.g. respiration.

Effect of under production:

• Cretinism in children (stunted mental and physical growth)
• Decreased rate of heartbeat
• Low body tem perature
• Decreased metabolism rate
• Obesity
• Slow reactions.
• Thick skin
• Premature ageing in adults.

Effect of over production:

• Enlarged thyroid gland
• Restlessness and sleeplessness.
• Increased rate of heartbeat
• Large appetite development
• Increased rate of metabolism
• Causes underweight in adults.

3. Name of gland : Parathyroid

Position : neck (behind the thyroid gland)
Hormone secreted : Parathormone

Functions:
• It increases the release of calcium ions from the bone tissue and as such
the amount of calcium circulating in the blood.

Overproduction:
• It leads to excessive removal of calcium from bones leaving them brittle
and liable to fractures.
Underproduction:
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• It leads to low calcium levels leading to nervous disorders and

uncontrollable contraction of muscles called Tetany.

4. Name of gland : Adrenal gland

Position : attached to the kidneys
Producing hormone : Adrenaline

Normal function of hormone:

• Prepares the body for action in an emergency by raising blood pressure
(flight or fight).
• Increases heartbeat
• Increases breathing rate
• Increases blood sugar level.
• Dilates pupils increase supply of blood to the muscles
• Decreases blood supply to the gut.

5. Name of gland : Islets of langerhans

Position : In the pancreas
Producing hormone : Insulin

Normal function of the hormone:

• Lowers the level of glucose in the bloodstream by causing the liver to store
more as glycogen.
• Promotes uptake of glucose from body muscle cells
• Increases protein synthesis in some cell

Effect of under production:

• Causes diabetes (excess glucose in the bloodstream).

6. Name of gland : Ovary

Position : Dorsal abdominal wall
Hormone : Oestrogen and Progesterone

Function of oestrogen:
• Stimulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics in
females' e.g. monthly menstruation.
Function of progesterone:
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• Prepares the uterus fo r pregnancy and stimulates the development of

breasts.
• Maintains the lining of the womb during pregnancy.

Underproduction of progesterone the oestrogen acts alone to:

• Increase in body fat
• Increase in w ater and salt retention
• Increased risk of overgrowth of lining of uterus.

Effects of over production:

• Increased risk of overgrowth of breast tissues.

7. Name of gland : Testes

Position : scrotum
Hormone : testosterone

Function of hormones:
• Stimulates development of secondary sexual characteristics in males and a
growth spurt at puberty.
Under production:
• Decreased energy
• Reduced muscle mass and strength
• Decreased cognitive function
• Reduces sexual interest and potency
• Depression

Overproduction:
• Increased facial hair
• Growth of breast tissue in men
• Higher cholesterol levels

Other glands and their functions:

• Prolactin: - stimulation of breast milk.
• Oxytocin: - induces birth (muscular contraction of uterine walls).
• Glucagon: - converts glycogen to glucose
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• Vasopression: - controls muscle

tone.

Co-ordination of life processes in

plants:

Although plants do not have nervous

and endocrine systems there is a

mechanism by which photosynthesis

and respiration are linked and co­

ordinate in plants for instance, the products of photosynthesis are the raw

materials for respiration and the vice versa, that is, carbohydrate and oxygen

produced in photosynthesis are the raw materials used in respiration by plants to

release energy.

REVISION QUESTIONS:

1997 Questions
1. (i) What is an endocrine gland?

(ii) Give tw o normal functions of thyroxin.

(iii) State three effects of each of the following in humans

(a) Over-secretion of thyroxin

(p) Under-secretion of thyroxin

(iv) List the senses and their associated organs.

1998 Questions
2. (i) Differentiate between voluntary and involuntary actions.
(ii) A boy accidentally touches a hot object and quickly withdraws his hand.

Explain the mechanism involved in this action.

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2000 Questions:
3. State tw o functions of each of the following hormones in the body

(i) Thyroxin (ii) Adrenaline (iii) Insulin

2002 Questions:
4. (i) Draw and label a m otor neuron

(ii) Name tw o other types of neurons

2004 Nov Questions:

5. (i) What is a hormone?

(ii) Name three mammalian hormones and state one function of each.

2008 G.B.C.E Questions

6. State one function each of the following parts of the nervous system:

(i) Sensory neuron;

(ii) M otor neuron;

(iii) Cerebrum.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbey T.K et.al (2001) G.A.S.T Integrated Science for Senior Secondary Schools.
Unimax Macmillan Ltd.

Abbey T.K et. al (1989) G.A.S.T Physics fo r Senior Secondary Schools. Macmillan
Press Ltd