WASA Design Guidelines 2020

DESIGN CRITERIA
A HAND BOOK ON HYDRAULIC DESIGN
1. Water Distribution System
2. Sanitary Sewers
3. Sewage Pump/Lift Stations
4. Waste Water Treatment
5. Storm Water Drainage
WATER AND SANITATION AGENCY

LAHORE DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN CRITERIA .............................................................................................................. i
A HAND BOOK ON HYDRAULIC DESIGN ............................................................................... i
1. Water Distribution System ............................................................................. i
2. Sanitary Sewers ............................................................................................ i
3. Sewage Pump/Lift Stations............................................................................ i
4. Waste Water Treatment ................................................................................ i
5. Storm Water Drainage ................................................................................... i
1- Water Distribution System ............................................................................................... 1
1.1 Source of water .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Estimation of Population............................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Population Densities and Design Period: .................................................................................... 2
1.4 Consumption of water ................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Domestic water consumption: ...................................................................................................... 3
1.4.2 Industrial Water Consumption ....................................................................................... 3
1.4.3 Commercial Water Consumption ................................................................................... 3
1.4.4 Institutional Water Consumption ................................................................................... 3
1.4.5 Loss and waste (Unaccounted-for Water and Non-Revenue-Water) .......................... 3
1.5 Variations in Rate of Consumption .............................................................................................. 3
1.6 Flow Velocities ............................................................................................................................... 3
1.7 Distribution Supply Pressure ....................................................................................................... 4
1.8 Water Supply Network and Water Main Materials ....................................................................... 4
1.9 Pipe Handling ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.10 Network Connections .................................................................................................................... 5
1.11 Jointing ........................................................................................................................................... 5
1.11.1 Ductile Iron (DI) and Cast Iron (CI) Pipe ....................................................................................... 5
1.11.2 PE/HDPE Pipe ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.11.3 uPVC Pipe....................................................................................................................................... 5
1.11.4 GRP Pipe ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.12 Excavation, Pipe Laying and Backfilling ..................................................................................... 5
1.13 Pipe Testing ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.14 Valves ............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.14.1 Sluice Valves .................................................................................................................................. 6
1.14.2 Non-Return Valves ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.14.3 Air Relief Valves and Wash Outs .................................................................................................. 7
1.15 Disinfection .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.15.1 Water Supply Lines........................................................................................................................ 8
1.15.2 Reservoirs ...................................................................................................................................... 8
1.16 Storage ........................................................................................................................................... 8
1.16.1 Overhead Reservoirs ..................................................................................................................... 8
1.16.2 Underground storage tank ............................................................................................................ 9
1.17 Pump Houses/Tubewell Chamber ................................................................................................ 9
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1.18 Fire Hydrants .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.19 House Connection ......................................................................................................................... 9
1.20 Surface water Treatment ............................................................................................................ 10
1.20.1 Design Criteria of Slow Sand Filters ......................................................................................... 10
1.20.2 Design Criteria for Rapid Sand Filters ...................................................................................... 10
2-Sanitary Sewers ............................................................................................................. 12

2.1 Type of Sewerage System ................................................................................................................. 12
2.2 Estimation of Population and Population Densities........................................................................ 12
2.3 Average per Capita Daily Sewage Flow ............................................................................................ 12
2.4 Non-residential Allowance ................................................................................................................. 12
2.5 Groundwater Infiltration..................................................................................................................... 12
2.6 Variations in Wastewater Flow / Peak Factors ................................................................................. 12
i) Average Daily Flow ............................................................................................................................... 12
ii) Population............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.7 Storm Water Allowance ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.8 Design Flow Estimation ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.9 Flow Calculations: .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.10 Classification of Sewers .................................................................................................................. 14
2.11 Minimum Size ................................................................................................................................... 14
2.12 Hydraulic Design .............................................................................................................................. 14
i) RCC Circular Pipe sewer.......................................................................................................... 14
(ii) RCC Conduit Sewer (n=0.015,v=3ft/sec)............................................................................. 15
2.13 Flow Diagrams .................................................................................................................................. 15
2.14 Sewer Alignment .............................................................................................................................. 15
2.15 Pipe Materials and Strength ............................................................................................................ 15
2.16 Sewer Joints ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.17 Outfall works ..................................................................................................................................... 16
2.18 Sewer Manholes ............................................................................................................................... 16
2.19 Drop Manholes: ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.20 Bedding Under RCC Pipe ................................................................................................................ 17
2.20.1 Brick Ballast - Class C Bedding ................................................................................................... 17
2.20.2 Crushed Stone- Class B Bedding ................................................................................................ 17
2.20.3 Concrete Cradle- Class A Bedding .............................................................................................. 17
2.21 Bedding for HDPE & uPVC pipes etc. ............................................................................................. 17
2.22 House Connections:......................................................................................................................... 17
2.23 Inverted Syphon ............................................................................................................................... 18
2.24 Selection of Strength Class, Max Permissible Loads and Max Sewer Depths ........................... 18
2.25 Minimum Soil Cover ......................................................................................................................... 19
2.26 Corrosion of Sewer Pipes (Crown Failure)..................................................................................... 19
2.27 Pipe Jacking and Shafting (Trenchless Technology).................................................................... 19
Typical Applications: ............................................................................................................................... 20
3-Sewage Pump/Lift Stations............................................................................................. 21

3.1 Need for pumping ............................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Type of Pump Station......................................................................................................................... 21
3.3 Pumping station capacities ............................................................................................................... 21
3.4 Selection of Site ................................................................................................................................. 21
3.5 Grit Removal ....................................................................................................................................... 21
3.6 Influent Chamber & Channels ........................................................................................................... 21
3.7 Pump Station Overflow ...................................................................................................................... 22
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3.8 Influent Channels and Bar Screens .................................................................................................. 22
3.9 Wet Wells ............................................................................................................................................ 22
3.10 Sewage Pumps ................................................................................................................................. 22
3.11 Suction and Discharge Piping Materials ........................................................................................ 22
3.12 Net positive Suction Head ............................................................................................................... 23
3.13 Ventilation General ........................................................................................................................... 23
3.13.1 Wet Wells ....................................................................................................................................... 23
3.13.2 Dry Wells ........................................................................................................................................ 23
3.14 Miscellaneous Design Details Access ............................................................................................ 23
3.14.1 Electrical Equipment ..................................................................................................................... 24
3.14.2 Pump Removal............................................................................................................................... 24
3.14.3 Dry well Sump Pumps ................................................................................................................... 24
3.14.4 Sewage Pump Controls ................................................................................................................ 24
3.14.5 Standby Power Source ................................................................................................................. 24
3.15 Manuals and Maintenance Equipment (Operating Instructions) .................................................. 24
3.15.1 Maintenance Schedules ................................................................................................................ 24
3.15.2 Tools and Spare Parts................................................................................................................... 24
3.16 Design Period for Building, Sewer and Pumps.............................................................................. 25
4- Wastewater Treatment .................................................................................................. 26

4.1 Municipal Wastewater Characteristics & Quality Parameters ........................................................ 26
4.2 Wastewater Treatment ....................................................................................................................... 26
4.3 Treatment Methods ............................................................................................................................ 28
4.4 Process Selection Consideration...................................................................................................... 28
4.5 Wastewater Treatment Technologies Design Criteria ..................................................................... 29
4.5.1 Wastewater Stabilization Ponds ........................................................................................................ 29
4.5.2 Anaerobic Ponds ............................................................................................................................... 29
4.5.2.1 Standard/Design Criteria for Anaerobic Ponds ............................................................................... 29
4.6 Facultative Ponds ............................................................................................................................... 31
Standards/Design Criteria for Facultative Ponds ........................................................................... 31
4.7 Maturation Ponds ............................................................................................................................... 31
4.7.1 Standards/Design Criteria for Maturation Ponds ............................................................................... 32
4.8 Trickling Filters ................................................................................................................................... 32
Standards/Design Criteria for Conventional or Standard Rate Filters ............................................ 34
Standards/Design Criteria for High Rate Filters ............................................................................. 34
Standards/Design Criteria for Aeration Tanks ................................................................................ 36
4.9 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) ..................................................................................................... 36
4.10 Membrane bio-reactors .................................................................................................................... 37
4.11 Extended Aeration ............................................................................................................................ 38
4.12 Oxidation Ditches ............................................................................................................................. 39
Standards/Design Criteria for Oxidation Ditches ............................................................................ 40
4.13 Aerated Lagoons (AL) ..................................................................................................................... 40
Standards/Design Criteria for Aerated Lagoons ............................................................................ 41
4.14 Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT) ......................................................................... 42
4.15 Disinfection ....................................................................................................................................... 42
4.15.1 Characteristics of an Ideal Disinfectant ............................................................................... 42
4.15.2 Disinfection Methods .......................................................................................................... 43
4.16 Comparison of Disinfection Technologies..................................................................................... 44
4.17 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse- Definition of Terms ........................................................... 46
4.18 Level Ill: Advanced Treatment......................................................................................................... 48
4.19 Alternate Treatment.......................................................................................................................... 48
4.20 Sludge treatment and disposal ....................................................................................................... 48
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4.20.1 Sludge Treatment Technologies ......................................................................................... 48
4.21 Sludge Thickening (Conditioning) and Dewatering....................................................................... 48
4.22 Anaerobic digestion ......................................................................................................................... 51
4.23 Lime stabilization ............................................................................................................................. 51
4.24 Composting ...................................................................................................................................... 51
4.25 Heat drying ........................................................................................................................................ 51
4.26 Incineration ....................................................................................................................................... 52
4.27 Sludge Utilization/Disposal ............................................................................................................. 52
4.28 Landfilling ......................................................................................................................................... 52
4.29 Land application ............................................................................................................................... 52
4.30 Use in the Manufacture of Construction Materials ........................................................................ 52
4.31 Project Specific Wastewater Treatment Option ............................................................................. 53
4.31.1 Sustainability Issues ........................................................................................................... 53
4.32 Centralized wastewater management ............................................................................................. 53
4.33 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment ............................................................................................. 53
4.34 Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Option.................................................................................... 54
5-Storm Water Drainage .................................................................................................... 57

5.1 Storm Water Generation .................................................................................................................... 57
5.2 Computation of Rainfall Runoff ........................................................................................................ 58
5.2.1 Unit Hydrograph Method ................................................................................................................ 58
5.2.2 Rational Method............................................................................................................................... 58
5.2.3 Computation Method for Project Area ........................................................................................... 58
5.2.4 Rational Formula ............................................................................................................................. 58
5.2.5 Runoff Coefficient (C) .................................................................................................................... 58
5.2.6 Rainfall Intensity (I) ......................................................................................................................... 60
5.2.7 IDF Curve ......................................................................................................................................... 60
5.2.8 Peak Run-off .................................................................................................................................... 60
5.2.9 Return Period................................................................................................................................... 61
5.2.10 Storm Water Routing..................................................................................................................... 61
5.2.10.1 Steady Flow Routing .................................................................................................................. 62
5.2.10.2 Kinematic Wave Routing ........................................................................................................... 62
5.2.10.3 Dynamic Wave Routing.............................................................................................................. 62
5.3 Type of Drains .................................................................................................................................... 62
5.4 Design Period .................................................................................................................................... 63
5.5 Inlets ................................................................................................................................................... 63
5.6 Drain Materials .................................................................................................................................... 63
5.7 Minimum Sizes of Drain .................................................................................................................... 63
5.8 Hydraulic Design .............................................................................................................................. 63
5.8.1 Design Velocity ................................................................................................................................ 64
5.8.2 Bridge Clearance ............................................................................................................................. 64
5.8.3 Longitudinal Slope .......................................................................................................................... 64
5.8.4 Freeboard in Drain........................................................................................................................... 64
5.8.5 Drain Outfall Level ........................................................................................................................... 64
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Typical Characteristics of Raw Municipal Wastewater………………………………………………………………………26
Table 4.2 Recommended Treated Wastewater Quality Parameters ………………………………………………………………….26
Table 4.3 Levels of Wastewater Treatment .............................................................................................................................. 28
Table 4.4 Theoretical BOD5 Reduction at 22 Degree Centigrade ............................................................................................. 30
Table 4.5 Actual BOD5 Reduction as a Function of Retention Time ......................................................................................... 30
Table 4.6 Showing Relationship between Anaerobic Pond Temperature, Retention Time and BOD5 Reduction ...................... 31
Table 4.7 Characteristics of an ideal disinfectant ..................................................................................................................... 43
Table 4.8 Comparison of ideal and actual characteristics of commonly used disinfectants....................................................... 43
Table 4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Disinfection Technologies .................................................................................. 44
Table 4.10 Definition of terms used in water reuse applications ................................................................................................. 46
Table 4.11 Treatment levels achievable with various combinations of unit operations and processes ..................................... 47
Table 4.12 Comparison of various sludge de-watering technologies .......................................................................................... 48
Table 4.13 Power and Chemical Consumption of Various Thickening Options .......................................................................... 50
Table 4.14 Power and Chemical Consumption of Various Dewatering Options .......................................................................... 51
Table 4.15 Comparison of Various Wastewater Treatment Technologies .................................................................................. 55
Table 4.16 Comparison of Various Wastewater Treatment Technologies .................................................................................. 56
Table 5.1 Drainage Districts..................................................................................................................................................... 57
Table 5.2 Runoff Coefficients for Different Types of surfaces................................................................................................... 59
Table 5.3 Manning’s Coefficient for Different Materials ............................................................................................................ 64
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Flow diagram for sewage collection and treatment ................................................................................................... 27
Figure 4.2 Typical Wastewater Stabilization Ponds Process flow diagram ................................................................................ 29
Figure 4.3 Typical Trickling Filter Process Flow Diagram ………………………………………………………………………………32
Figure 4.4 Typical Trickling Filter Process Flow Diagram (cross-section)…………………………………………………………… 33
Figure 4.5 Typical Activated Sludge Process Flow Diagram...................................................................................................... 35
Figure 4.6 Typical Sequencing batch Reactor Process ............................................................................................................. 36
Figure 4.7 Typical Sequencing batch Reactor Process…………………………………………………………………………. ……...37
Figure 4.8 Typical Membrane Bioreactor process flow diagram ................................................................................................ 38
Figure 4.9 Typical Extended Aeration Activated Sludge process flow diagram .......................................................................... 38
Figure 4.10 Oxidation Ditches Typical Process Flow Diagram .................................................................................................... 39
Figure 4.11 Concept diagram of Aerated Lagoon ........................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 4.12 Flow Diagram for CEPT ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 5.1 Intensity Duration Frequency curves for Lahore City (1951-2015) ............................................................................ 60
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX-1
WATER SUPPLY PIPE TRENCH DETAIL (STD-WS-01) …………………………………………………………………………………………… 67
DETAIL OF SLUICE VALVE AND FIRE HYDRANT CHAMBER (STD-WS-02)…………………………………………………………………… .68
TUBE WELL CHAMBER (STD-WS-03)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….69
INSTALLATION CONSTRUCTION OF 2 CFS CAPCITY TUBE WELL BORE HOLE & CONNECTION PIPING DETAILS (STD-WS-04)……70
INSTALLATION CONSTRUCTION OF 4 CFS CAPCITY TUBE WELL BORE HOLE & CONNECTION PIPING DETAILS (STD-WS-05).......71
WATER SUPPLY HOUSE CONNECTION DETAIL (STD-WS-06)……………………………………………………………………………….......72
APPENDIX-2
HYDRUALIC STATEMENT PROFORMA FOR DESIGN OF SEWERS………………………………………………………………………………78
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE LOADS & SEWER DEPTHS FOR CLASS-III & CLASS-IV (C 76) SEWER PIPES …………………………………. 79
MANHOLE SEWER 9" TO 33" (SMH-01) PART 1 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………..84
MANHOLE SEWER 9" TO 33" (SMH-01) PART 2 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………..85
MANHOLE SEWER 36" TO 72" (SMH-02) PART 1 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………86
MANHOLE SEWER 36" TO 72" (SMH-02) PART 2 OF 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 87
TYPICAL MANHOLES FOR CONDUIT SEWERS (SMH-04)………………………………………………………………………………………….90
APPENDIX-3
TYPICAL RCC DRAIN SECTIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….92
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1- Water Distribution System
1.1 Source of water
Ground water has been the only source of water for supply of potable water to citizens of Lahore. Ground
water abstraction from Lahore aquifer has been going on since times immemorable. Water abstraction is
through tube wells installed in the whole city from which the water is pumped directly into the distribution
system. Recharging of aquifer on the other hand is bleak because River Ravi, main source of recharge, has
almost dried up. This un-balance in natural system is resulting increase in annual draw down of ground
water which being unending has become a potential threat for WASA Lahore. The induction of surface
water as second source has, therefore been extremely necessitated.
1.2 Estimation of Population
The census data was collected from Pakistan Bureau of Statistics released for different periods (1951-2007)
for ascertaining trend of population growth in the study area. A decrease in the growth rate was noticed for
this period. The declining growth rate for different time periods in the planning horizon was worked out,
itemized as under:
Period Annual Growth Rate
2017-2020 2.83
2021-2025 2.75
2026-2030 2.68
2031-2035 2.61
2036-2040 2.54
The population projection in Lahore District was carried out till 2040 using these growth rates. Using the
census figure of 2017, the anticipated population has been worked out for different time periods till 2040:
Year Annual Growth Rate Population

11,126,000
2017 -
11,664,000
2020 2.83
13,139,000
2025 2.75
14,712,000
2030 2.67
16,381,000
2035 2.60
18,148,000
2040 2.53
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1.3 Population Densities and Design Period:
Population density is the number of persons to be served in unit area. The engineer is most concerned to
the same as he has to design the system so that each part of the city is adequately served. Before design
of water works, length of time for which proposed system is to serve may be established. This is called
design period. The economic design period of a structure/component of the system depends upon its life,
capital cost and ease of expansion etc. Different segments of water supply system may be appropriately
designed for differing periods of time using differing capacity criteria.
Design Period of different components of water supply system is given below:
Component Design Life
Tube Well 10-15 years
Pump House/Tubewell chamber 25 years
Pumping Machinery 10 years
25 years. The capacities of distribution system are

to be based on peak hour demand while tube wells
Distribution System and rising mains are to be based on maximum day
demand.
25 years. The size of rising mains should be based
Rising Mains
on maximum day demand.
20 years (Repair or replacement of the pumping sets

Slow Sand Filter Plants
might be necessary after 10 years of operation).
25 years (Repair or replacement of the pumping sets

Rapid Sand Filter plants
might be necessary after 10 years of operation).
Population densities can be classified as low, medium, high and saturated as per following criteria:
Density Density Classification
Up to 200 persons/ha Low
201 to 400 persons/ha Medium
401 to 600 persons/ha High
Greater than 600 persons/ha Saturated
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1.4 Consumption of water
1.4.1 Domestic water consumption:
Keeping in view the scarcity of ground water and to balance the ever increasing water demand, per capita
water consumption has been recommended to be reduced from 80 gpcd to 50 gpcd (Imperial Gallon, UK)
for the whole Lahore district.
1.4.2 Industrial Water Consumption
Usually large industries do not depend upon public water supply system. However, if so, the actual required
demand may be included in total requirement of water.
1.4.3 Commercial Water Consumption
Commercial water consumption is related with commercial floor area to be served. Average figure of 0.3
gallon per sft per day may be used for working out water requirement (Symons’ Formula) (for single storey).
1.4.4 Institutional Water Consumption
For institutions such as public buildings, hospitals, hostels, schools, colleges, universities, jails and
mosques, an allowance @ 10 gallons per boarder and @ 5 gallons per day scholar is to be made
1.4.5 Loss and waste (Unaccounted-for Water and Non-Revenue-Water)
This loss of water is due to non-availability of metering system, un-authorized water connections and leaks
in the system. The un-accounted-for water and Non-Revenue-Water can be minimized by 100% metering of
the system, proper leakage detection and repair of the same, improvement in distribution system and
stringent measures against defaulters and illegal connections, however, a bare minimum figures of 10% as
loss and waste may be accounted for in calculation of water consumption.
The total water consumption will be the sum of above stated uses and loss/waste.
1.5 Variations in Rate of Consumption
Maximum day demand = 1.5 x the average day demand

Peak hour demand = 2.25 x the average day demand
Peak hour demand = 1.5 x the maximum day demand
Distribution system comprising of direct pumping should be based on peak demand (2.25 times the average
day demand) while distribution system having rising mains should be based on maximum day demand (1.5
x the average day demand). The number of tubewells are also worked out on the maximum day demand.
1.6 Flow Velocities
For primary network, desirable range of flow velocities:

Maximum 8.0 ft/sec, Minimum 0.8 ft/sec
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Velocity of flow in pipes:
a) Distribution Mains : 1.0 to 5 feet/ second
b) Rising Mains : 1.0 to 8 feet/ second
1.7 Distribution Supply Pressure
Desirable range of water pressures:

Maximum Pressure= 60 psi
Minimum Pressure= 20 psi
1.8 Water Supply Network and Water Main Materials
Water supply system can be categorized into Primary and Secondary network as below:
Primary Network/Mains : 14 inch pipe dia and larger.
Secondary Network/Mains : 12 inch pipe dia and smaller.
Recommended minimum size of distribution mains should be 3 inches for Lahore District. However, velocity
shall be the controlling factor.
Design Life
Pipe Material Usage Typical sizes
(Years)
For both Primary &

High density
Secondary Network and
Polyethylene Minimum 50
Service House 3 inches to 14inches (SDR-17)
Pipe/Tubing (HDPE)
Connection and (SDR-21)
Un-Plasticized
Polyvinyl Chloride For Secondary Network 03 inches to 14 inches 50
(uPVC)
Primary, Secondary
Ductile Iron (D.I.) Network, Rising Mains 03 inches to 32inches 100
and Tubewell Delivery
Primary, Secondary
Cast Iron(C.I) Network, Rising Mains 03 inches to 32inches 50
and Tubewell Delivery
Glass Fibre Reinforced Rising Mains and

8 inches to 144inches Minimum 50
Pipes (GRP) Tubewell Delivery
1.9 Pipe Handling
This includes un-loading of pipe from freight train/ truck/tractor trolley, carrying to the job, storage in the
yards or along the road/street and placing in the trench. All pipes and fittings should be washed carefully for
any damage when these are being un-loaded at the installation site. Pipes and fittings should never be
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dropped from the truck/tractor trolley to the ground. If handling of pipe is facilitated through a derrick
mounted on a truck with cable and hooks, the hook should be rubber covered. If a fork lift is used, care is
needed to avoid damaging the exterior coating, interior lining, or the pipe itself. In moving pipes and fittings,
they should never be pushed by a bulldozer blade or other mechanical equipment, but should be either
rolled by hand or moved by hoist.
1.10 Network Connections
• All exterior main feeder water supplies a n d i n t e r n a l w a t e r distribution s y s t e m shall be looped

for dependability and to meet the pressure requirements of peak hour water usage plus fire flows.
• Dead-end water lines shall be eliminated wherever possible by looping of all water mains.
• Long water service lines shall not be allowed in lieu of water main extensions, where a water main
extension would serve other customers or areas.
• Concrete thrust blocks shall be formed and poured-in-place on fittings/joints as and where required to
resist hydraulic thrust. Thrust blocks shall be sized based on sound engineering judgments.
• Where dead ends occur, there should be some provision for flushing such as a fire hydrant.
• No flushing device should be connected to a sewer line.
1.11 Jointing
1.11.1 Ductile Iron (DI) and Cast Iron (CI) Pipe
Push-on or mechanical type, with rubber gasket joints are used.
1.11.2 PE/HDPE Pipe
Electro fusion is a simple method of joining PE pipes in normal practice. Prefabricated fittings are used,
incorporating an electrical heating coil which melts the plastic of both the fitting and the pipe, causing them
to fuse together. Butt fusion for pipe joints in straight run except in all types of sluice valves where
mechanical or Gibault joint is used.
1.11.3 uPVC Pipe
Push-on or mechanical for pipe joints and Gibault or mechanical joints for all types of valves jointing is
used.
1.11.4 GRP Pipe
Flange joints, mechanical joints or adhesive based joints with elastomeric gasket for water tightness are
used.
1.12 Excavation, Pipe Laying and Backfilling
Trench to be excavated for laying of water supply pipes should be wide enough to allow good workmanship.
WASA Standard Drawing No. STD-WS-01 (Appendix-I) shall be followed for determining required width of
trench for different sizes of water supply pipelines. Usually the trench will not be deep enough to require
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bracing. It is not necessary to lay water pipes according to grade, however, sufficient cover is required to
give protection to the pipe against traffic load.
Water pipes in Lahore may be installed with a trench depth that provides a cover of 2.5 to 5 feet over top of
the pipe, depending on the pipe size, except at places where it is necessary to go deeper to get under
obstructions. Secondary network pipes should have a cover of 2.5 to 3.5 feet. Bed should be cleaned and
leveled firmly and the soil at bed level should be un-disturbed. All pipes and fittings must be adequately
supported by the trench bottom. Backfilling material should be free from cinders, refuse or large stones.
• All pipes shall be laid to a minimum depth of three feet (3') from established final grade to the top of the
pipe. Water pipe shall not be laid at depths exceeding eight feet (8').
• Continuous uniform bedding is needed. Stones found in the trench should be removed for a depth of at
least 6 inches below the bottom of the pipe. Pipe can be laid on the trench bottom without special
bedding material if the soil is suitable and the bottom has been leveled properly.
• For pipe laid in poor soil, wet trench or rock, special bedding material must be provided. At the pipe
joints, holes must be provided for bells or couplings and for making up the joints.
• Where needed, Pit sand should be used as the preferred bedding material for continuous, uniform
bedding
• Partial backfill should be done before leakage test while complete backfill should be done after
satisfactory tests. The partial backfill should leave joints exposed or covered only by a shallow layer of
earth. The backfill material should be good soil which does not contain any rocks, bricks or hard lumps
of clay. For some pipe materials, special precautions are needed during backfill operations, as
recommended by the pipe manufacturer.
1.13 Pipe Testing
• Prior to testing, the pipeline shall be filled at a rate, which will not cause any surges, nor will it exceed
the rate at which the air can be released through the air valves at a reasonable velocity and all the air
within the pipe shall be properly purged.
• If no air valves are installed on the pipeline, air shall be released through blow offs.
• Where blow offs are not available or are not effective in purging air from the line, the inspector shall
require a tap to purge the line. The location of the tap shall be at the highest point on the line.
1.14 Valves
Various types of valves are used in water supply system for conveyance of water. Commonly used valves
are described here:
1.14.1 Sluice Valves
Sluice/Gate valves are essentially required to be installed in water supply system for isolation of small
portion where repair work is needed. Consequently a fair number of valves will be required so that only a
small portion of the system need to be shut off at one time. Sluice valves are generally placed at street
corners where lines intercept. Valves placed on every pipeline at the intersection would mean that only one
block would be cut off when a break occurs. Refer to WASA Standard Drawing No. STD-WS-02 (Appendix-
I).
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• Sluice/Gate valves on main lines shall be installed on each line at all street intersections, with a
maximum in line distance between valves of 500' in commercial and multi- family areas, and 600' in
single-family residential areas and 750’ in open space areas.
• Sluice Valves shall also be installed on all fire hydrant branches and all distribution main branches off
transmission mains. Where connecting to previously installed extensions of the water system with
valves already installed, WASA Lahore may require replacement of older valve installations to provide
for "as new" conditions.
• Additional Sluice valves may also be required to provide for isolation of the new system from older
sections to provide for testing of newly completed lines separate from the existing system.
• Sluice Valve chambers located in sodded or other off-street areas shall be so set and adjusted that the
covers shall be exposed and flush with finished surface elevation.
• Sluice/Gate Valves shall conform to BSS specifications.
• Valves shall be installed at the intersection of water lines. Generally, three (3) valves will be used at
crosses and two (2) valves at tees. A valve shall also be installed at least every one thousand feet
(1,000') on distribution mains. A valve shall be installed between the last service and the terminus of
any water main that can be extended in the future.
• Where a water main that can be extended is terminated beyond a gate valve on that main, the minimum
length of pipeline between valve and end of the line shall be thirty-six feet (36'). Additional length shall
be required to insure future extension with minimum surface destruction.
a) No services shall be installed between gate valve and end of line that can be extended.
b) Whenever possible to avoid, no gate valve shall be located under a concrete valley gutter. Water lines
shall be laid with a minimum parallel offset of 3 feet from centerline of the pipe to either face of concrete
curbing.
1.14.2 Non-Return Valves
Non-Return/Check valves permit water to flow in only one direction and are generally used to prevent
reversal of flow when pumps are shut down. Check valves installed at the end of a suction line are called
foot valves which prevent draining of the suction when the pump stops. Non return valve will be provided in
distribution pipe with a length exceeding 1500 Rft.
1.14.3 Air Relief Valves and Wash Outs
In long pipelines, air will accumulate in the high points of the line and may interfere with flow. It is, therefore,
necessary to place air valves at those points when trouble is expected.
• Air valves will be provided at summits or an interval of 5000 - 6500 Rft. to escape trapped air. Similarly,
washouts will be provided at lowest points for washing the line when required.
• The material of the air relief valve shall be Cast Iron.
• The air release valve inlet connection should be as large as possible to maximize the exchange of air
and water in the valve.
7
1.15 Disinfection
1.15.1 Water Supply Lines
Newly laid water supply lines are liable to be polluted during carriage, handling and laying. Therefore,
before disinfection, laid lines should be flushed. The use of foam or rigid pig which is either driven through
the lines by the water pressure or pulled through by a cable is desirable. After satisfactory flushing and
cleaning, the pipe lines may be disinfected. All water mains should be flushed and disinfected after
installation, by sections as completed.
• Chlorine dosage shall be at least 25 mg/l and shall be retained in the line at least 24 hours, at which
time the chlorine residual at pipe extremities and other respective points shall be at least 10 mg/l. The
main shall be flushed as soon as possible after chlorination is complete (within 24 hours).
• If less than 10 mg/l is obtained after the initial 24 hour, the disinfection procedure shall be repeated until
a 10 mg/l residual is obtained.
• Chlorine required for disinfection of pipeline is determined as follows:
Million gallons x 8.34 x mg/l dosage = lbs (Pounds of 100% chemical to use)
1.15.2 Reservoirs
• Storage tank shall be filled to overflow level with potable water to which enough chlorine has been
added to produce an initial chlorine concentration of 50 mg/l in the full tank.
• The full tank should preferably stand for 24 hours; however, in no case, shall it stand less than 6 hours.
At the end of the holding period, the highly chlorinated water shall be drained to waste, the tank refilled
with potable water and tested for bacteriological quality
• All interior surfaces of the tank shall have applied to them a strong chlorine solution containing at least
200 mg/l of free available chlorine. The chlorine solution shall be applied with either spray equipment or
brushes.
• Any equipment used to apply the chlorine solution shall either be new or previously used only for
disinfection purposes. Strong chlorine solution shall remain in contact with tank surfaces for at least 30
minutes. Tank shall then be filled with potable water to overflow level and tested for bacteriological
quality.
• Two consecutive bacteriological samples collected at 24-hour intervals shall be obtained from the
standpipe structure before the tank is placed into service.
1.16 Storage
Water is stored to equalize pumping rates over the day, to equalize supply and demand over a period of
high consumption, and to furnish water for such emergencies as fire fighting or accidental breakdowns.
Elevated storage is furnished in concrete or steel reservoirs.
1.16.1 Overhead Reservoirs
• Minimum capacity of reservoir shall be 1/6th of the average daily demand.

• All pressurized supply lines from the source must be connected to the OHRs.
• OHRs shall be designed and constructed to meet the requirements of Seismic Zone 2A.
8
• Overflow to ground should be as per capacity of tube well, located near roof opening. Provide coarse
screen and concrete splash pad and erosion protected channel from overflow to drainage system or
natural channel.
• Separate drain line to drainage system or natural channel with erosion protection
• Separate fill and discharge lines to provide adequate mixing and minimize short-circuiting.
1.16.2 Underground storage tank
Underground storage tanks are constructed within a distribution network to meet the peak flow
requirements exterted on the system and to provide emergency storage.
•
th
The capacity of underground storage tank may be taken as 1/4 of the average daily demand.
• The design of underground storage tank should be based on ACI-350-06 “Code Requirements for
Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures”.
• Access ways/ladder is necessary to provide safe maintenance access.
• Additives or coatings must be used for substantial contact with stored water. In case of concrete tanks,
concrete surface sealants, curing compounds or plasticizers may be used and for steel tanks, paint/coat
or cathodic protection can be done to protect against corrosion.
1.17 Pump Houses/Tubewell Chamber
Refer to WASA Standard Drawing No. STD-WS-03, 04 & 05 (Appendix-I) for Tubewell Chamber and
Installation of 2-cusec and 4-cusec capacity tubewell.
1.18 Fire Hydrants
• For convenience of access, fire hydrants should be provided close to street/road intersections.
• In high value areas, additional hydrants may be necessary in the middle of large blocks. In high rise
buildings, their own elevated storage may be provided for maintenance of useful pressure on upper
floors as well as for fire protection. Such systems may be connected to external hydrants which provide
a limited high pressure source of water for fire flow.
• All hydrants shall be a minimum of fifty feet (50') away from buildings other than single-family detached
dwellings.
• The location of all new and existing hydrants property shall be shown on the plans of water supply
system.
• The capacity of fire hydrants to deliver water should not be less than 7 gallons per second.
• Two types of fire hydrants i-e Lorry hydrants and Garden Fire hydrants has been installed in Lahore.
1.19 House Connection
For detail of water supply house connection, refer to WASA Standard Drawing No. STD-WS-06 (Appendix-
I).
9
1.20 Surface water Treatment
The choice of treatment operations depends on the quality and variability of the raw water source and
the treatment objectives, which may vary for industrial as opposed to municipal needs. There are two
filtration alternatives commonly in use i.e slow and rapid sand filter.
1.20.1 Design Criteria of Slow Sand Filters
Component Typical Standards
Raw water storage 50% of 21 days average water requirement
Rate of filtration 40 gallons per day per sft of sand area
Depth of filter sand 30-36 inches
(d10) top of filter gravel to 1 feet : 0.30 to 0.35 mm
1 to 2 feet : 0.25 to 0.30 mm

Effective size of sand
Top layer 9 inches minimum : 0.18 to 0.22 mm
Uniformity Co-efficient of sand(d60/d10) 2.5
Depth of water over the sand 3 to 4 feet
Velocity of water in under drainage

Not more than 0.75 feet/second
system
1.20.2 Design Criteria for Rapid Sand Filters
Component Typical Standards
Flocculation Tank
Detention Time 20 to 30 seconds
Velocity Gradient 20 to 75 litres/second
Diffuser Wall
Velocity through the Diffuser Wall to

0.5 feet/second
prevent floc break up
Sedimentation Tank
10
Detention Time 1.5 to 4.0 hours
3 2
Overflow Rate 131 to ft /ft /hr
Side Water Depth 10 to 16.5 feet
Rapid Sand Gravity Filters
Type of Filters Constant Head
Filter Media Sand

3 2
Filtration Rate 16.4 to 49 ft /ft /hr
Bed Depth 2.0 to 5.9 feet
Uniformity Coefficient 1.3 to 1.7
Backwash Flow Rate Media 10% of the settling velocity of the filter
3 2
30 to 60 m /m /hr
Air Flow Rate
3 2
36 to 72 m /m /hr
Minimum Filtration Cycle 24 hours
Chemicals
Coagulants Alum & Lime
Disinfection Chlorine
11
2-Sanitary Sewers
2.1 Type of Sewerage System
Present day trend of constructing sewerage system is largely in favor of a complete separate system.
However, cities like Lahore where combined / partially combined system has previously been
constructed, it is very difficult to go for a separate system to provide the service in leftover areas and
to extend the same at the periphery of the city. Secondly, even if it is attempted in some areas, roads
/ streets, are too narrow to accommodate separate drainage system. Separate sewerage and
drainage system can be opted in new localities being developed in private as well as government
sector. It is, therefore, recommended as a general rule that new sewerage system isolated from
existing trunk infrastructure may be designed as separate system with no permission of storm water.
However, extension, replacement, augmentation in existing infrastructure and provision of system in
left over pockets, prevalent practice will be continued.
2.2 Estimation of Population and Population Densities
Estimation of population has already been discussed in section 1.2 of water supply guidelines. In
general, sewers are required to be designed for estimated ultimate tributary population while the
construction can be carried out in more than one stage. Primary collectors, interceptors and
permanent pumping stations / forcemains should be constructed after at least 50% inhabitation of the
contributory area.
2.3 Average per Capita Daily Sewage Flow
According to JICA Study (2010), percentage assumed to reach sewer is 100% of per capita water
demand.
2.4 Non-residential Allowance
10% of average daily sewage flow is required to be added to cater for any additional water discharge
other than sanitary sewage, which are not very large and un-measurable. For purely Industrial areas,
allowance to be taken on actual demands.
2.5 Groundwater Infiltration
An allowance for ground water Infiltration is to be taken not exceeding 10% of average daily flow for
sewers 24” and above only.
2.6 Variations in Wastewater Flow / Peak Factors
Following Peak Factors will be used to compute peak flow (max hourly rate of sewage flow) with
respect to:
i) Average Daily Flow

Average Daily Peak Factor
Flow (Cfs)
Upto 1.0 4.00
1.1 to 2.0 3.40
2.1 to 4.0 3.10
4.1 to 10 2.70
12
Average Daily
Peak Factor
Flow (Cfs)
11 to 20 2.50
21 to 40 2.30
41 to 100 2.15
101 to 200 2.08
Above 200 2.00
ii) Population
Population
Peak Factor
(in thousands)
Upto 10 4.00
10-25 3.50
25 to 50 3.00
50-100 2.50
More than 100 2.00
2.7 Storm Water Allowance
In partially combined sewerage system, the allowance for storm water would not exceed the sum of
peak hourly rate of sewage, non-residential areas allowance and infiltration allowance. The provision
of 100% allowance may be compromised at the cost of delayed clearance of storm water upto 50%
keeping in view either financial constraints or limitation of sizes of existing sewerage system. For
complete separate sewerage system, no allowance for storm water will be added in design flow.
2.8 Design Flow Estimation
Total Design flow will be calculated as under:
a) Calculate the ultimate tributary population of the area served by the sewer.
b) Multiply total population with per capita sewage flow (50 gpcd) to obtain average daily flow.
c) Select Peak factor from the table given in Sec 2.6.
d) Multiply, the average daily rate by the peak factor to obtain the peak sanitary flow
e) Calculate non-residential flow @ 10% of average sanitary flow. For purely industrial estates/
areas, allowance to be taken on actual demand.
f) Calculate the infiltration allowance @ 10% of average daily flow (only for trunk sewers of size
24" and above),
g) Add storm water allowance rate not exceeding the sum of items (d), (e) and (f)
h) For purely industrial sources of wastewater in the tributary area, their flows will be calculated
and added in the sum obtained in item (g).
i) Total design flow for the sewer (estimated peak design flow) would be the sum of items (d)
through (h)
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2.9 Flow Calculations:
Sewer design calculations should be presented in standard tabular form properly annotated and
identified. Sample hydraulic statement is attached in Appendix-II.
2.10 Classification of Sewers
(i) Laterals – Sewers that discharge into a secondary or other sewer and have no other
tributary; (9-inch dia).
(ii) Secondary Sewers – Also known as branch or sub-main sewers, into which two or more
laterals discharge, carry the flows to the primary collector or interceptor; (9 to 15-inch
diameter).
(iii) Primary sewers - Also known as main or trunk sewers, into which laterals and
secondary sewers discharge, carry flows to interceptor or pump station; (18-inch diameter
and larger).
(iv) Interceptors – Sewers that receive flows from a number of transverse or tributary
sewers, and conduct such flows to a point for pumping, treatment, or disposal; (similar range
of sizes as of primary sewers.
2.11 Minimum Size
No R.C.C sewer should be smaller than 9-inch diameter while no UPVC/HDPE/Spiral Plastic Pipes
etc should be less than 8-inch dia.
2.12 Hydraulic Design
All sewers should be designed on self-cleansing velocity, to minimize the settling of solids. Keeping in
view the quality of sewage in Lahore containing heavy sand and grit besides a fair quantity of solid
waste, the minimum self-cleansing velocity has been revised from 2 ft/sec to 2.50 ft/sec. Under
unavoidable conditions slightly lesser slopes may be permitted, but only when the depth of flow in
sewers is at least 0.3 of the diameter for average daily flow. Based on the Manning’s Formula, the
following minimum slopes will be used to attain velocity of 2.50 ft/sec when flowing full.
i) RCC Circular Pipe sewer
Sewer size
Minimum slope
(inches)
9 0.00440
12 0.00300
15 0.00220
18 0.00180
21 0.00140
24 0.00120
27 0.00100
30 0.00090
36 0.00080
42 0.00057
48 0.00048
54 0.00041
14
Sewer size
Minimum slope
(inches)
60 0.00035
66 0.00031
72 0.00028
(ii) RCC Conduit Sewer (n=0.015,v=3ft/sec)
Minimum slope
Common Conduit size
ft/ft
6’ x 6’ 0.00036
7’ x 6’ 0.00031
8’ x 6’ 0.00028
8'x7' 0.00026
11'x7' 0.00020
12’x8’ 0.00018
Manning's Roughness Coefficient n = 0.013 for R.C.C pipe, 0.015 for RCC Conduit Sewer and 0.009
for UPVC/HDPE/Spiral Plastic Pipes.
2.13 Flow Diagrams
Nomograms for the solution of Manning’s Formula for various range of RCC Sewer of pipe sizes with
“n” equal to 0.013 and attached in Appendix -II.
2.14 Sewer Alignment
All sewers shall be laid with uniform slope between manholes. Sewers 24 -inch dia or smaller shall be
laid with a straight horizontal alignment between manholes, however for sewers 30-inch size or larger,
smooth horizontal curves between manholes can be allowed, if desirable.
2.15 Pipe Materials and Strength
Any generally accepted materials for sewers should be given consideration, however, the materials
selected for sewer pipes should be suitable for local conditions, such as character of sewage wastes,
soil characteristics, heavy external loadings, abrasion and similar problems. All sewers should be
strong enough to prevent damage from superimposed loads. Proper allowance for loads on the sewer
should also be made on the basis of the width and depth of trench. Reinforced concrete sewer pipes
have been in use for sewerage system since long time due to ease in availability and in a wide range
of size. However, WASA has been facing crown failure problem in recent past especially in RCC trunk
sewers. Recently UPVC pipe has also been used for small size sewer lines. Ductile Iron pipe and
Cast Iron pipe have been in use for force mains since long. However, now PE pipe is also being used
in force mains successfully. Recently spiral plastic pipe has been launched in the market which is
manufactured at site of work as per requirement in a single length without any joint.
2.16 Sewer Joints
For RCC pipe sewers rubber gasket joints should be used, pipe ends being bell and spigot or tongue
and groove design. Leakage Tests should be carried out for newly constructed sewers, by water
testing. Leakage outward or inward (exfiltration or infiltration) should not exceed 500 Imperial gallons
15
per inch of pipe diameter per mile of sewer per day. For uPVC Z-joint, bell and spigot joints with
gasket will be used, whereas spiral plastic pipes do not require jointing as they are formed in a
continuous length. PE pipes are joined through Fusion Butt joints.
2.17 Outfall works
The function of outfall sewer is to receive discharge from all collecting system and to convey it to the
point of final disposal. The outfall sewer shall be designed to discharge to the receiving stream in a
manner acceptable to the executing authority. The outfall sewer shall be so constructed and protected
against the effects of floodwater, tide, and other hazards as to reasonably ensure its structural
stability and freedom from stoppage.
2.18 Sewer Manholes
Manholes are provided in a sewerage system as a mean of access for inspection and cleaning. These
are essentially required at points where there is change in grade, size, direction and at all
intersections. Sewers can be categorized as
(i) Non man entry sewers (9" to 42" i/d)
(ii) Man entry sewers (48"i/ d and above)
The spacing of manholes keeping in view the experience of Lahore WASA is recommended as under:
Sewer Size Spacing

9"- 15" dia 50-100ft
18"-27" dia 100-150 ft
30"- 42" dia 150-200 ft
48" -60" dia 300 -400ft
66"-72" dia 400-500ft
Conduit Sewers 500ft
At junction manholes, the levels of incoming and outgaining sewer pipes should be so arranged that
soffit levels are matched.
Brick masonary manholes are preferred for all sizes of sewer pipes above ground water level due to
their economics and ease in construction. Manhole designs have been standardized by WASA
Standard Drawing SMH-I (Appendix-II) is for brick masonary manholes for sewer size 9” to 33” and
Standard Drawing SMH-2 (Appendix-II) is for brick masonary manholes for sewer size 36” to 72” i/d.
For manholes below ground water level, brick masonary manholes will be constructed with the
provision of RCC raft in bed and core wall in the structure. WASA Standard Drawing No.SMH-3
(Appendix-II) may be followed for such manholes. RCC rectangular manholes will be used for conduit
sewers ( both above or below ground water level). WASA Standard Drawing No.SMH 4 (Appendix-II)
is used for this category of manholes. The manhole will have a standard cast iron frame and RCC
cover. The frame will rest upon brick work of the dome of manhole. Benching is of plain cement
concrete. Manhole walls will be waterproofed on the exterior with cement plaster supplemented by a
bituminous waterproof coating.
16
2.19 Drop Manholes:
Experience in Lahore has proven that drop pipes, for sewers entering manholes at elevations of more
than 2ft above the manhole invert, quickly become clogged and cannot be maintained properly,
therefore, should be avoided. Where ever possible, the slope of the incoming sewer should be
selected to avoid any drop of 2ft or more at manholes.
2.20 Bedding Under RCC Pipe
Sewer bedding is provided to distribute the vertical reaction around the lower exterior surface of the
pipe and reduce stress concentrations within the pipe wall. The load that a concrete pipe will support
depends on the width of the contact area and quality of contact between the pipe and bedding. While
selecting bedding material it may be ensured that positive contact can be obtained between the bed
and pipe. Since most granular materials will shift to attain positive contact as the pipe settles, and
ideal load distribution can be attained through the use of brick ballast and well graded crushed stone.
The load factor is the ratio of the strength of the pipe under the installed condition of loading and
bedding to the allowable strength of the pipe.
2.20.1 Brick Ballast - Class C Bedding
Dry rammed brick ballast bedding may be used for RCC pipe sewers in dry conditions. The brick
ballast should be clean material of gauge ranging from 11/2-inch to 2 inch, broken from first class brick
or brick bats. It is recommended to be used for RCC pipe sewers of size 9” to 21” i/d to a thickness of
3” under the pipe and upto half pipe on either side all along the trench. A load factor of 1.7 may be
used.
2.20.2 Crushed Stone- Class B Bedding
Dry rammed crushed stone bedding will be used for RCC pipe sewers of size 24” i/d and large in dry
conditions. The thickness will be 3” below the pipe upto 27” i/d, 4” upto 60” i/d & 6” thickness for sewer
size 66” i/d and above. A load factor of 1.9 may be used.
2.20.3 Concrete Cradle- Class A Bedding
Concrete cradle bedding will be used for RCC pipe sewers below the water table level. The concrete
used should be of specified quality and strength. The concrete cradle should be properly shaped and
designed specifically proportioned to amply protect and strengthen the sewer pipe. Generally a load
factor of 3.0 may be used for RCC sewers with concrete cradle bedding.
2.21 Bedding for HDPE & uPVC pipes etc.
Sand bedding may be used for HDPE, UPVC and Spiral Plastic pipes in dry condition. The sand shall
be dry, unfrozen, fine granular material free from clay and other impurities. The sand may be placed
and thoroughly compacted in the Trench such that pipe is supported along its entire length by a layer
of sand, the thickness of which will be 3”. The sand may also be filled around the pipe and compacted
until there is a cover of not less than 12" using special care not to damage pipe.
2.22 House Connections:
Common practice is to run the house sewers to manholes in the main sewer line. In densely built-up
areas, there are numerous connections discharging into each manhole, consideration has, therefore,
been given to closer spacing of manholes in lateral and secondary sewers (50ft to 100 ft for 9” to 15”
i/d sewers) normally having shallow depth. For deeper sewers where closely spaced manholes are
17
not economical shallow side walk junction boxes can be provided ultimately connected to a sewer
manhole.
2.23 Inverted Syphon
An inverted siphon is a depressed sewer that drops below the hydraulic gradient to avoid such an
obstruction as a railway cut, a subway, or a stream. It is always surcharged. The system normally
includes an inlet chamber, a group of depressed sewers and an outlet chamber. As much high
velocity of flow as possible in the depressed, with 3 ft /sec (0.9m/s) as the minimum of avoid
sedimentation. Furthermore, to maintain favorable velocities at all times, multiple parallel pipes should
be arranged at increasing level so that additional pipes are brought into service progressively as flows
increase. De-silting openings should be provided for both the inlet and outlet chambers. Depending
upon the sizes of incoming sewer and the depressed sewers, penstock or at least grooves for shut-off
boards should be provided. The inlet chamber should be constructed so that the lower level of the
sewers is accessible for carrying out a flushing operation. An inverted siphon requires considerable
maintenance and its use is not recommended unless other means of passing and obstacle are not
practicable.
As inverted siphons are operated under submerged flow condition, the chance of silt accumulation is
much higher than normal. Even though, inverted siphons are usually designed such that a
self-cleaning velocity can be maintained during very low flow condition, siltation can still occur. To
reduce the accumulation of silt, it is advisable to carry out regular flushing.
2.24 Selection of Strength Class, Max Permissible Loads and Max Sewer Depths for Reinforced
Concrete Sewer Pipes
All reinforced concrete (except 9” i/d) sewers should follow the standard specifications ASTM C76
“Selection of Strength Class for Reinforced Concrete Sewer Pipes”. The required strength class of the
sewer pipes should be shown on the sewer profile drawings. The sewer pipes are assumed to involve
the use of reinforced concrete pipes precast in the factory in accordance with the requirements of the
standard specification ASTM C76. It is further assumed that the design requirements of the pipes will
normally comply with class III or class IV, wall B.
The calculations for determining the load on underground sewer pipes are based upon Marston's
formula.
2
Wc = CdwBd
Where Wc = Total vertical load on pipe in pounds per linear foot
Cd = Load coefficient for trench installations
w = Weight per cubic foot of fill, pounds
Bd = Trench width at top of pipe, feet
Maximum Permissible Loads (Wc) and Maximum Sewer Depths for C76 pipes, class III and IV, sizes
9" to 72", for different types of trench beddings are attached in Appendix-II.
As already mentioned, all concrete sewers of size 12” and above will follow the standard
specifications ASTM C76. However, sewer size 9” i/d will follow British Standard Specification BS
5911, Class L.
18
2.25 Minimum Soil Cover
A minimum of 3 feet is recommended.
2.26 Corrosion of Sewer Pipes (Crown Failure)
In sewer systems, when hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) emitted from sewage meets condensing
moisture, the process can form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) that corrodes the concrete in sewer tunnel
rapidly. This is known as the microbially induced corrosion (MIC), which poses a severe threat to the
sustainability of concrete in sewers. Acid corrosion causes a gradual loss of concrete, which
significantly reduces the service life of concrete structures in sewer systems and may lead to crown
failure and ultimately the sewer structure fails to withstand and collapses. The sulfuric acid drips back
down into the wastewater where it is neutralized back into sulfate, and the process begins all over
again and termed as the “Sewer Sulfide Cycle,
So the sewers are prone to the effects of the Sewer Sulphide Cycle and thus vulnerable to corrosion.
There are some measures to protect and control corrosion and eventually crown failure.
• Use inert pipe materials — Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP), PVC, HDPE, and clay are
examples of pipe materials that are inert (chemically inactive) when exposed to sulfuric acid
• Lining the inside of the RCC pipe with sulphate resistant or high alumina cement as sacrificial
layer may increase the life expectancy of the pipe by 3 to 5 times
• Lining the RCC pipe with HDPE or PVC liner layer protect the sewer against acidic attacks and
may increase the life expectancy of the pipe.
• Minimize turbulent stripping of hydrogen sulfide gas — the splashing and turbulence from falling
water and outfalls in the collection system causes H2S gas to be stripped out of the water and into
the air, where it can cause odors and be further oxidized to sulfuric acid. Reducing turbulence at
drop manholes and other hydraulic outfalls will reduce the H2S gas concentration, resulting in less
odor and corrosion.
• RCC pipes are manufactured with sulphate resistant cement when the soil contains sulphur and
other corrosive substances.
• For metallic pipes (DI or MS) the acceptable linings are cement mortar lining either with sulphate
resistant or high alumina cement.
• Good ventilation usually removes condensation in the immediate vicinity of the air inlet.
• Periodic flushing of sewers is necessary to remove solids accumulation and control their
subsequent anaerobic decomposition and H2S formation.
2.27 Pipe Jacking and Shafting (Trenchless Technology).
The method is best suited to large-diameter pipes in order to provide adequate space and ventilation
for workers and is a cyclic method.
Working: Soil is removed by hand mining or mechanical excavation within a shield or by a tunnel
boring machine. If there is a possibility of the excavation face collapsing, various soil stabilization
techniques, including dewatering and grouting, may be required. For personnel safety, the minimum
pipe diameter of 42 in is recommended.
19
Equipments: Optional equipment includes a pipe lubrication system (bentonite or polymer slurry) to
reduce friction and intermediate jacking stations (used for pipes that are at least 48 inch).
Conditions for use: The primary applications of pipe jacking include sanitary sewer and pressure lines.
Typical Applications:
Primary Sewers,
Applications pressure lines, crossings
Depth Varies, depends on design
Length No theoretical limit

Dia 42-120 in
Pipe Type RCP, steel, fiberglass
Working Space Entry and exit bore

pits:
Length: 25 to 35 ft
Width: 10 to 12 ft
Soil Sandy
clay, varies
Operator Skill High
Soil: Sandy clay is the most favorable soil condition for pipe jacking installation, but most any
cohesive soil is acceptable.
Pipe: The type of pipe material typically includes steel, fiberglass, and reinforced concrete.
Although diameters as small as 42 in may be used, because of the required worker entry, it is
generally recommended that pipe diameters be larger than 4 ft.
Jacking and Receiving Pits: The jacking pit is governed by the pipe size. The design of the jacking
shaft is important because the weight of the pipes must be supported by the floor and thrust structure.
The working space must be adequate for workers, material storage, and handling of the pipe and
spoils. Typical working space is 4 to 10 ft wider than the pipe diameter and from 10 to 25 ft longer
than the length of the pipe sections being installed.
Accuracy: Typically, there is a tolerance of ±3 in for alignment and ±2 in for grade.
Depth of Cover: The minimum depth of cover should be the greater of 6 ft or 3 times the outside
diameter of the pipe.
20
3-Sewage Pump/Lift Stations
3.1 Need for pumping
Pumping is essentially required when the terrain of the contributory area is flat, a sizeable population
is to the served and the receiving stream in higher than the sewer outlet.
3.2 Type of Pump Station
Sewage pump stations should generally be of the dry well type, with the pumps and discharge lines
installed in the dry well. In dry pit pump stations the pumps may be either non clogging vertical or
horizontal. The pump will take suction through a wall pipe to the adjoining wet well which will be
accessible for maintenance and service at all times submersible pumps. The sewage wet well shall be
completely separate. In permanent and big pumping stations, slow speed vertical pumps are the best
choice wile in temporary pump stations / lift stations, horizontal and submersible pumps can be used.
3.3 Pumping station capacities
Sewage pumping station will be designed to have pumping capacity to handle total design flows i/c
storm water. If the area development is likely to be extensive, it is advisable to design the pumping
station so that additional pumping units can be added at a later stage alongwith leaving space in both
wet well and pumping chamber including provision of additional rising mains / forcemains. Following
conditions should be met in the design of pumping stations:
a. cycle time must not be less than 5minutes.
b. Each pump must run at least 2 minutes.
c. Detention time should not be more than 10-20 minutes to avoid septic conditions.
3.4 Selection of Site
The site should not be subject to flooding. The site selected for pumping station should be readily
accessible by a four wheel vehicle. Precautions must be taken to avoid nuisance from odors or noise
to the general public of the service area. The site should be careful selected so that an overflow
connection is possible to a nearby water course / drain in the event of power failure.
3.5 Grit Removal
No grit removal facilities should be provided but the wet well design should be such to minimize the
possible deposition and accumulation of grit.
3.6 Influent Chamber & Channels
The influent chamber will receive the incoming sewers, and divide the flow as necessary to the
influent channels and wet wells. There will be more than one influent channels and wet wells, to
facilitate repairs and cleaning without shutting down the pump station operation. Manually operated or
motor driven sluice / penstock gates should be provided at the sluice gate to shut down the sewage
flow.
21
3.7 Pump Station Overflow
An overflow and emergency discharge conduit will be provided for each sewage pump station, for use
if the pump station must be shut down, where required to prevent immersion damage to electric
motors, switch gear, and/ or other equipment. The overflow will be located at the influent chamber or a
conventional upstream chamber to and will discharge by gravity to the nearest drainage channel.
3.8 Influent Channels and Bar Screens
Normally there should be two influent channels, each designed to carry half the flow from the influent
chamber. Each chamber will have a manually / mechanically cleaned bar screen of mild steel or
stainless steel properly designed with spacing of bars to match pump requirement.
3.9 Wet Wells
Normally wet wells should at least be provided in duplicate. This will permit isolation and shutdown of
one side during cleaning or maintenance work in the wet well area, while keeping the other side in
service for continuity of pump station operation. The effective capacity of the wet well should provide
a holding period not to exceed 10 minutes for the average sanitary (dry weather) flow. For the ultimate
anticipated flow conditions, it is suggested that an effective wet well capacity be selected to provide a
holding time of approximately 5 minutes at average sanitary design flow. The wet well floor shall be
hopper shaped. The horizontal area of the hopper bottom shall be no larger than needed for proper
installation of the sewage pump suction pipes and other wet well appurtenances.
3.10 Sewage Pumps
Preferably the sewage pumps shall be vertical, centrifugal, non-clog type slow speed (less than 1000
rpm) suitable for installation in a dry well with the drive motor located above on a separate motor floor,
preferably above grade level. Horizontal pumps, being cheaper in cost can also be used in smaller
pump stations / lift stations. Intermediate shafting between pump and motor shall be provided as
needed, complete with suitable couplings, steady bearings and supports. Submersible pumps can
also be installed pertaining to a fully operational bar screen as floating debris greatly reduces this
pumps efficiency. Also the maintenance is labour plus time intensive as the pump has to be extracted
from the wet well or the wet well has to be emptied before repairs can be made. The number of
pumps and capacities of individual pumps will be selected to generally suit the flow conditions, to the
greatest feasible extent. Normal practice should be to provide sufficient units including standby large
provision that, with any pump(s) out of operation, the remaining units will have sufficient pumping
capacity to deal with the incoming flows satisfactorily. A standby capacity of 25% is recommended.
The pumps will be installed so that these will operate under a positive suction head under normal
operating conditions. Each pump should have an individual intake, and the wet well should be
designed to avoid turbulence near the pump intake.
The manufacturer of the sewage pumps should be required to provide the on-site services of an
installation expert, to supervise the installation in the pump station of the pumps, shafting, motors and
appurtenances, for large capacity pumps.
3.11 Suction and Discharge Piping Materials
All pump suction and discharge piping within the pump station wet well and dry well should be cast
iron or ductile iron, with flanged joints. A separate suction pipe will be provided for each sewage
pump, including a flange and flare intake elbow, wall casting, shutoff valve and necessary connecting
pipes and fittings. Suction piping will be sized adequately to avoid high flow velocities under the
normal design conditions. Velocities should preferably be within a range of 2 to 4 ft/sec at the flare
22
inlet and 4 to 8 ft/second in the suction pipe. The discharge line from each sewage pump will include
a flexible connection, a swing type check valve, a shutoff valve, and necessary connecting pipes and
fittings. Velocities should preferably be within a range of 6 to 10 ft/second in the discharge pipe.
Ample supports will be provided for suction and discharge piping, to prevent loads from reaching the
sewage pumps and to resist hydraulic thrust. Force mains may be cast iron pipe (CI), Ductile iron pipe
(Dl) or fabricated steel pipe. Flow velocities in the force main should be within a range of 6 to 10 feet
per second, preferably in the lower part of the range. High points in force mains, where air locking
might occur, should be avoided.
In case of multiple discharge lines, one single discharge of bigger diameters should be installed that
will carry flow from all sewage discharge lines. This saves financial burden as less pipe cost is
involved and also reduces head losses in pipe due to larger diameter hence easy maintenance.
UPVC and PE pipes are added however these pipes are to be used only when the pipeline is to be
buried and not exposed to external environment.
3.12 Net positive Suction Head
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) NPSH can be defined as two parts:
1. NPSH Available (NPSHA): The absolute pressure at the suction pipe of the pump
2. NPSH Required (NPSHR): The minimum pressure required at the suction pipe of the pump to
keep the pump away from cavitation.
NPSHA is a function of the system and must be calculated, whereas NPSHR is a function of the pump
and must be provided by the pump manufacturer. NPSHA must be greater than NPSHR for the pump
system to operate without cavitation. In other words, suction side pressure available should be more
than the pump requires.
 NPSHA > NPSHR
3.13 Ventilation General
Adequate ventilation shall be provided for all sewage pump stations. There shall be no
interconnection between the dry well and wet well ventilation system. Switches for operation of all
ventilation equipment should be located conveniently and clearly marked for easy identification.
3.13.1 Wet Wells
Where wet well is covered, ventilation for wet wells should consist of a continuous positive fresh air
supply near the screen operating platform, exhaust would be through the open top of the wet well. For
duplicate wet well compartments, two separate ventilation units should be provided.
3.13.2 Dry Wells
Ventilation for dry wells should consist of a continuous positive fresh air supply near the floor of the
pump room, exhaust conduits should be provided from the. Ceiling area of the pump room to the
outside of the superstructure.
3.14 Miscellaneous Design Details Access
Suitable and safe means of access shall be provided to pump station dry wells, consisting of
stairways of satisfactory dimensions with rest landings at vertical intervals not exceeding 10 feet.
Similar access stairways should be provided for wet wells containing either bar screens or mechanical
23
equipment needing inspection or maintenance. Stairways and rest landings should have suitable
handrails.
3.14.1 Electrical Equipment
Electrical equipment in the sewage pump stations which is located in enclosed places where gas may
accumulate, such as the wet well or dry well pump room, should be rated explosion-proof.
3.14.2 Pump Removal
Provision shall be made to facilitate the removal of sewage pumps and motors. Adequate monorails,
hoisting equipment, hatches, closing valves, doors and floor areas should be provided for this
purpose.
3.14.3 Dry well Sump Pumps
A separate sump pump installation with duplicate pumping units shall be provided in the pump station
dry well, to automatically discharge leakage or drainage. The discharge point shall be above the
overflow level of the wet well. The floor of the dry well should slope to the sump.
3.14.4 Sewage Pump Controls
A separate sump pump installation with duplicate pumping units shall be provided in the pump station
dry well, to automatically discharge leakage or drainage. The discharge point shall be above the
overflow level of the wet well. The floor of the dry well should slope to the sump. For large sewage
pump stations (such as those proposed in Lahore). Automatic controls shall be provided for the
sewage pumps, to operate the pumps in a pre-selected sequence to generally fit sewage inflow
conditions.
3.14.5 Standby Power Source
Electric Power from at least 2 different independent sources should be available at each sewage
pump stations one for which should be used as a standby power source. Generator with its diesel
storage tank should also be provided. The main control panel switchgear should be provided
accordingly.
3.15 Manuals and Maintenance Equipment (Operating Instructions)
An appropriate manual should be provided for each sewage pump station, with a complete set of
operating instructions for all equipment and control devices, including a clear explanation of
emergency procedures. Manuals for the automated pump system should be present from the
manufacturers.
3.15.1 Maintenance Schedules
Suitable maintenance schedules should be provided for routine and preventive maintenance of all
sewage pump station equipment.
3.15.2 Tools and Spare Parts
Sufficient assortment of tools should be provided at each sewage pump station to enable the
operators to perform routine repairs and maintenance work. Enough spare parts, as recommended by
the equipment manufacturers, should be kept on hand at each sewage pump station to satisfy
24
requirements for repairs and maintenance of the sewage pumps and all other mechanical equipment
for at least 3 years.
3.16 Design Period for Building, Sewer and Pumps
Civil Work = 25 Years
RCC Sewers = 25 Years
Pump / motor = 10 Years
25
4- Wastewater Treatment
4.1 Municipal Wastewater Characteristics & Quality Parameters
Typical characteristics of untreated or raw municipal wastewater in Lahore are presented in Table 4-1
below.
TABLE 4.1 TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RAW MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Parameters Units Permissible values

BOD5 at 20 Degree Celsius (mg/I) 250
COD (mg/I) 500
Total suspended solid (TSS) (mg/I) 400
Volatile suspended solids (VSS) (mg/I) 200
Fecal coliform (FC) MPN/100 ML 1,00,00,000.00
Oil & Grease (mg/I) 30
Temperature (T) Degree Celsius 18-25
TKN (mg/I) 40.00
Ammonical nitrogen (NH3 -N) (mg/I) 25.00
Total phosphorus (P04) (mg/I) 12-16
Untreated wastewater contains numerous pathogenic microorganisms and may have toxic
compounds that may endanger public health and environment. Therefore, it is required to treat the
wastewater to prescribed standards before its final disposal or recycle/reuse. The recommended
treated wastewater quality parameters are presented in table below assuming minimum dilution 1:10
on discharge i.e. for each one cubic meter of treated effluent, the recipient water body should have 10
cubic meter of water for dilution of this effluent.
TABLE 4.2 RECOMMENDED TREATED WASTEWATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Value
Parameters Units
Pak EPA NEQS
Total suspended solid (TSS) (mg/I) <200 <200
BOD5 at 20 Degree Celsius (mg/I) <80 <80
Fecal coliform (FC) MPN/100 ML <2,500 -
Oil & Grease (mg/I) <10 <10
4.2 Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater collected from communities needs to be treated to prescribed standards depending on

intended use of treated effluent, such as disposal to water body, land or reuse for potable/non-potable
applications.
26
FIGURE 4.1 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR SEWAGE COLLECTION AND TREATMENT
27
Preparation of Master Plan for Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage System of MM Pakistan (Pvt.) Ltd.
Lahore - Revised Design Guidelines for Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage
systems
4.3 Treatment Methods
Methods of treatment in which the application of physical forces predominate are known as unit
operations. Methods of treatment in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by chemical
or biological reactions are known as unit processes. A listing of unit operations and processes used
for the removal of major constituents found in wastewater is presented in Table 4-3.
TABLE 4.3 LEVELS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Treatment
Description
Level
Preliminary Removal of wastewater constituents such as rags, sticks, floatable, grit, and
grease that may cause maintenance or operational problems with the
treatment operations, processes, and ancillary systems.
Primary The purpose of primary treatment is to settle wastewater solids and capture
floatable substances [such as fats, oil, and grease (FOG)]. Some biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) is also removed in the settling of these solids.
Advanced Enhanced removal of suspended solids and organic matter from the
primary wastewater. Typically accomplished by chemical addition or filtration.
Secondary Removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) and

suspended solids. Disinfection is also typically included in the definition of
conventional secondary treatment.
Secondary with Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids, and nutrients
Nutrient removal (nitrogen, phosphorus, or both nitrogen and phosphorus).
Tertiary Removal of residual suspended solids (after secondary treatment), usually by
granular medium filtration or micro screens. Disinfection is also typically a part
of tertiary treatment. Nutrient removal is often included in this definition.
Advanced Removal of dissolved and suspended materials remaining after normal
biological treatment when required for various water reuse applications.
4.4 Process Selection Consideration
As part of evaluation methodology for various technological options for sewage treatment, a number
of parameters have been identified. These include performance, stability, resource requirement and
associated costs, impact of effluent discharge on environment and possibility of resource recovery.
Some of the important parameters considered for comparing the different treatment technologies are:
• Influent wastewater characteristics

• Performance in terms of Quality of treated sewage – achieving higher treatment standards
including nutrient removal
• Performance Stability
• Resource Requirement and associated costs
• Impact of effluent discharge
• Potential of resource generation
• Recovery of the treated used water for secondary uses in urban development
• Complexity – considers the installation, start-up, and shutdown methods for the technology
• Air/odour emissions – considers if the process has impacts on air and odour emissions for the
facility
• Energy Efficient system – Considers the amount of energy required to adequately maintain
the process and if any energy saving is possible.
28
systems
• Footprint – considers how the footprint helps to identify the land needed to expand a facility
for increased capacity.
• Future changes to operating conditions should also be considered.
4.5 Wastewater Treatment Technologies Design Criteria
4.5.1 Wastewater Stabilization Ponds
Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSP) or facultative ponds or lagoons are used to treat municipal
and industrial wastewater all over the world. WSP systems consist of single series of anaerobic,
facultative and maturation ponds, or several series in parallel. The pond system can be used alone
but usually they are used in combination with each other.
FIGURE 4.2 TYPICAL W ASTEWATER STABILIZATION PONDS PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Advantages Disadvantages
• Simplicity in design and construction • Large land requirement for the ponds
• Low production of biological sludge • Sludge accumulation will be higher in
• Low capital, operation and maintenance cold climates due to reduced microbial
cost activity (US EPA, 2002b)
• High treatment efficiency if properly • Mosquitoes and other insects can breed
designed if vegetation is not controlled
• Robust and relatively reliable • If not designed properly may cause odour
• Less sensitive to shock loading problem
• Difficult to control or predict ammonia
levels in effluent (US EPA, 2002b)
4.5.2 Anaerobic Ponds
Anaerobic ponds are deep shallow ponds that exclude oxygen and encourage the growth of bacteria,
which break down the effluent. WSPs are single-stage, continuous-flow, anaerobic reactors, operating
at ambient temperatures and low volumetric organic loadings. These ponds are used as a
pretreatment for BOD, SS and COD removal. The anaerobic bacteria break down the organic matter
in the effluent, which release carbon dioxide and methane.
4.5.2.1 Standard/Design Criteria for Anaerobic Ponds
From the available literature, all existing procedures adopt one of the following three criteria as
basis:
(a) Surface loading rate (in term of kg BOD/ha/d)

3
(b) Volumetric loading rate (in term of BOD5 or volatile solids as g/m /d)
(c) Hydraulic retention time
29
systems
Now all the above three design criteria will be discussed.
(a) Surface Loading Rate

Loading 280-4500 kg BOD5/ha/d
Depth of pond 2.5-5 m
BOD removal 50-80 %
(b) Volumetric Loading

Volumetric loading is expressed in term of grams BOD5 per cubic meter per day.
3
Loading 300 g BOD5/m /d
Depth of pond 2.5-5 m
BOD removal 50%
(c) Hydraulic Retention Time

Hydraulic Retention Time 5 Days
BOD removal 80 %
The BOD5 removal efficiency also depends on the ambient air temperature.
Coliform Removal = Negligible
A comparison is given below for theoretical BOD5 reduction with respect to time at a
particular temperature.
TABLE 4.4 THEORETICAL BOD5 REDUCTION AT 22 DEGREE CENTIGRADE

Retention Time BOD5 reduction
(Days) (%)
0.12 20
0.40 30
0.71 35
1.30 40
2.40 45
4.70 50
9.40 55
It is clear from the above table that BOD5 increases at a regular interval of 5% with the
increase in time.
It has been observed that the actual BOD reduction is a function of retention time, which is
clear from the following table:
T ABLE 4.5 ACTUAL BOD5 REDUCTION AS A FUNCTION OF RETENTION TIME
Retention Time BOD5 Reduction

(Days) (%)
1 50
2.40 60
5 70
The above table reveals that after five days the BOD is reduced up to 70%. From the above two
tables a comparison can be drawn for BOD reduction with the temperature and time separately. The
30
systems
following table gives a combined comparison of BOD reduction with respect to the temperature and
retention time.
T ABLE 4.6 SHOWING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANAEROBIC POND TEMPERATURE, RETENTION TIME AND BOD5
REDUCTION
TEMPERATURE (DEGREE RETENTION TIME (DAYS) BOD5 REDUCTION

CENTIGRADE)
10 5 0-10
10-15 4-5 30-40
15-20 2-3 40-50
20-25 1-2 40-60
25-30 1-2 60-80
4.6 Facultative Ponds
These ponds are of two types: Primary facultative ponds that receive raw wastewater, and secondary
facultative ponds that receive particle-free wastewater (usually from anaerobic ponds, septic tanks,
primary facultative ponds, and shallow sewerage systems). The process of oxidation of organic matter
by aerobic bacteria is usually dominant in primary facultative ponds or secondary facultative ponds.
The processes in anaerobic and secondary facultative ponds occur simultaneously in primary
facultative ponds. In secondary facultative ponds that receive particle-free sewage (anaerobic
effluent), the remaining non-settleable BOD is oxidized by heterotrophic bacteria.
Standards/Design Criteria for Facultative Ponds
Surface Area Loading (Temp 20-25 degree C) 200 - 400 kg BOD5/ha/day

Surface Area Loading (Temp 30 degree C) 300 - 400 kg BOD5/ha/day
Depth of facultative pond 1.5 m
BOD5 removal efficiency 80 %
Settled sludge accumulation 30 liters per person per year
Retention time 5 Days
Coliform Removal 99%
Volume Evaporation 10%
4.7 Maturation Ponds
The maturation ponds receive the effluent from the facultative ponds. Their primary function is to
remove excreted pathogens. Although maturation ponds achieve only a small degree of BOD
removal, their contribution to nutrient removal also can be significant. Maturation ponds usually show
less vertical biological and physicochemical stratification, and are well-oxygenated throughout the
day.
31
systems
4.7.1 Standards/Design Criteria for Maturation Ponds
Maturation ponds are used for the additional removal of pathogenic agents such as bacteria, fungi,
protozoa and viruses. They can remove soluble BOD that has been carried over from the Facultative
pond. However they are justified where land cost is low and sufficient land area is available. The main
parameter to be considered for killing bacterial is the retention time.
No. of Maturation Ponds Retention Time (Days)
Single Maturation Pond 5 Days

Two or more ponds in series 3 Days per pond
Depth of Maturation Pond 1.0—1.5 m
Length to Breadth ratio 1:1.5
4.8 Trickling Filters
Trickling Filter also known as percolating or sprinkling filter is like a well having depth up to about 2m
and filled with some granular media. The sewage is sprinkled over the media which percolates
through filter media and is collected through the under-drainage system. A modern trickling filter
consists of a bed of highly permeable media to which micro-organism are attached and sewage
percolates or trickle down and hence the name “Trickling Filter”. The filter media consists of rocks
varying in size from 25-100mm. The depth of rock varies from 0.9-2.5m averaging 1.8m. A rotating
arm (distributor arm) is provided to evenly distribute sewage. The air is also provided through under-
drainage system from ventilation of filter.
Figure 4.3 Typical Trickling Filter Process Flow Diagram
32
systems
Figure 4.4 Typical Trickling Filter Process (cross-section)
• Simple and reliable process that is • Additional treatment may be needed for
suitable in areas where large tracts of the effluent to meet strict discharge
land are not available standards;
• Effective in treating high concentrations • generates sludge that must be treated
of organic material and disposed of;
• Very efficient in removal of ammonia • Regular operators attention is needed;
from wastewater • Relatively high incidence of clogging;
• Appropriate for small- to medium-sized • Relatively low loadings required
communities depending on the media;
• With the introduction of plastic filter • Limited flexibility and control in
media to replace the rock media, speed comparison with activated sludge
control, and more reliable rotary processes.
distributor mechanisms, the performance • Fly nuisance and odor nuisance may
of trickling filters has been greatly prevail.
enhanced.
• Ability to handle and recover from shock
loads
• Relatively low power requirements;
• They produce less sludge than
suspended-growth systems.
• Level of skill and technical expertise
needed to manage and operate the
system is moderate
• The cost to operate a trickling filter is
very low.
33
systems
There are two types of trickling filters. Design parameters for both of them are given below:
Standards/Design Criteria for Conventional or Standard Rate Filters
Depth of Filter Media 1.6-2.4 m

Size of Filter Media 25-75 mm
Dosing Interval 3-10 minutes
Hydraulic Loading 20-44 M.l/ha/Day
Organic Loading 900-2200 kg BOD5/ha-m of filter media/Day
Type of Effluent BOD less than 20 mg/l
BOD Removal 80-90%
A conventional or standard rate filter plant is very useful in medium towns and industrial cities
requiring full treatment of sewage.
Standards/Design Criteria for High Rate Filters
Depth of Filter Media 1.2-1.8 m

Size of Filter Media 25-60 mm
Dosing Interval Less Than 15 Seconds
Hydraulic Loading 110-330 M.l/ha/Day
Organic Loading 6000—18000 kg BOD5/ha-m of filter media/Day
Type of Effluent BOD more than 30 mg/l
BOD Removal 70-80 %
A high rate filter plant is very useful for industrial cities requiring full treatment of sewage, i.e.
both Municipal and Industrial sewage.
In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is aerated in an aeration basin in
which micro-organisms metabolize the suspended and soluble organic matter. Part of organic
matter is synthesized into new cells and part is oxidized to CO2 and water to derive energy. In
activated sludge systems the new cells formed in the reaction are removed from the liquid stream
in the form of a flocculent sludge in settling tanks. A part of this settled biomass, described as
activated sludge is returned to the aeration tank and the remaining forms waste or excess sludge.
There is a large variety of design, however, in principle all ASP consist of three main components:
1. Aeration tank, which serves as bio reactor;

2. Settling tank ("final clarifier") for separation of ASP solids and treated waste water;
3. Return activated sludge (RAS) equipment to transfer settled ASP from the clarifier to the
influent of the aeration tank
34
systems
FIGURE 4.5 TYPICAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

• Low installation cost • Not very flexible method (If there is
• Good quality effluent sudden increase in the volume of sewage
• Low land requirement or if there is sudden change in the
• Loss of head is small character of sewage, there are adverse
• Freedom from fly and odor nuisance high effects on the working of the process and
degree of treatment consequently the effluent of bad quality is
obtained).
• Operation cost is high
• Sludge disposal is required on large
scale
• This process is sensitive to certain
industrial wastes
• Skilled supervision is required to check
that the returned sludge remains active.
35
systems
Standards/Design Criteria for Aeration Tanks
Depth of tank 3-4.5 m
Width of tank 5-6 m
Length of tank 10-20 m
Detention period 4-8 Hours

3
Quantity of air required 4000-8000 m /million liters of sewage
Volume of returned Activated Sludge 25-50 % of sewage flow
Power Requirement 55-110 H.P/million of sewage flow
BOD Removal 80-95 %
Bacteria Removal 90-95 %
In big cities with large sized plants, the Activated Sludge plant is better.
4.9 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
Sequencing Batch Reactor is a special form of Activated Sludge treatment in which all of the
treatment process takes place in the reactor tank and clarifiers are not required. This process treats
the wastewater in batch mode and each batch is sequenced through a series of treatment stages.
FIGURE 4.6 TYPICAL SEQUENCING BATCH REACTOR PROCESS

In an SBR, the various purification processes are performed consecutively in the same basins. A
standard cycle involves filling, aeration, sedimentation and drainage. An SBR is thus perfectly suited
to waste flows that are released in batches. A buffer must be implemented for continuous waste flows.
An SBR can be used to consecutively perform various biological processes, like nitrification and
denitrification. These process times are flexible and can be easily modified (e.g. longer sedimentation
time for slit that does not settle easily). An SBR system is better at preventing thread-forming bacteria
because the system acts as a selector during the supply phase.
36
systems
Figure 4.7 Typical Sequencing batch Reactor Process

• High treatment efficiencies possible for • High treatment efficiencies possible for
BOD, COD, TSS N, P. BOD, COD, TSS N, P.
• High flexibility in operating conditions • High flexibility in operating conditions
• Possibility of producing electric energy • Possibility of producing electric energy
from biogas (SBR+ Anaerobic sludge from biogas (SBR+ Anaerobic sludge
digestion) digestion)
• Less land requirements than • Less land requirements than
Conventional Activated Sludge, due to Conventional Activated Sludge, due to
compact tank construction compact tank construction
• Low pathogen removal
• Requires skilled personnel (Particularly
SBR with sludge digestion)
• Dependence on uninterrupted power
supply
• More automation required than
Conventional Activated Sludge
• Biogas is explosive (Risk in case of
improper operation)
• High maintenance requirements
• High Capital and Operational cost but
slightly cheaper than Conventional
Activated Sludge
4.10 Membrane bio-reactors
Membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology is a combination of the conventional biological sludge

process, a wastewater treatment process characterized by a suspended growth of biomass, with a
Microfiltration / Ultrafiltration / Nano filtration / Reverse osmosis membrane system. The biological unit
is responsible for the biodegradation of the waste compounds and the membrane module for the
physical separation of the treated water from the mixed liquor. The pore diameter of the membranes is
in the range between 0.001–0.1 µm so that particulates and bacteria can be kept out of permeate and
the membrane system replaces the traditional gravity sedimentation unit (clarifier) in the biological
37
systems
sludge process. Hence the MBR offers the advantage of higher product water quality and low
footprint.
FIGURE 4.8 TYPICAL MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

• Almost complete solids and bacteria • Membrane fouling

(Giardia and Crypto) removal • Higher energy consumption to overcome
• High effluent quality; modular design with trans-membrane resistance and to
good expandability prevent fouling using aeration etc
• Robustness in recovery resistant to • High cost of membranes
upsets due to shock loadings or peak
and fluctuating flows
• Sludge age or SRT (solids retention time)
and hydraulic residence time (HRT) are
controlled separately
• Less odor
• Sophisticated but yet simple controls.
4.11 Extended Aeration
Extended aeration activated sludge plants have fulfilled a need for high efficiency treatment of small
volume wastes of both domestic and industrial origin. These plants are usually designed without
primary sedimentation tanks and employ an “extended aeration period” for the purpose of aerobically
digesting or destroying the majority of the biological sludge produced.
FIGURE 4.9 TYPICAL EXTENDED AERATION ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
38
systems
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Plants are easy to operate, as the • Extended aeration plants do not achieve
management of operation is for a maximum denitrification or phosphorus removal without
of two or three hours per day. additional unit processes.
• Extended aeration processes are often better • Flexibility is limited to adapt to changing
at handling organic loading and flow effluent requirements resulting from
fluctuations, as there is a greater detention regulatory changes.
time for the nutrients to be assimilated by • Longer aeration period and hence requires
microbes. more energy.
• Systems are odor free, can be installed in • Skilled personnel are required for the
most locations, have a relatively small operation and control.
footprint, and can be landscaped to match
the surrounding area.
• Extended aeration systems have a relatively
low sludge yield due to long sludge ages, can
be designed to provide nitrification, and do
not require a primary clarifier.
4.12 Oxidation Ditches
An oxidation ditch is a modified activated sludge biological treatment process that utilizes long solids
retention times (SRTs) to remove biodegradable organics. Oxidation ditches are typically complete
mix systems, but they can be modified to approach plug flow conditions. Typical oxidation ditch
treatment systems consist of a single or multichannel configuration within a ring, oval, or horseshoe-
shaped basin. Preliminary treatment, such as bar screens and grit removal, normally precedes the
oxidation ditch. Primary settling prior to an oxidation ditch is sometimes practiced, but is not typical in
this design. Tertiary filters may be required after clarification, depending on the effluent requirements.
Disinfection is required and reaeration may be necessary prior to final discharge. Flow to the oxidation
ditch is aerated and mixed with return sludge from a secondary clarifier.
FIGURE 4.10 OXIDATION DITCHES TYPICAL PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
39
systems
• An added measure of reliability and • Effluent suspended solids concentrations are

performance over other biological processes relatively high compared to other
• Long hydraulic detention time and complete modifications of the activated sludge process.
mixing minimize the impact of a shock load or • Requires a larger land area than other
hydraulic surge. activated sludge treatment options. This can
• Produces less sludge prove costly, limiting the feasibility of
• Energy efficient oxidation ditches in urban, suburban, or other
• Ability to nitrify and denitrify in one tank. areas where land acquisition costs are
relatively high.
Standards/Design Criteria for Oxidation Ditches
Length of Ditch channel 150—1000 m
Width of Ditch channel 1-5 m
Depth 1-1.5 m
Diameter of cylindrical cage 70 cm
Length of cylindrical cage 15 cm
Speed of cylindrical cage 75 RPM
Detention Time 12-15 Hours
Load of Sewage Admitted 800-2500 Liters/kg BOD
Concentration of suspended solids 4000-5000 mg/l
Volume of the ditch (approximate) 120-150 cubic meter/meter of the

length of the rotor
Removal of suspended solids 95 %
Removal of BOD 98 %
Power consumed 4.4 K.W/kg of BOD
This method is used for treating small wastes from industries like pharmaceuticals, canning, dairy, etc.
located in densely populated areas.
4.13 Aerated Lagoons (AL)
This technology is compromise between ASP and WSP in terms of process complexity, capital cost
and area requirement. This is actually a modified form of ASP in which no recirculation of sludge is
employed. Aeration, sufficient to maintain desired oxygen level, is carried out; agitation of mixed liquor
to keep it in suspension is not the aim. Concept diagram of AL is shown in Figure 5.5.
40
systems
Aerated
Wastewater PST Lagoon SST
No sludge recirculation
Sludge
Sludge
Sludge
Thickening
PST = Primary sedimentation tank
SST = Secondary sedimentation tank
Belt Press
FIGURE 4.11 CONCEPT DIAGRAM OF AERATED LAGOON
Aerators are required, which are not locally manufactured. In case of long load shedding hours, the
basin may simply turn into an anaerobic pond due to low oxygen levels.
• Lagoon systems can be cost-effective to • Lagoon systems require more land than
design and construct in areas where land other treatment methods.
is inexpensive. • They are less efficient in cold climates
• They use less energy than most waste and may require additional land or longer
water treatment methods. detention times in these areas.
• They are simple to operate and maintain • Odour can become a nuisance during
and generally require only part-time stuff. algal blooms or with anaerobic lagoons
• They can handle intermittent use and and lagoons that are inadequately
shock loadings better than many maintained.
systems, making them a good option for • Unless they are property maintained,
campgrounds, resorts, and other lagoons can provide a breeding area for
seasonal properties. mosquitoes and other insects.
Standards/Design Criteria for Aerated Lagoons
Depth of Lagoon 2.4-3.6 m

Detention Time 4-10 Hours
Land Area Required 5-10 % of oxidation pond
BOD Removal 65-90 %
41
systems
4.14 Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT)
Wastewater treatment, to a large extent, is a matter of particle separation. A majority of pollutants in

wastewater either exist as particulates, e.g. total suspended solids (TSS) and particulate BOD and
COD, or are incorporated into or adsorbed onto particulates like phosphorus, heavy metals, organic
micro pollutants and pathogens. Studies show that 80% of organic load in domestic wastewater exists
as particles.
CEPT uses either metallic salts or cationic polymers for the enhanced removal of pollutants at the
primary stage of treatment. Metallic salts result in large sludge volumes. However, with the advent of
cationic polymers, there was a significant reduction in sludge volumes which reduces cost in
wastewater treatment business. This resulted in a major twist in favor of CEPT. A flow diagram for
CEPT is shown in Figure 5.6.
FIGURE 4.12 FLOW DIAGRAM FOR CEPT

CEPT has been employed as a single stage treatment in developing countries (e.g. Brazil), on
secondary treatment. Since 1980s with the rising cost of biological treatment, there has been a
renewed interest in the role of chemical technologies. If the average value of BOD of Lahore is taken
as 200 mg/L and considering an optimum chemically enhanced primary treatment with cationic
polymers, and taking a 70% removal, the effluent BOD could be 60 mg/L. The effluent standard for
BOD in Pakistan is 80 mg/L. Hence, CEPT alone could meet the wastewater treatment requirement.
• Increased removal of BOD,TSS, phosphorus • May remove too much phosphorus, thus
and metals making the primary effluent nutrient deficient
• Increases primary tank capacity by allowing • Chemical handling facilities required
higher overflow rate • Chemical safety issues and regulatory
• Increases ability to absorb shock loads/wet requirements increase
weather flows • Sludge quantities increase
• Reduces size or increases capacity of • May decrease biological sludge settle ability
biological process
• Enhances biological treatment kinetics
• Decreases carbon to nitrogen ratio, thus
increasing the fraction of nitrifying
microorganisms and enhancing ammonia
removal
4.15 Disinfection
Disinfection refers to the partial destruction of disease-causing organisms. All the organisms are not
destroyed during the process. The fact that all of the organisms are not destroyed differentiates
disinfection from sterilization, which is the destruction of all organisms. In the field of wastewater
treatment, the four categories of human enteric organisms of the greatest consequence in producing
disease are bacteria, protozoan ocysts and cysts, helminths, and viruses.
4.15.1 Characteristics of an Ideal Disinfectant
The characteristics for an ideal disinfectant are reported in Table 5-4. As shown, an ideal disinfectant
would have to possess a wide range of characteristics. Although such a compound may not exist, the
42
systems
characteristics set forth in Table 5-4 should be considered in evaluating proposed or recommended
disinfectants. It is also important that the disinfectant be safe to handle and apply, and that its strength
or concentration in treated waters be measurable. The latter consideration is an issue with the use of
ozone and UV disinfection where no residual is measured.
TABLE 4.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL DISINFECTANT

Characteristics Properties/response
Availability Should be available in large quantities and reasonably priced
Deodorizing ability Should deodorize while disinfection
Homogeneity Solution must be uniform in composition
Interaction with extraneous Should not be absorbed by organic matter other than bacterial
material cells
Noncorrosive and nonstaining Should not disfigure metals or stain clothing
Nontoxic to higher forms of life Should be toxic to microorganisms and nontoxic to humans and
other animals
Penetration Should have the capacity to penetrate through surfaces
Safety Should be safe to transport, store, handle and use
Solubility Must be soluble in water or cell tissue
Stability Should have low loss of germicidal action with time on standing
Toxicity to microorganisms Should be effective at high dilutions
Toxicity at ambient temperatures Should be effective in ambient temperature range
4.15.2 Disinfection Methods
A comparison of characteristics of commonly used disinfectants is presented in Table 5-5:
TABLE 4.8 COMPARISON OF IDEAL AND ACTUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMONLY USED DISINFECTANTS
Characteristics Chlorine Sodium Calcium Chlorine Ozone UV
Hypochlorite Hypochlorite dioxide radiation
Moderately low Moderately low Moderately low Moderately Moderately

Availability/cost Low Cost
cost cost cost high cost high cost
Deodorizing
High Moderate Moderate High High na
ability
Homogeneity Homogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous na
Interaction with Absorbance
Oxidizes Oxidizes
extraneous Active oxidizer active oxidizer High of UV
organic matter organic matter
material radiation
Noncorrosive Highly Highly
High corrosive Corrosive Corrosive na
and Nonstaining corrosive corrosive
Nontoxic to Highly toxic to

higher forms of higher life Toxic Toxic Toxic Toxic Toxic
life forms
Penetration High High High High High Moderate

Safety concerns High Moderate Moderate High Moderate Low
Solubility Moderately High High High High na
Unstable, must Unstable, must

Slightly Relatively
Stability Stable be generated be generated na
unstable stable
as used as used
43
systems
Characteristics Chlorine Sodium Calcium Chlorine Ozone UV

Hypochlorite Hypochlorite dioxide radiation
Toxicity to High High High High High

High
microorganisms
Toxicity at
High High High High High
ambient High
temperatures
4.16 Comparison of Disinfection Technologies
The advantages and disadvantages of most commonly used technologies for disinfection of
wastewater (i.e. chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and UV) are presented in Table 5-6. The germicidal
effectiveness of different disinfection technologies depends on various factors such as wastewater
characteristics, type of organism, dosage, contact time etc. It is recommended to conduct site-specific
testing to evaluate the effectiveness of alternative disinfection technologies and to establish
appropriate dosing ranges.
TABLE 4.9 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DISINFECTION TECHNOLOGIES
CHLORINE
Hazardous chemical that can be a threat to plant
Welt-established technology workers and the public; thus strict safety
measures must be employed.
Relatively long contact time required as compared
Effective disinfectant
to other disinfectants
Combined chlorine is less effective in inactivating
Chlorine residual can be monitored and
some viruses, spores, cysts at low dosages used
maintained
for coliform organisms
Residual toxicity of treated effluent must be
Combined chlorine residual can also be provided
reduced through dechlorination
by adding ammonia
Germicidal chlorine residual can be

Formation of trihalomethanes and other DBPs
maintained in long transmission lines
Availability of chemical system for auxiliary uses
Release of volatile organic compounds from
such as odor control, dosing RAS lines, and
chlorine contact basins
disinfection plant water systems
Oxidizes iron, magnesium, and other inorganic
Oxidizes sulphides
compounds (consumes disinfectant)
Oxidizes a variety of organic compounds
Relatively inexpensive
(consumes disinfectant)
Available as calcium and sodium hypochlorite
TOS level of treated effluent is increased
considered to be safer than chlorine gas
Chloride content of the wastewater is increased
Acid generation; pH of the wastewater can be
reduced if alkalinity is insufficient
Increased safety regulations
Chemical scrubbing facilities may be required
UV
Effective disinfectant No immediate measures of whether disinfection
44
systems
was successful
No residual toxicity No residual effect
Less effective in inactivating some viruses,
More effective than chlorine in inactivating most
spores, cysts at low dosages used for coliform
viruses, spores, cysts
organisms
No formation of DBPs at dosages used for
Energy-intensive
disinfection
Does not increase TDS level of treated effluent Hydraulic design of UV system is critical
Effective in the destruction of resistant organic
Relatively expensive
constituents such as NDMA
Improved safety compared to the use of Large number of UV lamps required where low-
chemical disinfectants pressure low-intensity systems are used
Low-pressure low-intensity lamps require acid
Requires less space than chlorine disinfection
washing to remove scale
At higher UV dosages than required for
Lack of chemical system that can be used for
disinfection, UV radiation can be used to reduce
auxiliary uses such as odor control, dosing RAS
the concentration of tract organic constituents of
lines, and disinfection of plant water systems.
concern such as NDMA
CHLORINE DIOXIDE
Effective disinfectant Stable, must be produced onsite
More effective than chlorine in inactivating most Oxidizes iron, magnesium, and other inorganic
viruses, spores, cysts, and ocysts compounds (consumes disinfectant)
Biocidal properties not influenced by pH Oxidizes a variety of organic compounds
Under proper generation halogen-substituted
Formation of DBPs (i.e., chlorite and chlorate)
OBPs formed
Potential for the formation of halogen· substituted
Oxidize sulphides
DBPs
Provides residuals Decomposes in sunlight
Can lead to the formation of odors
TDS level of treated effluent is increased
Operating costs can be high (e.g., must test for
chlorite and chlorate)
OZONE
No immediate measure whether disinfection
Effective disinfectant
was successful
More effective than chlorine in inactivating most
no residual effect
viruses, spores, cysts, and ocysts
Less effective in inactivating some viruses,
Biocidal properties not influenced by Ph spores, cysts, at low dosages used for coliform
organisms
Shorter contact time than chlorine Formation of DBPs
Oxidizes iron, magnesium, and other inorganic
Oxidizes sulphides
compounds
Requires less space Oxidizes a variety of organic compounds
Contributes dissolved oxygen Off-gas requires treatment
Safety concerns
45
systems
Highly corrosive and toxic
Energy intensive
Relatively expensive
Highly operational and maintenance sensitive
Lack of chemical system that can be used for
auxiliary uses such as dosing RAS lines
May be limited to plant where generation of
high-purity oxygen already exists
4.17 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse- Definition of Terms
Terms used frequently in the field of water reclamation, recycling and reuse are summarized in Table
5-7. It should be noted that the definitions given have evolved from several water reuse regulations
and in response to questions raised by consumers and the public at large.
TABLE 4.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN WATER REUSE APPLICATIONS

Terms Description
Beneficial uses The many ways water can be used, either directly by people, or
for their overall benefit. Examples include municipal water supply,
agricultural and industrial applications, navigations, fish and
wildlife, and water contact recreation.
Direct potable reuse A form of reuse by the incorporation of reclaimed water directly
into a potable water supply system, often implying the blending of
reclaimed water with potable water.
Direct reuse The use of reclaimed water which has been transported from the
wastewater reclamation plant to the water reuse site without
intervening discharge to a natural body of water, including such
uses as agricultural and landscape irrigation.
Dual distribution system Two sets of pipelines for water delivery, one for potable water
and another for reclaimed water
Indirect potable reuse Potable reuse by incorporation of reclaimed water into a raw
water supply, allowing mixing and assimilation by discharge into
an impoundment or natural body of water, such as in a domestic
water supply reservoir or groundwater.
Indirect reuse Use of reclaimed water indirectly by passing through a natural
body of water or use of groundwater that has been recharged
with reclaimed water
Non potable water reuse All reuse applications that do not involve either indirect or direct
potable use
Planned reuse Deliberate direct or indirect use of reclaimed water, without
relinquishing control over the water during its delivery.
Potable water reuse An augmentation of drinking water supplies directly or indirectly
by reclaimed water that is highly treated to protect public health.
Reclaimed water Water that, as a result of wastewater treatment, is suitable for a
direct beneficial use or a controlled use that would not otherwise
occur
Recycled water Reclaimed water that has been used beneficially. The term
recycled water is used synonymously with reclaimed water
46
systems
Terms Description
Unplanned reuse Reuse of treated wastewater following discharge (control
relinquished), such as in the diversion of water from a river
downstream of a discharge of treated wastewater.
Water reclamation Treatment or processing of wastewater to make it reusable. Also,
this term is often used to include delivery of reclaimed water to
place of use and its actual use.
Water recycling The use of wastewater that is captured and redirected back into
the some water use scheme. Recycling is practiced
predominantly in industries, such as manufacturing, and normally
involved only one industrial plant or one use.
Water reuse The use of treated wastewater for a beneficial use, such as
agricultural irrigation and industrial cooling
TABLE 4.11 TREATMENT LEVELS ACHIEVABLE WITH VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF UNIT OPERATIONS AND
PROCESSES USED FOR WASTEWATER RECLAMATION
Typical effluent quality, mg/L except turbidity, NTU

Treatment process
TSS BOD5 COD Total N NH3-N PO4-P Turbidity
Activated sludge + granular
4-6 <5-10 30-70 15-35 15-25 4-10 0.3-5
medium filtration
medium filtration + carbon <5 <5 5-20 15-30 15-25 4-10 0.3-3
adsorption
Activated sludge/nitrification–
10-25 5-15 20-45 20-30 1-5 6-10 5-15
single stage
Activated sludge/nitrification -
denitrification separate 10-25 5-15 20-35 5-10 1-2 6-10 5-15
stages
Metal salt addition to
activated sludge +
<5-10 5-10 20-30 3-5 1-2 <1 0.3-2
nitrification/denitrification +
filtration
Biological phosphorus
10-20 5-15 20-35 15-25 5-10 <2 5-10
removal
Biological nitrogen and
phosphorus removal + <10 <5 20-30 <5 <2 <2 0.3-2
filtration
medium filtration + carbon <1 <1 5-10 <2 <2 <1 0.01-1
adsorption + reverse osmosis
Activated sludge/nitrification-
denitrification and
phosphorus removal +
<1 <1 2-8 <1 <0.1 <0.5 0.01-1
granular medium filtration +
carbon adsorption + reverse
osmosis
Activated sludge/nitrification-
denitrification and
phosphorus removal + <1 <1 2-8 <0.1 <0.1 <0.5 0.01-1
microfiltration + reverse
osmosis
47
systems
4.18 Level Ill: Advanced Treatment
Advanced wastewater treatment processes are those beyond traditional secondary treatment. In
order to attain a high quality reclaimed water we propose coagulation-flocculation-settling followed
by filtration and chlorination/UV disinfection. The type and the extent of advanced treatment shall
further vary depending on the treated effluent reuse or disposal in surface water body or land.
4.19 Alternate Treatment
Where sewage flows are low and/or land availability is not limited, waste stabilization ponds can
be followed by constructed wetlands. In this case coagulation - flocculation-settling cannot be
considered.
4.20 Sludge treatment and disposal
Wastewater sludge originates from the process of treatment of wastewater. The treatment and
disposal of sewage sludge are costly procedures and environmentally susceptible as well as
unavoidable problems arising from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP).
4.20.1 Sludge Treatment Technologies
The general practice worldwide is for sludge to be stabilised and dewatered as a minimum level of
treatment, even in the less developed countries. Traditional Anaerobic digestion is the most
common method of stabilisation but lime stabilisation, aerobic digestion and storage in stabilisation
ponds are also commonly used - especially on smaller WWTP. A relatively new and increasingly
favoured technology is the use of thermally assisted anaerobic digestion. Lime destabilisation
appears to be on the decline and replaced by more modern technologies, as the sludge produced is
less marketable. Mechanical dewatering technologies such as centrifuges, belt or filter presses are
generally preferred in the initial dewatering of sludge to typically between 70 to 80% water content.
In most developed countries, sludge (especially sludge generated at the larger facilities) is further
stabilized through heat drying such that it can be used for a wider range of applications. The most
commonly used treatment technologies are discussed in following sections.
4.21 Sludge Thickening (Conditioning) and Dewatering
Thickening (conditioning) and dewatering is a sludge pre-treatment process to separate water from
sludge solids, reduce sludge volume and prepare sludge for subsequent treatment. Water content
of sludge can be reduced to 95-97% after thickening and dewatering.
T ABLE 4.12 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS SLUDGE DE-WATERING TECHNOLOGIES

Treatment Description Contaminant Advantages Disadvantages
Removal
Filter In this batch Compacts sludge Produces the Initial costs can be
Press process, the liquid to reduce highest cake high. Requires
sludge is pumped storage, transport concentrations. maintenance to
through a filter and and disposal Operating costs ensure all cake is
retained on a filter costs. Particularly can be lower than removed from the
cloth that may need good if cake is other methods filter cloth after
the addition of a considered a especially when each load. Some
filter aid. Polymer hazardous storage and systems are not
can be added to material due to transport are automated and
improve contaminants considered. manual labour is
48
systems

Removal
dewatering. such as heavy Filtrate (liquid) required to remove
metals. quality can be the cake.
better (lower in
contaminants) than
other dewatering
methods.
Belt Liquid sludge is Compacts sludge Reduced costs of May not be
filterpress applied between to reduce the disposal of economical at low
two belts which are storage, transport sludge. Reduced flow rates as
pressed together to and disposal footprint compared equipment costs
remove the water to costs. with large are high.
produce "cake". dewatering ponds May cause odour
This is a continuous Reduces storage problems but can
process polymer and transportation be controlled. Oils
can be added to costs of cake. and greases can
improve Cake can be cause problems
dewatering. composted if not with the filters.
contaminated by Sharp objects may
substances such as damage the filter
heavy metals or belt. Belt washing
plastics. can be time
Labour consuming.
requirements low Self-cleaning belt
and maintenance filter presses are
simple. Quick start available
up and shut: down.
Less noise than
centrifuge
A vacuum is Compacts More compact Not appropriate
applied to a filter sludge to than drying for dilute sludge
pulling reduce beds. due to the high
Vacuum wastewater storage, Continuous amount of
filters through and transport and process. energy required
retaining the disposal to remove the
solids in a cake costs. water.
on the media
A rotating Compacts Low space Unsuitable for
cylinder with a sludge to requirements. high flow rates.
conical end reduce Can handle both
allows solid to storage, dilute and thick
fall to the end transport and sludge. Many
and water disposal different types
Centrifuge
discharge from costs. are available.
the other end.
Polymer can be
added to
improve
dewatering.
Drying beds are Solar beds Low operating Require large
large areas onto appropriate costs. areas.
which liquid for alum and Yields can be Retention time
Sludge sludge is ferric sludges. improved within the beds
Drying discharged. Compacts through the can be
filter beds Solar drying sludge to addition of significant
beds are reduce polymer. especially for
shallow storage, dilute sludge
concrete beds transport and and during
49
systems

Removal
exposed to the disposal periods of wet
sun which costs. weather.
evaporates the Contaminated
water from the run-off during
sludge to wet weather
produce cake can be difficult
for disposal. to contain.
Alternatively,
the beds can be
sand drying
beds with the
sludge applied
on a bed of
sand and the
liquid filtering
through the
sand to a drain.
Dry Sludge can
be removed
manually or
mechanically.
Application of Removes the Low disposal Requires
the biosolids need for costs. Returning dewatering first.
component of disposal of nutrients to the
sludge onto sludge to soil. Contaminants in
land. Biosolids landfill. the sludge may
can be further prevent land
processed into
granulated spreading, such as
product for heavy metals.
Land application as a
Onsite composting
spreading fertilizer.
may not be
possible due to
space restrictions
and transport of
waste to
composting facility
may be costly.
TABLE 4.13 POWER AND CHEMICAL CONSUMPTION OF VARIOUS THICKENING OPTIONS

Thickening Sludge Type Solid Content Power Chemical
Options after Consumption Consumption
Thickening (%) (kWh/TDS) (kgPAM/TDS)
Primary 0
Gravity 8-10 1.3-2.9
sludge
Surplus 0
Gravity Activated 2-3 4.4-13.2
Sludge
Surplus 0
Centrifugal Activated 5-7 200-300
Sludge
Surplus 0.2-2
Belt Thickener Activated 3-5 30-120
Sludge
50
systems
Surplus 3-7.5
Drum
Activated 4-8 50-100
Thickener
Sludge
Surplus 3-7.5
Rotary Screw
Activated 4-8 50-100
Thickener
Sludge
Surplus 0
Floatation Activated 3-5 10-240
Sludge
TABLE 4.14 POWER AND CHEMICAL CONSUMPTION OF VARIOUS DEWATERING OPTIONS

Power Consumption Chemical Consumption
Dewatering
(kWh/TDS) (kgPAM/TDS)
Plate Presser 15-40 0.2-0.6
Belt Presser 5-20 0.3-0.5
Centrifuge 30-60 0.1-0.4
4.22 Anaerobic digestion
This is the most widely used sludge stabilization technology. It reduces the sludge volume as well
as stabilizes organic content of the sludge, and produces biogas as by-product for power
generation. About 35 - 50% of volatile solids of sludge are decomposed during the anaerobic
digestion process.
Anaerobic digestion degrades the organics in sludge which are easy to decay and generate odour.
The process reduces the sludge volume, pathogens and odour, and improves the dewaterability of
sludge. In terms of digestion temperature, anaerobic digestion can be categorised into thermophilic
anaerobic digestion and mesophilic anaerobic digestion. In terms of the operation mode, anaerobic
digestion can be categorised as single-stage digestion and two-stage digestion.
4.23 Lime stabilization
The process involves addition of dry alkaline chemicals to partly dewatered sludge cake to raise the
pH and temperature of the mixture, so that the environment becomes unsuitable for the survival of
most pathogens and other microorganisms. After lime stabilization, the sludge can be used as
backfill soil or cover soil for landfill as well as raw material for cement production, brick
manufacturing and road construction. This treatment process, however, is of decreasing popularity
due to the limited product applications and the availability of more advanced treatment methods.
4.24 Composting
It is an aerobic microbial process that converts the organic waste of dewatered sludge, into a stable
humus-like substance that can be beneficially used as a soil conditioner. In addition, sludge can be
co composted with other organic wastes to increase its nutrient content thereby improving the
marketability of the sludge product. Such practices are common in most of the nations surveyed.
4.25 Heat drying
It involves the application of heat to further remove water from dewatered sludge. Heat drying can
reduce the moisture content of the sludge to achieve up to about 95% solids concentration. Heat
dried sludge also has a high organic content (65 - 85%), which can be used to improve soil
conditions. The heat dried sludge is also sometimes used as a fuel by cement industry and power
plant in some regions, but this is not common.
51
systems
4.26 Incineration
Incineration is the burning of the organics of dewatered sludge to oxidized compounds: carbon
dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and inert ash. The two types of incinerators
commonly used are multiple hearth incinerators and fluidized bed incinerators. Multiple hearth
incinerators were common prior to 1990. Since that time, fluidized bed incinerators have been more
popular because of better combustion and exhaust gas quality which enables them to meet the
stringent air emission controls.
4.27 Sludge Utilization/Disposal
The term ''sludge utilization" is generally understood as the use of dewatered sludge, including
digested sludge and undigested sludge, for any beneficial use instead of disposal of the solid
residuals at a landfill.
4.28 Landfilling
Landfilling has been a long-term practice adopted for disposal of digested and dewatered sludge
but has been decreasing in popularity in recent years in view of the GHG emitted from the
anaerobic degradation of landfilled sludge. Recovery of landfill gas for power production is an
emerging trend where landfilling is still being carried out.
Sludge can be disposed of in sludge landfill alone (mono-landfill) or can be mixed with other
municipal or industrial solid waste (co-landfill) and disposed of in a municipal landfill or specialized
industrial landfill. In terms of landfill type, a sludge landfill can also be categorized as either a
sanitary landfill or simple landfill, depending on the environmental protection facilities installed at
the site (such as landfill lining to prevent leakage to the groundwater aquifer and a leachate
treatment plant). In general, landfill is a relatively simple disposal method with low capital, low
operational cost and less requirement for maintenance.
4.29 Land application
Land application involves the utilization of nutrient content of sludge as fertilizer, soil conditioner on
farmland, garden, landscape, woodland etc. Sludge application to soil varies from the application of
stabilized and dewatered sludge to the application of sludge-derived compost or heat-dried sludge
pellets.
4.30 Use in the Manufacture of Construction Materials
Sludge can be used as a raw material in manufacturing of construction materials, such as bricks,
ceramsite, cement and concrete. Use of sludge in construction material manufacturing is an
important form of beneficial sludge utilization. The major applications are using sludge in brick
manufacturing and cement production. There are two main methods for brick-ma king. One is to
directly use the dried sludge, and the other is to use sludge ash. For the former, the sludge
composition should be adjusted to be similar to the composition of clay. The strength of the sludge
brick can equal to the common red brick when the mix ratio is 1:10 of sludge and clay. For the
latter, as composition of sludge ash is similar to clay, it is only necessary to add a certain amount of
clay and silica sand. Using sludge in brick-making can reduce the clay consumption as well as
recover the calorific value of the organic compounds in the sludge. Heat dried sludge pellets are
used as an alternative fuel in cement kilns, or carbonized to char and syngas under pyrolysis or
gasification processes for power generation.
52
systems
4.31 Project Specific Wastewater Treatment Option
4.31.1 Sustainability Issues
In almost all parts of the world, but especially in developing countries, there is a huge need for water,
and the water to meet these needs is becoming scarcer and scarcer: it is predicted that over half the
world’s peoples will face water shortages during the next 30 years. Agriculture consumes vast
quantities of water (70 per cent of global water abstraction), as do many industries, and there is an
enormous, currently unfulfilled, domestic demand for water. The development and exploitation of
water resources to meet these needs must be sustainable (as defined above), and part of this drive
towards sustainability concerns domestic wastewater treatment. This includes the direct re-use of
treated wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture, as well as its indirect re-use, which is discharge
into inland surface waters and used by downstream communities for agricultural and industrial use, as
well as for domestic supply.
When sustainability is considered in relation to domestic wastewater treatment in developing

countries, the following issues are relevant:
• low cost – both in terms of capital and of operation and maintenance,
• simplicity of operation and maintenance,
• low, preferably zero, energy usage – essential for low operational costs,
• low, preferably zero, use of chemicals, especially chlorine or other environmentally damaging
disinfectants,
• low land take, although this is only occasionally really relevant,
• high performance – the ability to produce an effluent of the required quality, and
• low sludge production
These considerations should be self-evident, yet they are often not taken into account – unfortunately
there are too many uninformed professionals in developing countries (and this includes their often
expatriate advisers and lenders) who, automatically and thus without due thinking, wish to adopt the
wastewater treatment technologies of industrialized countries in the generally mistaken belief that
these are the most appropriate technologies to implement. This belief is generally mistaken because,
the industrialized and developing countries have (or should have) different perceptions of what is
important in wastewater treatment. Of course, there are certain circumstances when such
technologies may be appropriate – in ‘megacities’, for example, but even here other technologies,
such as waste stabilization ponds and effluent re-use, are not always irrelevant.
4.32 Centralized wastewater management
Centralized collection system collects wastewater from many wastewater producers i.e. households,
commercial areas, industrial plants and institutions, and transports it to the centralized wastewater
treatment plant in an off-site location outside the settlement, and disposal/reuse of the treated
effluent, usually far from the point of origin.
4.33 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
In most cities in industrialized countries there is a single central wastewater treatment plant. Such a
plant requires an extensive (and expensive) network of trunk sewers to convey the entire city’s
53
systems
wastewater to it, and this often involves pumping the wastewater from one drainage basin to another. A
cheaper alternative for developing countries (which is also applicable to industrialized countries) is to have
decentralized wastewater treatment plants, rather than a single central plant. This minimizes the costs of
trunk sewerage and avoids much, if not all, of the expenditure on pumping. Each decentralized plant serves
a single drainage basin or a small number of drainage sub-basins.
4.34 Treatment Technology
In many developing countries having a warm climate with sufficient land for land-intensive wastewater
treatment technologies (WSP, for example). One can take maximal advantage of the climate and land
availability for wastewater treatment. Money spent on land is not money wasted, but money spent on
electricity is money gone forever. Trickling filter is another technology used for wastewater treatment.
Trickling filter has less O&M, less land requirement and good treatment efficiency but flies nuisance is a
problem in Trickling Filters. Activated Sludge Process (ASP) is highly efficient technology, requires very
less area and mostly used throughout the world for wastewater treatment but the O&M cost is very high.
There are other treatment technologies like Sequencing batch reactor and Membrane Bioreactor. There
structures are more compact and technology is more moderate. These technologies also have their
limitations which do not suit with the ground conditions. In SBR technology, process control is more
complicated and higher and regular maintenance skills required for instruments, monitoring devices, and
automatic valves. In MBR Technology, cost is very high, so the construction investment of membrane -
bioreactor is higher than that of traditional sewage treatment. In addition to this, MBR has high energy
consumption: first, the MBR membrane drive spate separation process must keep pressure, followed by
the MLSS concentration in MBR pool is very high, to keep enough oxygen transfer rate, must increase the
intensity of aeration, and in order to increase the membrane flux and reduce membrane pollution, must
increase the flow velocity, scour the membrane surface, cause the energy consumption of the MBR higher
than the traditional biological treatment process.
Recommendation regarding Technology Selection
In Master Planning a comparison between different Wastewater Treatment technologies has been made
and it has been recommended that the technology should be selected by conducting detailed feasibility
study keeping in view the following factors:
 Land availability;
 Effluent characteristics;
 Cost; and
 Environmental and social conditions of the area.
54
systems
TABLE 4.15 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Facultative
Extended Aerobic flow- Conventional
Oxidation Facultative waste Anaerobic
Item Aeration Type through type Activated
Ditches Type lagoons stabilization Ponds
Lagoons lagoons Sludge Plant
Ponds
BOD Removal
95-98 95-98 70-85 75-90 75-90 10-50 90-93
Efficiency (%)
Detention Time
0.7-1.0 0.7-1.0 2.0-5.0 3.0-6.0 15-30 1-2 -
(days)
Land
Requirement* 0.13-0.35 0.13-0.25 0.10-0.35 0.15-0.45 1.0-2.8- - 0.16
2
(m /cap.)
Complexity Complex Complex Less Complex Simple Simple Simple Very Complex
Cost of various technologies is variable as it depends on many factors like land requirement and land cost, power requirement and unit
Cost (Rup/per)
power cost, quality of wastewater and quantity of MLSS in wastewater, manufacturer’s equipment and guidelines etc.
Treated water
Treated water may be used for agriculture use, gardening and lawn irrigation by Parks and Horticulture Authority, cleaning of roads etc
reuse potential
*Assuming 3m depth of water in lagoons and embankments slopes 2.0 horizontal: 1.0 vertical
0
**Power requirement is based on aerators transfer of O2 @ 1.70 kg/Hp-Hour at standard conditions (20 C, zero DO & plain water)
55
systems
TABLE 4.16 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Criteria Activated Biological Oxidation Aerated WSP system

EAAS
sludge plant filter ditch lagoons
BOD removal Fair Fair Fair Good Good Good
Plant
performance SS removal Good Good Good Good Fair Fair
FC removal Poor Fair Poor Fair Good Good
Helminth Fair Poor Poor Fair Fair Good
removal
Virus removal Fair Poor Poor Fair Good Good
construction
Economic simplicity & Poor Poor Poor Fair Fair Good
factors cost
Land
Good Good Good Good Fair Poor
requirement
Operational
Poor Poor Fair Fair Poor Good
simplicity
Maintenance
Poor Poor Fair Poor Poor Good
costs
Energy demand Poor Poor Fair Poor Poor Good
Sludge removal
Fair Fair Fair Poor Fair Good
costs
Source: WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES – Vol. II - Wastewater Stabilization Ponds (WSP) for Wastewater Treatment - S. Phuntsho, H.K. Shon, S. Vigneswaran, and J. Kandasamy
56
systems
5-Storm Water Drainage

Lahore is comparatively a flat area with a mild slope towards south western side. The natural drainage
is towards River Ravi which flows along the city from North East side towards South Western side.
Barriers like Railway Line, River Protection Bunds and Lahore Branch Canal have obstructed the
natural drainage pattern and present drainage system follows the existing topographic pattern taking
care of the said barriers and other ground realities.
The storm water drainage system of WASA is dependent upon 08 Main / Primary storm water drains.
Almost all these drains carry sizable sewerage inflows although these are meant for storm water flows
only. As such the sewage inflow into the drains should be avoided. The sewage inflow not only tends
to decrease the capacity of drain due to sediment accumulation but also deteriorates the flow
conditions and create environmental hazards along the stretches of drain. WASA service area is
divided into 07 drainage districts /sub-catchment areas and Non WASA area into 02 Drainage
Districts which have been determined on the basis of topographical features, existing drainage
network and site investigations / survey work, these are:
TABLE 5.1 DRAINAGE DISTRICTS
Sr.
Drainage District Main Drains
No
1 Shahdara Drainage District (West) Shahdara Drain
Shalimar Escape Channel Drainage Shalimar Escape Channel

2
District Drain
Upper Chotta Ravi Drain Drainage
3 Upper Chotta Ravi Drain
District
4 SiddiquePura Drainage District SiddiquePura Drain
5 Lower Chotta Ravi Drainage District Lower Chotta Ravi Drain
6 Cantonment Drainage District-I Cantonment Drain

7 SattuKatla Drainage District SattuKatla Drain
Non-WASA Drains
8 Charrar Drain District Charrar Drain
9 Hudiara Drain District Hudiara Drain
5.1 Storm Water Generation
Storm water generated during rainfall is variable in quantity, duration, frequency and location. The
amount of storm water runoff reaching a receiving water body will also depend upon the surface over
which it travels. An increase in storm water runoff in urban areas results in increased peak flows,
which must be determined in order to design and implement an efficient storm water collection
system. Storm water that is not infiltrated into the ground generates runoff, this runoff is carried by
drains and ultimately discharging into water bodies.
57
systems
5.2 Computation of Rainfall Runoff
Runoff is generated by Rainstorms, its occurrence and quantity are dependent on the characteristics
of the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. The following two methods are generally
used for the computation of rainfall runoff:
• Unit Hydrograph Method;

• Rational Area Method.
5.2.1 Unit Hydrograph Method
The unit hydrograph is a direct runoff hydrograph resulting from one unit (one inch or one cm) of
constant intensity uniform rainfall occurring over the entire water shed. For example if one inch of
3
excess rainfall produces a direct runoff peak of 100 ft /sec then two inches of excess rainfall will
3
produce a direct runoff of 2 x 100 = 200 ft /sec. Unit hydrographs are developed for gauged water
sheds where data on precipitation, rainfall intensities and other parameters are available. However for
an ungauged water shed a synthetic unit hydrograph is normally used.
5.2.2 Rational Method
Rational method is used for relatively small areas as it is based on the assumption that the rainfall
intensity is uniform over the entire watershed during the entire storm duration and the maximum runoff
occurs when the rainfall lasts as long as or longer than the time of concentration.
5.2.3 Computation Method for Project Area
As the Unit Hydrograph technique is used for the estimation of peak floods and developing flood
2
hydrographs for the streams with catchment areas greater than 1 km , whereas the Rational Formula
2
is used for catchment areas less than 1 km . In case of Lahore, the Rational Formula is preferred
2
method for road drainage as the catchment area of each drainage basin is generally less than 1 Km .
5.2.4 Rational Formula
The Rational Formula is the simplest method to determine peak discharge from drainage basin runoff.
The Rational Formula is given below:
Q = CIA
Where:-
Q = Discharge in cusec
C = Runoff coefficient
I = Rainfall intensity in inch/hour
A = Drainage area in acres
5.2.5 Runoff Coefficient (C)
The runoff coefficient C is to be consistent with the imperviousness for the respective land use. The
runoff coefficient is the ratio of maximum rate of runoff to the average rate of rainfall in the area during
the time of concentration. The runoff coefficient depends on the type of area, road slope, type of
pavement, type of soil and ambient soil moisture conditions. The runoff coefficients vary from open
areas to densely populated areas. Table below shows the runoff coefficient for various surfaces. For
calculating the storm water runoff the cumulative values of C are used for different areas depending
upon the topography of the areas.
58
systems
TABLE 5.2 RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF SURFACES

Type of Surface Runoff Coefficient
Water tight roof surface 0.70 - 0.95
Asphaltic cement streets 0.85 - 0.90
Portland cement streets 0.80 - 0.95
Brick paved driveways and walks with tightly cemented joints 0.75 - 0.85
Brick paved driveways and walks with un-cemented joints 0.70 - 0.80
Inferior block pavement with uncemented joints 0.40 - 0.50
Lawns, sandy soil
2.0% slope 0.05 - 0.10
2-7% slope 0.10 - 0.15
> 7% slope 0.15 - 0.20
Lawns, heavy soil
2.0% slope 0.13 - 0.17
2-7% slope 0.18 - 0.22
> 7% slope 0.25 - 0.35
Business Downtown area
Neighborhood area 0.70 - 0.95
Residential (Urban)
Single family area 0.50 - 0.70
Multi units, detached 0.30 - 0.50
Multi units attached 0.40 - 0.60
Residential (Suburban) 0.60-0.75
Apartment areas 0.25 - 0.40
Industrial
Light 0.50 - 0.70
Heavy 0.50 - 0.80
Parks, cemeteries 0.60 - 0.90
Playgrounds 0.10 - 0.25
Railroad yards 0.20-0.35
Unimproved areas 0.20 - 0.40
59
systems
5.2.6 Rainfall Intensity (I)
The intensity of rainfall is a measure of the amount of rain that falls over time. The intensity of rain is
measured by the height of the water layer covering the ground in a period of time. High intensity
rainfalls on steep slopes may lead to flash floods. On flat areas it may lead to ponding or urban floods
when the capacity of the drain is insufficient for the rainfall. Usually the IDF curve method is applied to
determine the rainfall intensity.
5.2.7 IDF Curve
The rainfall intensity obtained from a intensity duration frequency curve which is the measured rainfall
in inches per hour for a duration equal to the time of concentration. For developing the Intensity-
Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves, daily rainfall data from rain gauging station is analyzed. One-day
annual maximum rainfall events have been extracted from the daily rainfall data. The rainfall data from
Lahore is used for rainfall intensity duration curves for 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 years return periods. The
intensity-duration-frequency curves (IDF Curves) are shown in Figure given below:
FIGURE 5.1 INTENSITY DURATION FREQUENCY CURVES FOR LAHORE CITY (1951-2015)
5.2.8 Peak Run-off
A number of methods are available to estimate the amount of runoff. They range from widely used
rational formula to hydrographic method.
Rational method is used for relatively small areas as it is based on the assumption that the rainfall
intensity is uniform over the entire watershed area during the entire storm duration and the maximum
runoff occurs when the rainfall lasts as long as or longer than the time of concentration. Hydrographic
method is commonly used when dealing with larger drainage areas or when designing a major
system.
60
systems
For the design & evaluation of Storm water drains, Hydrographic method will be used and following
equations has been used while developing hydrographs:
Tp= ½ D + 0.6 Tc
Tb = 2.67 Tp
Where Qp = Peak run-off rate, in cusecs

A = Tributary area, in square miles
K = Constant for particular watershed
(Value of K varies from 600 in steep terrain to 300 in flat areas; the adopted value in
this case is 300)
Q = Incremental excess rain, in inches

Tp = Time from start of runoff to peak rate, in hours
Tc = Time of Concentration, in hours
D = Incremental rainfall excess period, in hours
Tb= Time base of hydrograph, in hours
The time of concentration (Tc) has been calculated considering the velocity of flow of 2.5 ft/sec in the
drain reach and in this flow time a provision of half hour has been added to take care of flow time from
the surrounding areas of the drain. Mathematically expression of Tc is given as
The peak runoff (Qp) calculated through above formula is the incremental runoff, such peak runoff is
calculated for each hour of the rainfall. The peak storm water flow at particular point is then obtained
by the graphical addition of hydrographs developed at this point.
5.2.9 Return Period
The selection of return period is dependent on various factors like available space for the
construction/ remodeling of drain, the cost of drain, number of pumping stations and average annual
damages and disruption cost. It is recommended that the Primary drain shall be designed on 5 years
return period and secondary, tertiary drains on 2 years return period respectively.
5.2.10 Storm Water Routing
Storm water routing is the routing of runoff generated from a rainfall event. Generally storm water
routing is carried out by computer aided softwares. Following storm routing methods exist:
• Steady Flow Routing
• Kinematic Wave Routing
• Dynamic Wave Routing
In above mentioned routing methods, Manning’s equation is used to relate flow rate to flow depth and
bed slope. In the case of force mains either the Hazen-Williams or Darcy-Weisbach equation is used.
61
systems
5.2.10.1 Steady Flow Routing
Steady Flow routing represents the simplest type of routing possible by assuming that within each
computational time step the flow is uniform and steady. Thus, it simply translates inflow hydrographs
at the upstream end of the conduit to the downstream end with no delay or change in shape. This
routing is expressed in terms of flow rate to flow area (or depth). Therefore, this form of routing is only
appropriate for preliminary analysis using long-term continuous simulations like of rivers and canals.
5.2.10.2 Kinematic Wave Routing
In this method, continuity equation is used along with a simplified form of the momentum equation in
each drain/pipe. Full normal flow value of drain/pipe is the maximum flow that can be conveyed it. Any
flow entering the inlet node in excess to full normal flow value is either lost from the system or can
pond at the inlet node. This ponded flow will be re-introduced into the drain/pipe as capacity becomes
available. Kinematic wave routing cannot describe backwater effects, entrance/exit losses, flow
reversal, or pressurized flow and is also limited to branched network layouts. It is useful in moderately
large time steps i.e. on the order of 5 to 15 minutes. Kinematic wave routing can be an accurate and
efficient routing method, especially for long-term simulations, if the aforementioned effects are not
expected to be significant.
5.2.10.3 Dynamic Wave Routing
Dynamic Wave routing produces the most theoretically accurate results by solving the complete one-
dimensional Saint Venant flow equations. These equations comprise of:
• Continuity equations for pipes/drains
• Momentum equations pipes/drains
• Volume continuity equation at nodes
With dynamic wave routing, it is possible to depict pressurized flow when a closed pipes/drains
becomes full, when flows can exceed the full normal flow value. Flooding occurs when:
• Water depth at a node surpasses the maximum available depth
• Excess flow can either lost from the system or can pond atop the node
Dynamic wave routing can cater:
• Channel storage
• Backwater entrance/exit losses
• Flow reversal
• Pressurized flow
Smaller time steps, on the order of a minute or less are used in dynamic wave routing. it can be
applied to any general network layout even those containing multiple downstream diversions and
loops.
In view of the above discussion Dynamic Wave Routing Method is the most suitable option for
storm water routing.
5.3 Type of Drains
Drainage system can be broadly categorized as:
• Pipe Drains
• Open Drains(Trapezoidal / Rectangular)
• Covered Drains (Rectangular)
62
systems
5.4 Design Period
i) Civil works =25 years

ii) Machinery =15 years
5.5 Inlets
Inlets are provided to collect runoff and discharge it to the storm water drainage system. Inlets are
located at depressed and low points on roads, at roads corners and along the road at suitable
intervals so as to avoid flooding and submergence of the roadway during rain storm. Inlets used for
drainage of road surfaces can be divided into three main classes.
• Grate Inlets /Gully Gratings
• Curb Opening Inlets
Entry Opening / Grate Inlets are proposed for covered drains especially along major roads. Curb
Openings are proposed along open drains.
5.6 Drain Materials
Material selection is based on the capital cost to be incurred on the installation of the collection
network, design life, operation and maintenance expenditure.
Brick masonry drains are easy to construct which incur less capital and maintenance cost. The
selection of drain sections will depend upon the cost, maintenance, natural slope available and
availability of land. Due to limited land available in most of the study area, Rectangular brick masonry
open drains are preferable. The section must be adequate to carry the design flow, while cunnette
section may be provided to attain the minimum self-cleansing velocity at low runoffs.
5.7 Minimum Sizes of Drain
Minimum size of drains shall be based on the ease of manual cleaning, while for larger drains the
minimum width shall be based on the ease of mechanical cleaning methods. The minimum hydraulic
size of drain requirement shall be 3ft x 2 ft.
5.8 Hydraulic Design
Manning's formula will be used to carry out hydraulic design and set longitudinal slope of the drain:
Where,
V = Flow velocity in feet per second
n = Co-efficient of roughness, Manning’s Co-efficient
R = Hydraulic radius in feet
S =Mean slope of hydraulic gradient
63
systems
The values of Manning’s are Coefficient 'n' are given below:
TABLE 5.3 M ANNING’S COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT M ATERIALS

Drain Type Manning's Coefficient “n”
R.C.C. Conduit 0.015
R. C. C. Pipe 0.013
Brick Lined Chanel 0.017
5.8.1 Design Velocity
Considering the topography of the area, longitudinal slopes may be adopted to ensure the permissible
limit of self-cleansing velocities of 2.5 ft/sec.
5.8.2 Bridge Clearance
The bridge deck should be 1 to 1.5 ft higher than the full supply level of the flow in the drain.
5.8.3 Longitudinal Slope
Longitudinal slope of drain should be designed by fixing the minimum velocity at 2.50ft/s.
5.8.4 Freeboard in Drain
A minimum free board of 6 inch has been recommended for drains.
5.8.5 Drain Outfall Level
The invert level of drain at outfall should be such that the maximum flow level in the drain is at least 2
ft higher than the flow level in the receiving channel.
64
systems
APPENDICES
65
systems
APPENDIX-I
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
66
systems
WATER SUPPLY PIPE TRENCH DETAIL (STD-WS-01)
67
systems
DETAIL OF SLUICE VALVE AND FIRE HYDRANT CHAMBER (STD-WS-02)
68
systems
TUBE WELL CHAMBER (STD-WS-03)
69
systems
INSTALLATION CONSTRUCTION OF 2 CFS CAPCITY TUBE WELL BORE HOLE AND CONNECTION PIPING DETAILS (STD-WS-04)
70
systems
INSTALLATION CONSTRUCTION OF 4 CFS CAPCITY TUBE WELL BORE HOLE AND CONNECTION PIPING DETAILS (STD-WS-05)
71
systems
WATER SUPPLY HOUSE CONNECTION DETAIL (STD-WS-06)
72
systems
APPENDIX-II
SANITARY SEWERS
73
systems
74
systems
75
systems
76
systems
77
systems
HYDRAULIC STATEMENT PROFORMA FOR DESIGN OF SEWERS
78
systems
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE LOADS & SEWER DEPTHS FOR CLASS-III & CLASS-IV (C 76) SEWER PIPES
79
systems
80
systems
81
systems
82
systems
83
systems
MANHOLE SEWER 9" TO 33" (SMH-01) PART 1 OF 2
84
systems
85
systems
86
systems
87
systems
88
systems
89
systems
TYPICAL MANHOLES FOR CONDUIT SEWERS (SMH-04)
90
systems
APPENDIX-III
STORM WATER DRAINAGE
91
systems
TYPICAL RCC DRAIN SECTIONS
92

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DESIGN CRITERIA

A HAND BOOK ON HYDRAULIC DESIGN

1. Water Distribution System

3. Sewage Pump/Lift Stations

4. Waste Water Treatment

5. Storm Water Drainage

WATER AND SANITATION AGENCY

2-Sanitary Sewers ............................................................................................................. 12

3-Sewage Pump/Lift Stations............................................................................................. 21

4- Wastewater Treatment .................................................................................................. 26

5-Storm Water Drainage .................................................................................................... 57

Table 4.1 Typical Characteristics of Raw Municipal Wastewater………………………………………………………………………26

Table 4.2 Recommended Treated Wastewater Quality Parameters ………………………………………………………………….26

Table 4.3 Levels of Wastewater Treatment .............................................................................................................................. 28

Table 4.4 Theoretical BOD5 Reduction at 22 Degree Centigrade ............................................................................................. 30

Table 4.5 Actual BOD5 Reduction as a Function of Retention Time ......................................................................................... 30

Table 4.7 Characteristics of an ideal disinfectant ..................................................................................................................... 43

Table 4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Disinfection Technologies .................................................................................. 44

Table 4.10 Definition of terms used in water reuse applications ................................................................................................. 46

Table 4.12 Comparison of various sludge de-watering technologies .......................................................................................... 48

Table 4.15 Comparison of Various Wastewater Treatment Technologies .................................................................................. 55

Table 4.16 Comparison of Various Wastewater Treatment Technologies .................................................................................. 56

Table 5.1 Drainage Districts..................................................................................................................................................... 57

Table 5.2 Runoff Coefficients for Different Types of surfaces................................................................................................... 59

Table 5.3 Manning’s Coefficient for Different Materials ............................................................................................................ 64

Figure 4.3 Typical Trickling Filter Process Flow Diagram ………………………………………………………………………………32

Figure 4.4 Typical Trickling Filter Process Flow Diagram (cross-section)…………………………………………………………… 33

Figure 4.5 Typical Activated Sludge Process Flow Diagram...................................................................................................... 35

Figure 4.6 Typical Sequencing batch Reactor Process ............................................................................................................. 36

Figure 4.7 Typical Sequencing batch Reactor Process…………………………………………………………………………. ……...37

Figure 4.8 Typical Membrane Bioreactor process flow diagram ................................................................................................ 38

Figure 4.10 Oxidation Ditches Typical Process Flow Diagram .................................................................................................... 39

Figure 4.11 Concept diagram of Aerated Lagoon ........................................................................................................................ 41

Figure 4.12 Flow Diagram for CEPT ........................................................................................................................................... 42

WATER SUPPLY PIPE TRENCH DETAIL (STD-WS-01) …………………………………………………………………………………………… 67

DETAIL OF SLUICE VALVE AND FIRE HYDRANT CHAMBER (STD-WS-02)…………………………………………………………………… .68

TUBE WELL CHAMBER (STD-WS-03)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….69

WATER SUPPLY HOUSE CONNECTION DETAIL (STD-WS-06)……………………………………………………………………………….......72

HYDRUALIC STATEMENT PROFORMA FOR DESIGN OF SEWERS………………………………………………………………………………78

MANHOLE SEWER 9" TO 33" (SMH-01) PART 1 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………..84

MANHOLE SEWER 9" TO 33" (SMH-01) PART 2 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………..85

MANHOLE SEWER 36" TO 72" (SMH-02) PART 1 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………86

MANHOLE SEWER 36" TO 72" (SMH-02) PART 2 OF 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 87

MANHOLE SEWER 36" TO 66" (SMH-03) PART 1 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………88

MANHOLE SEWER 36" TO 66" (SMH-03) PART 2 OF 2………………………………………………………………………………………………89

TYPICAL MANHOLES FOR CONDUIT SEWERS (SMH-04)………………………………………………………………………………………….90

TYPICAL RCC DRAIN SECTIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….92

1.2 Estimation of Population

Period Annual Growth Rate

Year Annual Growth Rate Population

Design Period of different components of water supply system is given below:

Component Design Life

Tube Well 10-15 years

Pump House/Tubewell chamber 25 years

Pumping Machinery 10 years

25 years. The capacities of distribution system are

20 years (Repair or replacement of the pumping sets

25 years (Repair or replacement of the pumping sets

Density Density Classification

Up to 200 persons/ha Low