Artificial Intelligence - Wikipedia

8/11/23, 5:07 PM Artificial intelligence - Wikipedia
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the

intelligence of human beings or animals. AI applications include advanced web search engines (e.g.,
Google Search), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix), understanding
human speech (such as Siri and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Waymo), generative or creative tools
(ChatGPT and AI art), and competing at the highest level in strategic games (such as chess and Go).[1]
Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.[2] The field went through
multiple cycles of optimism[3][4] followed by disappointment and loss of funding,[5][6] but after 2012,
when deep learning surpassed all previous AI techniques,[7] there was a vast increase in funding and
interest.
The various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular
tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning,
learning, natural language processing, perception, and support for robotics.[a] General intelligence
(the ability to solve an arbitrary problem) is among the field's long-term goals.[8] To solve these
problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques,
including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and
methods based on statistics, probability, and economics.[b] AI also draws upon psychology,
linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience and many other fields.[9]
Goals
The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into sub-
problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent
system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of
AI research.[a]
Reasoning, problem-solving
Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when
they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[10] By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were
developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability
and economics.[11]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence 1/53
Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they
experience a "combinatorial explosion": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew
larger.[12] Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model.
They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.[13] Accurate and efficient reasoning
is an unsolved problem.
Knowledge representation
Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering[14] allow AI

programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions
about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are
used in content-based indexing and retrieval,[15] scene
interpretation,[16] clinical decision support,[17] knowledge
discovery (mining "interesting" and actionable inferences from
large databases),[18] and other areas.[19]
A knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a form

that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set of objects,
relations, concepts, and properties used by domain of
An ontology represents knowledge
knowledge.[20] The most general ontologies are called upper
as a set of concepts within a
ontologies, which attempt to provide a foundation for all other
domain and the relationships
knowledge and act as mediators between domain ontologies that between those concepts.
cover specific knowledge about a particular domain (field of
interest or area of concern).
Knowledge bases need to represent things such as: objects, properties, categories and relations
between objects; [21] situations, events, states and time;[22] causes and effects;[23] knowledge about
knowledge (what we know about what other people know);[24] default reasoning (things that humans
assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are
changing);[25] and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.
Among the most difficult problems in KR are: the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of
atomic facts that the average person knows) is enormous;[26] the difficulty of knowledge acquisition
and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not
represented as "facts" or "statements" that they could express verbally).[13]
Planning and decision making
Automated planning[27] and automated decision making[28] are part of AI.
Learning
Machine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task
automatically.[29] It has been a part of AI from the beginning.[c]
There are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and
finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.[32] Supervised learning requires a
human to label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: classification (where the
program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and regression (where the program
must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).[33] In reinforcement learning the agent is
rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that
are classified as "good".[34] Transfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is
applied to a new problem.[35] Deep learning uses artificial neural networks for all of these types of
learning.
Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample

complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.[36]
Natural language processing
Natural language processing (NLP)[37] allows programs to read, write and communicate in human
languages such as English. Specific problems include speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine
translation, information extraction, information retrieval and question answering.[38]
Early work, based on Noam Chomsky's generative grammar, had difficulty with word-sense
disambiguation[d] unless restricted to small domains called "micro-worlds" (due to the common sense
knowledge problem[26]).
Modern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (how often one word appears
near another),[39] transformers (which finds patterns in text),[40] and others.[41] In 2019, generative
pre-trained transformer (or "GPT") language models began to generate coherent text,[42][43] and by
2023 these models were able to get human-level scores on the bar exam, SAT, GRE, and many other
real-world applications.[44]
Perception
Machine perception is the ability to use input from

sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless
signals, active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile
sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer
vision is the ability to analyze visual input.[45] The
field includes speech recognition,[46] image Feature detection (pictured: edge detection) helps AI
classification,[47] facial recognition, object compose informative abstract structures out of raw
recognition, [48] and robotic perception. [49]
data.
Robotics
Robotics[50] uses AI.
Social intelligence
Affective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret,
process or simulate human feeling, emotion and mood.[52] For example, some virtual assistants are
programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more
sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer
interaction. However, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic

conception of how intelligent existing computer agents actually
are.[53] Moderate successes related to affective computing include
textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal
sentiment analysis, wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a
videotaped subject.[54]
General intelligence
Kismet, a robot with rudimentary
A machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to social skills[51]
solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility
similar to human intelligence.[8]
Tools
AI research uses a wide variety of tools to accomplish the goals above.[b]
Search and optimization
AI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.[55] There are
two very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search.
State space search
State space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.[56] For example,
Planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target
goal, a process called means-ends analysis.[57]
Simple exhaustive searches[58] are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space
(the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is
too slow or never completes.[12] "Heuristics" or "rules of thumb" can help to prioritize choices that are
more likely to reach a goal.[59]
Adversarial search is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or go. It searches through a tree
of possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position.[60]
Local search
Local search uses mathematical optimization to find a numeric solution to a problem. It begins with
some form of a guess and then refines the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be
made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing: we begin the search at a random
point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach
the top. This process is called stochastic gradient descent.[61]
Evolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a
population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only
the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses).[62]
Distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm

intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in
search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking)
and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).[63]
Neural networks and statistical classifiers (discussed below), also

use a form of local search, where the "landscape" to be searched is
formed by learning.
A particle swarm seeking the global

Logic
minimum
Formal Logic is used for reasoning and knowledge

representation.[64] Formal logic comes in two main forms: propositional logic (which operates on
statements that are true of false and uses logical connectives such as "and", "or", "not" and
"implies")[65] and predicate logic (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses
quantifiers such as "Every X is a Y" and "There are some Xs that are Ys").[66]
Logical inference (or deduction) is the process of proving a new statement (conclusion) from other
statements that are already known to be true (the premises).[67] A logical knowledge base also handles
queries and assertions as a special case of inference.[68] An inference rule describes what is a valid
step in a proof. The most general inference rule is resolution.[69] Inference can be reduced to
performing a search to find a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the
application of an inference rule.[70] Inference performed this way is intractable except for short proofs
in restricted domains. No efficient, powerful and general method has been discovered.[71]
Fuzzy logic assigns a "degree of truth" between 0 and 1 and handles uncertainty and probabilistic
situations.[72] Non-monotonic logics are designed to handle default reasoning.[25] Other specialized
versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains (see knowledge
representation above).
Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning
Many problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning,

perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with
incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised
a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from
probability theory and economics.[73]
Bayesian networks[74] are a very general tool that can be used for
many problems, including reasoning (using the Bayesian inference
algorithm),[e][76] learning (using the expectation-maximization
algorithm),[f][78] planning (using decision networks)[79] and
Expectation-maximization clustering
perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).[80]
of Old Faithful eruption data starts
from a random guess but then
Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction,
successfully converges on an
smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping
accurate clustering of the two
perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g.,
physically distinct modes of
hidden Markov models or Kalman filters).[80]
eruption.
Precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and
plan, using decision theory, decision analysis,[81] and information value theory.[82] These tools
include models such as Markov decision processes, [83] dynamic decision networks,[80] game theory
and mechanism design.[84]
Classifiers and statistical learning methods
The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (e.g. "if shiny then diamond"),
on one hand, and controllers (e.g. "if diamond then pick up"), on the other hand. Classifiers[85] are
functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based on
chosen examples using supervised learning. Each pattern (also called an "observation") is labeled with
a certain predefined class. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data
set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous
experience.[33]
There many kinds of classifiers in use. The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used
symbolic machine learning algorithm.[86] K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used
analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM)
displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.[87] The naive Bayes classifier is reportedly the "most
widely used learner"[88] at Google, due in part to its scalability.[89] Neural networks are also used as
classifiers.[90]
Artificial neural networks
Artificial neural networks[90] were inspired by the design of the

human brain: a simple "neuron" N accepts input from other
neurons, each of which, when activated (or "fired"), casts a
weighted "vote" for or against whether neuron N should itself
activate. In practice, the input "neurons" are a list of numbers, the
"weights" are a matrix, the next layer is the dot product (i.e.,
several weighted sums) scaled by an increasing function, such as
the logistic function. "The resemblance to real neural cells and
structures is superficial", according to Russell and Norvig. [91][g]
A neural network is an Learning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose
interconnected group of nodes, akin the weights that will get the right output for each input during
to the vast network of neurons in training. The most common training technique is the
the human brain. backpropagation algorithm.[92] Neural networks learn to model
complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find
patterns in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any
function.[93]
In feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one direction.[94] Recurrent neural networks
feed the output signal back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous input
events. Long short term memory is the most successful network architecture for recurrent
networks.[95] Perceptrons[96] use only a single layer of neurons, deep learning[97] uses multiple layers.
Convolutional neural networks strengthen the connection between neurons that are "close" to each
other -- this especially important in image processing, where a local set of neurons must identify an
"edge" before the network can identify an object.[98]
Deep learning
Deep learning[97] uses several layers of neurons between the

network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can
progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For
example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges,
while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human
such as digits or letters or faces.[100]
Deep learning has drastically improved the performance of

programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence,
including computer vision, speech recognition, image Representing images on multiple
classification[101] and others. The reason that deep learning layers of abstraction in deep
performs so well in so many applications is not known as of learning[99]
2023. [102] The sudden success of deep learning in 2012-2015 did
not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical
breakthrough (deep neural networks and backpropagation had been described by many people, as far
back as the 1950s)[h] but because of two factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including
the hundred-fold increase in speed by switching to GPUs) and the availability of vast amounts of
training data, especially the giant curated datasets used for benchmark testing, such as ImageNet.[i]
Specialized hardware and software
In the late 2010s, graphics processing units (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific
enhancements and used with specialized TensorFlow software, had replaced previously used central
processing unit (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) machine
learning models' training.[111] Historically, specialized languages, such as Lisp, Prolog, and others,
had been used.
Applications
AI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s,
including: search engines (such as Google Search), targeting online advertisements,[112]
recommendation systems (offered by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon), driving internet traffic,[113][114]
targeted advertising (AdSense, Facebook), virtual assistants (such as Siri or Alexa),[115] autonomous
vehicles (including drones, ADAS and self-driving cars), automatic language translation (Microsoft
Translator, Google Translate), facial recognition (Apple's Face ID or Microsoft's DeepFace) and image
labeling (used by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and TikTok).
There are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve specific problems for specific
industries or institutions. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had incorporated "AI"
in some offerings or processes.[116] A few examples are energy storage,[117] medical diagnosis, military
logistics, applications that predict the result of judicial decisions,[118] foreign policy,[119] or supply
chain management.
Game playing programs have been used since the 1950s

demonstrate and test AI's most advanced techniques. Deep Blue
became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning
world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997.[120] In
2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question
answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy!
champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant
margin.[121] In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go
in a match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first
computer Go-playing system to beat a professional Go player
without handicaps.[122] Other programs handle imperfect-
information games; such as for poker at a superhuman level,
Pluribus[j] and Cepheus.[124] DeepMind in the 2010s developed a
"generalized artificial intelligence" that could learn many diverse
For this 2018 project of the artist
Atari games on its own.[125]
Joseph Ayerle the AI had to learn
In the early 2020s, generative AI gained widespread prominence. the typical patterns in the colors and
brushstrokes of Renaissance
ChatGPT, based on GPT-3, and other large language models, were
painter Raphael. The portrait shows
tried by 14% of Americans adults.[126] The increasing realism and
the face of the actress Ornella Muti,
ease-of-use of AI-based text-to-image generators such as
"painted" by AI in the style of
Midjourney, DALL-E, and Stable Diffusion[127][128] sparked a Raphael.
trend of viral AI-generated photos. Widespread attention was
gained by a fake photo of Pope Francis wearing a white puffer
coat,[129] the fictional arrest of Donald Trump,[130] and a hoax of an attack on the Pentagon,[131] as
well as the usage in professional creative arts.[132][133]
AlphaFold 2 (2020), which demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than months, the
3D structure of a protein.[134]
Ethics
Risks and harm
Algorithmic bias
Machine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data.[135] The developers may
not be aware that the bias exists.[136] For example, on June 28, 2015, Google Photos’s new image
labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a friend as “gorillas” because they were black.
The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people.[137] Google
“fixed” this problem by preventing the system from labelling anything as a “gorilla”. Eight years later,
in 2023, Google Photos still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from
Apple, Microsoft and Amazon.[138]
Bias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a model is
deployed.[139][135] It can also emerge from correlations: AI is used to classify individuals into groups
and then make predictions assuming that the individual will resemble other members of the group. In
some cases, this assumption may be unfair.[140] An example of this is COMPAS, a commercial
program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist.
ProPublica claims that the COMPAS-assigned recidivism risk level of black defendants is far more
likely to be overestimated than that of white defendants, despite the fact that the program was not
told the races of the defendants.[141]
Health equity issues may also be exacerbated when many-to-many mapping is done without taking
steps to ensure equity for populations at risk for bias. At this time equity-focused tools and
regulations are not in place to ensure equity application representation and usage.[142] Other
examples where algorithmic bias can lead to unfair outcomes are when AI is used for credit rating, CV
screening, hiring and applications for public housing.[135]
At its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022) the
Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings
recommending that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they
are unsafe and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed
internet data should be curtailed.[143]
Lack of transparency
Modern machine learning applications can not explain how they have reached a decision.
Bad actors and weaponized AI
AI provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for authoritarian governments: smart
spyware, face recognition and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance; such surveillance
allows machine learning to classify potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding;
recommendation systems can precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect;
deepfakes aid in producing misinformation; advanced AI can make centralized decision making more
competitive with liberal and decentralized systems such as markets.[144]
Terrorists, criminals and rogue states may use other forms of weaponized AI such as advanced digital
warfare and lethal autonomous weapons. By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching
battlefield robots.[145]
Machine-learning AI is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of

hours.[146]
Technological unemployment
From the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments, for
example those put forward by Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers
actually should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between
quantitative calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement. [147]
Economists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about
unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.[148]
In the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists
acknowledge that "we're in uncharted territory" with AI.[149] A survey of economists showed
disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in
long-term unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains
are redistributed.[150] Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s Michael Osborne and Carl
Benedikt Frey estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at "high risk" of potential automation, while an OECD
report classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as "high risk".[k][152] The methodology of speculating about
future employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that
technology (rather than social policy) creates unemployment (as opposed to redundancies).[148]
Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial
intelligence; The Economist stated in 2015 that "the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what
steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution" is "worth taking seriously".[153]
Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase
for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.[154]
Copyright
In order to leverage as large a dataset as is feasible, generative AI is often trained on unlicensed

copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or computer code; the output is then used
under a rationale of "fair use". Experts disagree about how well, and under what circumstances, this
rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include "the purpose and character of the
use of the copyrighted work" and "the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work".[155]
Ethical machines and alignment
Friendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make
choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly
AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed
before AI becomes an existential risk.[156]
Machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The
field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical
dilemmas.[157] The field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,[157] and was founded
at an AAAI symposium in 2005.[158]
Other approaches include Wendell Wallach's "artificial moral agents"[159] and Stuart J. Russell's three
principles for developing provably beneficial machines.[160]
Regulation
The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of

public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating
artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader
regulation of algorithms.[161] The regulatory and policy landscape
for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.[162] According
to AI Index at Stanford, the annual number of AI-related laws
passed in the 127 survey countries jumped from one passed in OpenAI CEO Sam Altman testifies
2016 to 37 passed in 2022 alone.[163][164] Between 2016 and 2020, about AI regulation before a US
more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.[165] Senate subcommittee, 2023
Most EU member states had released national AI strategies, as had
Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates,
US and Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including
Bangladesh, Malaysia and Tunisia.[165] The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched
in June 2020, stating a need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic
values, to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology.[165] Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt,
and Daniel Huttenlocher published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government
commission to regulate AI.[166] In 2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the
governance of superintelligence, which they believe may happen in less than 10 years.[167]
In a 2022 Ipsos survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but
only 35% of Americans, agreed that "products and services using AI have more benefits than
drawbacks".[163] A 2023 Reuters/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree,
that AI poses risks to humanity.[168] In a 2023 Fox News poll, 35% of Americans thought it "very
important", and an additional 41% thought it "somewhat important", for the federal government to
regulate AI, versus 13% responding "not very important" and 8% responding "not at all
important".[169][170]
History
The study of mechanical or "formal" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in
antiquity. The study of logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that
a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as "0" and "1", could simulate both mathematical deduction
and formal reasoning, which is known as the Church–Turing thesis.[171] This, along with at the time
new discoveries in cybernetics and information theory, led researchers to consider the possibility of
building an "electronic brain".[l][173] The first paper later recognized as "AI" was McCullouch and Pitts
design for Turing-complete "artificial neurons" in 1943.[174]
The field of AI research was founded at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.[m][2] The attendees
became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.[n] They and their students produced programs that
the press described as "astonishing":[o] computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word
problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[p][3]
By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense[178]
and laboratories had been established around the world.[179] Herbert Simon predicted, "machines will
be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do".[180] Marvin Minsky agreed,
writing, "within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be
solved".[181]
They had, however, underestimated the difficulty of the problem.[q] Both the U.S. and British
governments cut off exploratory research in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill[183] and
ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects. Minsky's and Papert's book
Perceptrons was understood as proving that artificial neural networks approach would never be
useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the approach altogether.[184] The "AI winter", a
period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult, followed.[5]
In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,[185] a form
of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the
market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer
project inspired the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.[4]
However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into
disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting winter began.[6]
Many researchers began to doubt that the current practices would be able to imitate all the processes
of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition.[186] A number
of researchers began to look into "sub-symbolic" approaches.[187] Robotics researchers, such as
Rodney Brooks, rejected "representation" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines
that move and survive.[r]. Judea Pearl, Lofti Zadeh and others developed methods that handled
incomplete and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.[73][192]
But the most important development was the revival of "connectionism", including neural network
research, by Geoffrey Hinton and others.[193] In 1990, Yann LeCun successfully showed that
convolutional neural networks can recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful
applications of neural networks.[194]
AI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal
mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This "narrow" and
"formal" focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields
(such as statistics, economics and mathematics).[195] By 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers
were being widely used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as "artificial
intelligence".[196]
Several academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing the original goal of
creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they founded the subfield of
artificial general intelligence (or "AGI"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.[8]
Deep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the
field.[7] For many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.[s] Deep learning's success was based
on both hardware improvements (faster computers,[198] graphics processing units, cloud
computing[199]) and access to large amounts of data[200] (including curated datasets,[199] such as
ImageNet).
Deep learning's success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.[t] The amount of
machine learning research (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015–
2019,[165] and WIPO reported that AI was the most prolific emerging technology in terms of the
number of patent applications and granted patents[201] According to 'AI Impacts', about $50 billion
annually was invested in "AI" around 2022 in the US alone and about 20% of new US Computer
Science PhD graduates have specialized in "AI";[202] about 800,000 "AI"-related US job openings
existed in 2022.[203]
In 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine
learning conferences, publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many researchers
re-focussed their careers on these issues. The alignment problem became a serious field of academic
study.[204]
Philosophy
Defining artificial intelligence
Alan Turing wrote in 1950 "I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?"[205] He advised
changing the question from whether a machine "thinks", to "whether or not it is possible for
machinery to show intelligent behaviour".[205] He devised the Turing test, which measures the ability
of a machine to simulate human conversation.[206] Since we can only observe the behavior of the
machine, it does not matter if it is "actually" thinking or literally has a "mind". Turing notes that we
can not determine these things about other people[u] but "it is usual to have a polite convention that
everyone thinks"[207]
Russell and Norvig agree with Turing that AI must be defined in terms of "acting" and not
"thinking".[208] However, they are critical that the test compares machines to people. "Aeronautical
engineering texts," they wrote, "do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so
exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.' "[209] AI founder John McCarthy agreed, writing
that "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence".[210]
McCarthy defines intelligence as "the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the
world."[211] Another AI founder, Marvin Minsky similarly defines it as "the ability to solve hard
problems".[212] These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-defined problems with well-
defined solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are
direct measures of the "intelligence" of the machine—and no other philosophical discussion is
required, or may not even be possible.
A definition that has also been adopted by Google[213] – major practitionary in the field of AI. This
definition stipulated the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of
intelligence, similar to the way it is defined in biological intelligence.
Evaluating approaches to AI
No established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history.[v] The
unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so
much so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term "artificial intelligence" to
mean "machine learning with neural networks"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, soft and
narrow (see below). Critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations
of AI researchers.
Symbolic AI and its limits
Symbolic AI (or "GOFAI")[215] simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when
they solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at
"intelligent" tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical
symbol systems hypothesis: "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of
general intelligent action."[216]
However, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning,
recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level
"intelligent" tasks were easy for AI, but low level "instinctive" tasks were extremely difficult.[217]
Philosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on
unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a "feel" for the
situation, rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.[218] Although his arguments had been ridiculed
and ignored when they were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree.[w][13]
The issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes
that human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing
research into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,[220][221] in part because
sub-symbolic AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand
why a modern statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of neuro-
symbolic artificial intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches.
Neat vs. scruffy
"Neats" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic,
optimization, or neural networks). "Scruffies" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large
number of unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely
mainly on incremental testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 70s and
80s,[222] but eventually was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.
Soft vs. hard computing
Finding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems.[12] Soft
computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that
are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was
introduced in the late 80s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft
computing with neural networks.
Narrow vs. general AI
AI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and
superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these
solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.[223][224] General intelligence is difficult to
define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on
specific problems with specific solutions. The experimental sub-field of artificial general intelligence
studies this area exclusively.
Machine consciousness, sentience and mind
The philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and
mental states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences
of the machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue
irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems
using intelligence. Russell and Norvig add that "[t]he additional project of making a machine
conscious in exactly the way humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on."[225] However,
the question has become central to the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at
issue in artificial intelligence in fiction.
Consciousness
David Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the "hard" and
"easy" problems of consciousness.[226] The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes
signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it
should feel like anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something
(Dennett's consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). Human information processing is easy
to explain, however, human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to
imagine a color-blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red,
but it is not clear what would be required for the person to know what red looks like.[227]
Computationalism and functionalism
Computationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information
processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the
relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and
hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind–body problem. This philosophical position was
inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally
proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.[228]
Philosopher John Searle characterized this position as "strong AI": "The appropriately programmed
computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense
human beings have minds."[x] Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which
attempts to show that, even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior, there is still no reason
to suppose it also has a mind.[232]
Robot rights
If a machine has a mind and subjective experience, then it may also have sentience (the ability to feel),
and if so it could also suffer; it has been argued that this could entitle it to certain rights.[233] Any
hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights.[234] This issue
has been considered in fiction for centuries,[235] and is now being considered by, for example,
California's Institute for the Future; however, critics argue that the discussion is premature.[236]
Future
Superintelligence and the singularity
A superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the
brightest and most gifted human mind.[224]
If research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be
able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself,
leading to what I. J. Good called an "intelligence explosion" and Vernor Vinge called a
"singularity".[237] However, most technologies (such as transportation) do not improve exponentially

indefinitely, but rather follow an S-curve, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the
technology can do.[238]
Existential risk
It has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This
could, as the physicist Stephen Hawking puts it, "spell the end of the human race".[239] According to
the philosopher Nick Bostrom, for almost any goals that a sufficiently intelligent AI may have, it is
instrumentally incentivized to protect itself from being shut down and to acquire more resources, as
intermediary steps to better achieve these goals. Sentience or emotions are then not required for an
advanced AI to be dangerous. In order to be safe for humanity, a superintelligence would have to be
genuinely aligned with humanity's morality and values so that it is "fundamentally on our side".[240]
The political scientist Charles T. Rubin argued that "any sufficiently advanced benevolence may be
indistinguishable from malevolence" and warned that we should not be confident that intelligent
machines will by default treat us favorably.[241]
The opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned
and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.[242] Personalities such as Stephen
Hawking, Bill Gates, Elon Musk have expressed concern about existential risk from AI.[243] In 2023,
AI pioneers including Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Demis Hassabis, and Sam Altman issued the
joint statement that "Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside
other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war"; some others such as Yann LeCun
consider this to be unfounded.[244] Mark Zuckerberg said that AI will "unlock a huge amount of
positive things", including curing diseases and improving the safety of self-driving cars.[245] Some
experts have argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research, or that humans
will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine.[246] Rodney Brooks, in particular,
said in 2014 that "malevolent" AI is still centuries away.[y]
Transhumanism
Robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick, and inventor Ray Kurzweil have
predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and
powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert
Ettinger.[248]
Edward Fredkin argues that "artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution", an idea first
proposed by Samuel Butler's "Darwin among the Machines" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon
by George Dyson in his book of the same name in 1998.[249]
In fiction
Thought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,[250] and have
been a persistent theme in science fiction.[251]
A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation
becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's
2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the
Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and

The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort
from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Bishop from Aliens
(1986) are less prominent in popular culture.[252]
Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many

books and stories, most notably the "Multivac" series about a
super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are The word "robot" itself was coined
often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;[253] by Karel Čapek in his 1921 play
while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with R.U.R., the title standing for
Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the "Rossum's Universal Robots".
laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their
ambiguity.[254]
Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human,
showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel
Čapek's R.U.R., the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids
Dream of Electric Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human
subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.[255]
See also
AI safety – Research area on making AI safe and beneficial
AI alignment – Conformance to the intended objective
Artificial intelligence in healthcare – Machine-learning algorithms and software in the analysis,
presentation, and comprehension of complex medical and health care data
Artificial intelligence arms race – Arms race for the most advanced AI-related technologies
Artificial intelligence detection software
Behavior selection algorithm – Algorithm that selects actions for intelligent agents
Business process automation – Technology-enabled automation of complex business processes
Case-based reasoning – Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past
problems
Emergent algorithm – Algorithm exhibiting emergent behavior
Female gendering of AI technologies
Glossary of artificial intelligence – List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in the
study of artificial intelligence
Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods
Robotic process automation – Form of business process automation technology
Synthetic intelligence – Alternate term for or form of artificial intelligence
Universal basic income – Welfare system of unconditional income
Weak artificial intelligence – Form of artificial intelligence
Data sources – The list of data sources for study and research
Explanatory notes
a. This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including:
Russell & Norvig (2021), Luger & Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998) and
Nilsson (1998)
b. This list of tools is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: Russell &
Norvig (2021), Luger & Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998) and Nilsson
(1998)
c. Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper "Computing
Machinery and Intelligence".[30] In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, Ray
Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: "An Inductive
Inference Machine".[31]
d. See AI winter § Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966
e. Compared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For
inference to be tractable, most observations must be conditionally independent of one another.
AdSense uses a Bayesian network with over 300 million edges to learn which ads to serve.[75]
f. Expectation-maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows
clustering in the presence of unknown latent variables.[77]
g. Russell and Norvig suggest the alternative term "computational graphs" -- that is, an abstract
network (or "graph") where the edges and nodes are assigned numeric values.
h. Some form of deep neural networks (without a specific learning algorithm) were described by:
Alan Turing (1948);[103] Frank Rosenblatt(1957);[103] Karl Steinbuch and Roger David Joseph
(1961).[104] Deep or recurrent networks that learned (or used gradient descent) were developed
by: Ernst Ising and Wilhelm Lenz (1925);[105] Oliver Selfridge (1959);[104] Alexey Ivakhnenko and
Valentin Lapa (1965);[105] Kaoru Nakano (1977);[106] Shun-Ichi Amari (1972);[106] John Joseph
Hopfield (1982).[106] Backpropagation was independently discovered by: Henry J. Kelley
(1960);[103] Arthur E. Bryson (1962);[103] Stuart Dreyfus (1962);[103] Arthur E. Bryson and Yu-Chi
Ho (1969);[103] Seppo Linnainmaa (1970);[107] Paul Werbos (1974).[103] In fact, backpropagation
and gradient descent are straight forward applications of Gottfried Leibniz' chain rule in calculus
(1676),[108] and is essentially identical (for one layer) to the method of least squares, developed
independently by Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1795) and Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805).[109]
There are probably many others, yet to be discovered by historians of science.
i. Geoffrey Hinton said, of his work on neural networks in the 1990s, “our labeled datasets were
thousands of times too small. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow”[110]
j. The Smithsonian reports: "Pluribus has bested poker pros in a series of six-player no-limit Texas
Hold'em games, reaching a milestone in artificial intelligence research. It is the first bot to beat
humans in a complex multiplayer competition."[123]
k. See table 4; 9% is both the OECD average and the US average.[151]
l. "Electronic brain" was the term used by the press around this time.[172]
m. Daniel Crevier wrote, "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new
science."[175] Russell and Norvig called the conference "the inception of artificial intelligence."[174]
n. Russell and Norvig wrote "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and
their students."[176]
o. Russell and Norvig wrote "it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of
smartish".[177]
p. The programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel Bobrow's
STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU.
q. Russell and Norvig write: "in almost all cases, these early systems failed on more difficult
problems"[182]
r. Embodied approaches to AI[188] were championed by Hans Moravec[189] and Rodney Brooks[190]
and went by many names: Nouvelle AI.[190] Developmental robotics,[191]
s. Matteo Wong wrote in The Atlantic: "Whereas for decades, computer-science fields such as
natural-language processing, computer vision, and robotics used extremely different methods,
now they all use a programming method called “deep learning.” As a result, their code and
approaches have become more similar, and their models are easier to integrate into one
another."[197]
t. Jack Clark wrote in Bloomberg: "After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial
intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than
ever," and noted that the number of software projects that use machine learning at Google
increased from a "sporadic usage" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects in 2015.[199]
u. See Problem of other minds
v. Nils Nilsson wrote in 1983: "Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all
about."[214]
w. Daniel Crevier wrote that "time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of Dreyfus's
comments. Had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they suggested might
have been taken much earlier."[219]
x. Searle presented this definition of "Strong AI" in 1999.[229] Searle's original formulation was "The
appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right
programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states."[230] Strong AI is
defined similarly by Russell and Norvig: "Stong AI - the assertion that machines that do so are
actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking)."[231]
y. Rodney Brooks writes, "I think it is a mistake to be worrying about us developing malevolent AI
anytime in the next few hundred years. I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not
distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI
and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence."[247]
References
1. Google (2016).
2. Dartmouth workshop:
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 18)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 111–136)
NRC (1999, pp. 200–201)
The proposal:
McCarthy et al. (1955)
3. Successful programs the 60s:
McCorduck (2004, pp. 243–252)
Crevier (1993, pp. 52–107)
Moravec (1988, p. 9)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 19–21)
4. Funding initiatives in the early 80s: Fifth Generation Project (Japan), Alvey (UK), Microelectronics
and Computer Technology Corporation (US), Strategic Computing Initiative (US):
McCorduck (2004, pp. 426–441)
Crevier (1993, pp. 161–162, 197–203, 211, 240)
NRC (1999, pp. 210–211)
Newquist (1994, pp. 235–248)
5. First AI Winter, Lighthill report, Mansfield Amendment
Crevier (1993, pp. 115–117)
NRC (1999, pp. 212–213)
Howe (1994)
Newquist (1994, pp. 189–201)
6. Second AI Winter:
McCorduck (2004, pp. 430–435)
Crevier (1993, pp. 209–210)
NRC (1999, pp. 214–216)
Newquist (1994, pp. 301–318)
7. Deep learning revolution, AlexNet:
McKinsey (2018)
8. Artificial general intelligence:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 32–33, 1020–1021)
Proposal for the modern version:
Pennachin & Goertzel (2007)
Warnings of overspecialization in AI from leading researchers:
Nilsson (1995)
McCarthy (2007)
Beal & Winston (2009)
9. Russell & Norvig (2021, §1.2)
10. Problem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 3–5)
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 6) (constraint satisfaction)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, chpt. 2,3,7,9)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, chpt. 3,4,6,8)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 7–12)
11. Uncertain reasoning:

Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 12-18)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 345–395)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 333–381)
12. Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 21)
13. Psychological evidence of the prevalence sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge:
Kahneman (2011)
Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986)
Wason & Shapiro (1966)
Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982)
14. Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 23–46, 69–81, 169–233, 235–277, 281–298, 319–345)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 227–243),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 17.1–17.4, 18)
15. Smoliar & Zhang (1994).
16. Neumann & Möller (2008).
17. Kuperman, Reichley & Bailey (2006).
18. McGarry (2005).
19. Bertini, Del Bimbo & Torniai (2006).
20. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 272.
21. Representing categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance
(including frames and scripts):
Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.2 & 10.5),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 174–177),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 18.3)
22. Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving
the frame problem):
Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.3),
23. Causal calculus:
24. Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics:
25. Default reasoning, Frame problem, default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed
world assumption, abduction:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.6)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 248–256, 323–335)
Nilsson (1998, ~18.3.3)
(Poole et al. places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger et al. places this under "uncertain
reasoning").
26. Breadth of commonsense knowledge:
Lenat & Guha (1989, Introduction)
Crevier (1993, pp. 113–114),
Moravec (1988, p. 13),
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 241, 385, 982) (qualification problem)
27. Automated planning:
28. Automated decision making:
29. Learning:
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20)
30. Turing (1950).
31. Solomonoff (1956).
32. Unsupervised learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 653) (definition)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 738–740) (cluster analysis)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 846–860) (word embedding)
33. Supervised learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §19.2) (Definition)
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 19-20) (Techniques)
34. Reinforcement learning:
35. Transfer learning:
The Economist (2016)
36. Computational learning theory:

Jordan & Mitchell (2015)
37. Natural language processing (NLP):
38. Subproblems of NLP:
39. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 856–858.
40. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 868–871.
41. Modern statistical and deep learning approaches to NLP:
Cambria & White (2014)
42. Vincent (2019).
43. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 875–878.
44. Bushwick (2023).
45. Computer vision:
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 6)
50. Robotics:
51. MIT AIL (2014).
52. Affective computing:
Thro (1993)
Edelson (1991)
Tao & Tan (2005)
Scassellati (2002)
53. Waddell (2018).
54. Poria et al. (2017).
55. Search algorithms:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 3-5)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 79–164, 193–219)
56. State space search:

57. Russell & Norvig (2021), §11.2.
58. Uninformed searches (breadth first search, depth-first search and general state space search):
59. Heuristic or informed searches (e.g., greedy best first and A*):
Russell & Norvig (2021, s§3.5)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. pp. 132–147)
Poole & Mackworth (2017, §3.6)
60. Adversarial search:
61. Local or "optimization" search:
62. Evolutionary computation:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §4.1.2)
63. Merkle & Middendorf (2013).
64. Logic:
65. Propositional logic:
66. First-order logic and features such as equality:
67. Logical inference:
68. Russell & Norvig (2021), §8.3.1.
69. Resolution and unification:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §7.5.2, §9.2, §9.5)
70. Forward chaining, backward chaining, Horn clauses, and logical deduction as search:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §9.3, §9.4)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. ~46–52)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 4.2, 7.2)
71. citation in progress
72. Fuzzy logic:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 214, 255, 459)
Scientific American (1999)
73. Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 12-18 and 20),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 165–191, 333–381),
74. Bayesian networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §12.5-12.6, §13.4-13.5, §14.3-14.5, §16.5, §20.2 -20.3),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. ~182–190, ≈363–379),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 19.3–4)
75. Domingos (2015), chapter 6.
76. Bayesian inference algorithm:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §13.3-13.5),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. ~363–379),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 19.4 & 7)
77. Domingos (2015), p. 210.
78. Bayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 20),
Domingos (2015, p. 210)
79. Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks:
80. Stochastic temporal models:

Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 14)
Hidden Markov model:
Kalman filters:
Dynamic Bayesian networks:
81. decision theory and decision analysis:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 16-18),
82. Information value theory:
83. Markov decision processes and dynamic decision networks:
84. Game theory and mechanism design:
85. Statistical learning methods and classifiers:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 20),
86. Decision trees:
Domingos (2015, p. 88)
87. Non-parameteric learning models such as K-nearest neighbor and support vector machines:
Domingos (2015, p. 187) (k-nearest neighbor)
Domingos (2015, p. 88) (kernel methods)
88. Domingos (2015), p. 152.
89. Naive Bayes classifier:
Domingos (2015, p. 152)
90. Neural networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21),
Domingos (2015, Chapter 4)
91. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 750.
92. Gradient calculation in computational graphs, backpropagation, automatic differentiation:

93. Universal approximation theorem:
The theorem:
Cybenko (1988)
Hornik, Stinchcombe & White (1989)
94. Feedforward neural networks:
95. Recurrent neural networks:
96. Perceptrons:
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 21, 22, 683, 22)
97. Deep learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21)
Goodfellow, Bengio & Courville (2016)
Hinton et al. (2016)
Schmidhuber (2015)
98. Convolutional neural networks:
99. Schulz & Behnke (2012).
100. Deng & Yu (2014), pp. 199–200.
101. Ciresan, Meier & Schmidhuber (2012).
102. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 751.
103. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 785.
104. Schmidhuber (2022), §5.
105. Schmidhuber (2022), §6.
106. Schmidhuber (2022), §7.
107. Schmidhuber (2022), §8.
108. Schmidhuber (2022), §2.
109. Schmidhuber (2022), §3.
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Haugeland (1985, pp. 6–9)
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McCorduck (2004, pp. 70–71)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 2 and 984)
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McCorduck (2004, p. 153)
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Moravec (1988, pp. 15–16)
Minsky (1986, p. 29)
Pinker (2007, pp. 190–91)
218. Dreyfus' critique of AI:
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Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986)
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Crevier (1993, pp. 120–132)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 211–239)
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220. Langley (2011).
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McCorduck (2004, pp. 421–424, 486–489)
Crevier (1993, p. 168)
Nilsson (1983, pp. 10–11)
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Minsky (1986)
A modern example of neat AI and its aspirations in the 21st century:
Domingos (2015)
223. Pennachin & Goertzel (2007).
224. Roberts (2016).

225. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 986.
226. Chalmers (1995).
227. Dennett (1991).
228. Horst (2005).
229. Searle (1999).
230. Searle (1980), p. 1.
231. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 9817.
232. Searle's Chinese room argument:
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Searle (1999).
Discussion:
McCorduck (2004, pp. 443–445)
Crevier (1993, pp. 269–271)
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Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 1000–1001)
BBC (2006)
Maschafilm (2010) (the film Plug & Pray)
234. Evans (2015).
235. McCorduck (2004), pp. 19–25.
236. Henderson (2007).
237. The Intelligence explosion and technological singularity:
Omohundro (2008)
Kurzweil (2005)
I. J. Good's "intelligence explosion"
Good (1965)
Vernor Vinge's "singularity"
Vinge (1993)
238. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 1005.
239. Cellan-Jones (2014).
240. Bostrom (2014); Müller & Bostrom (2014); Bostrom (2015)
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Brooks (2014)
Geist (2015)
Madrigal (2015)
Lee (2014)
247. Brooks (2014).
248. Transhumanism:
Moravec (1988)
Kurzweil (2005)
249. AI as evolution:
Edward Fredkin is quoted in McCorduck (2004, p. 401)
Butler (1863)
Dyson (1998)
250. AI in myth:
McCorduck (2004, pp. 4–5)
251. McCorduck (2004), pp. 340–400.
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253. Anderson (2008).
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Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter. (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.).
Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0134610993. LCCN 20190474 (https://lccn.loc.gov/20190474).
Rich, Elaine; Knight, Kevin; Nair, Shivashankar B (2010). Artificial Intelligence (3rd ed.). New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill India. ISBN 978-0070087705.
These were the four the most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:
Luger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for
Complex Problem Solving (https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge) (5th ed.).
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220613/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge) from the original on 26 July 2020.

Retrieved 17 December 2019.
Nilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis (https://archive.org/details/artificialintel
l0000nils). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-1-55860-467-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
200726131654/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils) from the original on 26 July 2020.
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Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (http://aima.cs.b
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Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical
Approach (https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool). New York: Oxford University Press.
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Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan (2017). Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents
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Automation" (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.
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98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp. 192–98. George Dyson, historian of computing, writes (in what
might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be
complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave
intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p. 197.) Computer scientist Alex Pentland
writes: "Current AI machine-learning algorithms are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work,
but they work by brute force." (p. 198.)
Domingos, Pedro, "Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it", Scientific
American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88–93.
Gertner, Jon. (2023) "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth: Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I.
chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process?" New York Times
Magazine (July 18, 2023) online (https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/18/magazine/wikipedia-ai-cha
tgpt.html)
Johnston, John (2008) The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI, MIT
Press.
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protein structure prediction with AlphaFold" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC83716
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Gary Marcus, "Artificial Confidence: Even the newest, buzziest systems of artificial general
intelligence are stymmied by the same old problems", Scientific American, vol. 327, no. 4 (October
2022), pp. 42–45.
Mitchell, Melanie (2019). Artificial intelligence: a guide for thinking humans. New York: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9780374257835.
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control through deep reinforcement learning" (https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14236/).
Nature. 518 (7540): 529–533. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..529M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
015Natur.518..529M). doi:10.1038/nature14236 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature14236).
PMID 25719670 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25719670). S2CID 205242740 (https://api.sem
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ttps://www.nature.com/articles/nature14236/) from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved
19 June 2023. Introduced DQN, which produced human-level performance on some Atari games.
Eka Roivainen, "AI's IQ: ChatGPT aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that intelligence
cannot be measured by IQ alone", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 1 (July/August 2023), p. 7.
"Despite its high IQ, ChatGPT fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an
understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and
tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online texts."
Serenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). "Comparing the expert survey and citation impact
journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence" (http://www.aserenko.co
m/papers/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Informetrics. 5 (4): 629–49.
doi:10.1016/j.joi.2011.06.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joi.2011.06.002). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20131004212839/http://www.aserenko.com/papers/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Se
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Silver, David; Huang, Aja; Maddison, Chris J.; et al. (28 January 2016). "Mastering the game of
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Ashish Vaswani, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar et al. "Attention is all you need." Advances in neural
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External links
"Artificial Intelligence" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/art-inte). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Thomason, Richmond. "Logic and Artificial Intelligence" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-a
i/). In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Artificial Intelligence (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9fc). BBC Radio 4 discussion with
John Agar, Alison Adam & Igor Aleksander (In Our Time, 8 December 2005).
Theranostics and AI—The Next Advance in Cancer Precision Medicine (https://datascience.cance
r.gov/news-events/blog/theranostics-and-ai-next-advance-cancer-precision-medicine).
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8/11/23, 5:07 PM Artificial intelligence - Wikipedia

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the

Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering[14] allow AI

A knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a form

Planning and decision making

Automated planning[27] and automated decision making[28] are part of AI.

Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample

Natural language processing

Machine perception is the ability to use input from

Robotics[50] uses AI.

interaction. However, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic

Search and optimization

State space search

Distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm

Neural networks and statistical classifiers (discussed below), also

A particle swarm seeking the global

Formal Logic is used for reasoning and knowledge

Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning

Many problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning,

Classifiers and statistical learning methods

Artificial neural networks

Artificial neural networks[90] were inspired by the design of the

Deep learning[97] uses several layers of neurons between the

Deep learning has drastically improved the performance of

Specialized hardware and software

Game playing programs have been used since the 1950s

Risks and harm

Bad actors and weaponized AI

Machine-learning AI is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of

In order to leverage as large a dataset as is feasible, generative AI is often trained on unlicensed

Ethical machines and alignment

The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of

Defining artificial intelligence

Symbolic AI and its limits

Neat vs. scruffy

Soft vs. hard computing

Narrow vs. general AI

Machine consciousness, sentience and mind

Computationalism and functionalism

Superintelligence and the singularity

"singularity".[237] However, most technologies (such as transportation) do not improve exponentially

Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and

Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many

11. Uncertain reasoning:

36. Computational learning theory:

56. State space search:

80. Stochastic temporal models:

92. Gradient calculation in computational graphs, backpropagation, automatic differentiation:

114. Smith (2016).

133. "How Generative AI Can Augment Human Creativity" (https://hbr.org/2023/07/how-generative-ai-c

154. Mahdawi (2017); Thompson (2014)

189. Moravec (1988).

193. Crevier (1993, pp. 214–215)

209. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 3.

224. Roberts (2016).

244. "Artificial intelligence could lead to extinction, experts warn" (https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-65746

220613/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge) from the original on 26 July 2020.

-accelerator-market-for-now). InformationWeek. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202110190

gence/what-is-ai/index.html) from the original on 4 December 2022, retrieved 4 December 2022