What is “Psychology”?

The word psychology comes from the Greek words “psyche” (meaning soul/mind) and “logos” (meaning
study). Initially it was defined as science of soul, mind and conscious. Currently, it is broadly agreed that
psychology is scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The main aim of psychology is to describe,
predict, understand and control/modify behavior.

Employments of Psychologists
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
Describe three branches of Psychology

Clinical Psychology
Clinical Psychology integrates science, theory, and practice to understand, predict, and alleviate
maladjustment, disability, and discomfort as well as to promote human adaptation, adjustment and personal
development. Clinical psychologists address the intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social,
and behavioral aspects of human functioning across the life span, in varying cultures, and at all
socioeconomic levels. The field of clinical psychology involves research, teaching and services relevant to
the applications of principles, methods and procedures for understanding, predicting and alleviating
intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological, social and behavior maladjustment, disability and
discomfort, applied to wide range of client populations. (Neitzel,2002)
CHARACTERISTICS OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Emphasis on science
 Emphasis on maladjustment
 Emphasis on Individuality/ idiographic
 Emphasis to helping
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITES OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST
To reduce the distress and improve the wellbeing of clients;
Assessing a client's needs, abilities or behaviour using a variety of methods, including psychometric
tests, interviews and direct observation of behaviour;
Offering therapy and treatments for difficulties relating to mental health problems;
Providing consultation to other professions, encouraging a psychological approach in their work;
Carrying out applied research, adding to the evidence base of practice in a variety of healthcare
settings.
In many countries, clinical psychology is regulated as a health care profession.
SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Case History Interview
Tests
Observations
Life Records
SCOPE OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Assessment
 Treatment/psychotherapy
 Research
 Teaching
 Consultation
 Administration
  In a recent survey of members of the Society of Clinical Psychology, which is the clinical division of
the American Psychological Association, the following percentages of respondents reported being
involved in these several activities:
Psychotherapy—84%
Diagnosis and assessment—65%
Teaching—50%
Research and writing—75% (at least once in life)
Clinical supervision—47%
Consultation— 50% with less than 10 % of time.
(Heceker & Thrope,2007)
PSYCHOLOGIST WORKING IN DIFFERENT SETTINGS
Clinical psychologists work in many different settings including office practice, mental health clinics,
healthcare service organizations, hospitals, schools, universities, industries, legal systems, medical systems,
counseling centers, governmental agencies, and the military. Respondents to the recent survey of members
of the Society of Clinical Psychology reported the following primary employment settings:
– Private practice—41%
– Universities and Medical Schools—34%
– Hospitals and clinics—11%
– Veterans Administration—5%
SIGNIFICANCE OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
• Psychology has been one of the most popular undergraduate majors at colleges and universities in
the USA and it will likely to maintain this status for a long time to come (Clay,1996 as cited in
Neitzel,2002)
• Psychology ranks first among the arts and sciences and is second overall only to business
administration (Murray, 1996 as cited in Neitzel,2002).
• 44% of APA’s members are affiliated with Clinical Psychology.
• From 48 divisions of APA, the Division of Clinical Psychology is the largest.
EFFICACY OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
• The general or average effects of psychotherapy are widely accepted to be significant and large, with
most clients/patients who are experiencing depression and anxiety disorders attaining or returning to
a level of normal functioning.
• Results of psychotherapy tend to last longer and be less likely to require additional treatment courses
than psychopharmacological treatments.
• Psychotherapy is effective across all the age groups.
• substantial body of scholarly work
• Clinical psychology emerged slowly to play increasingly important role in the area of human
adjustment due to society‘s increased interest in mental health and adjustment in recent years.
ROOTS OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Clinical psychology is considered to have originated in 1896, when Lightner Witmer established the
first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania, USA in 1896.
 Witmer’s clinical work began with the case of a child who had difficulties in spelling. His interests
continued to center on childhood disturbances, particularly concerned with sensory difficulties,
mental retardation, speech disorders, and problems in school learning, he apparently also tried to
work therapeutically with psychotic children (Sarason & Gladwin, 1958)
 For the next 50 years, some psychologists did clinical work that focused mainly on the development
and application of methods of assessing intelligence and personality. However, formal education and
training programs in clinical psychology were not established until the late 1940s.
 WWII was a major stimulus to the formal development of Clinical Psychology as a profession. In the
military during the war and among veterans following it, large numbers of men and women
experienced psychological disabilities requiring mental health services.
 To meet this need, the Veterans Administration created hospital and clinic positions for staff
psychologists to provide assessment and treatment services, and it also established paid internship
positions for training clinical psychology graduate students.
 Additionally in the late 1940s, the National Institute of Mental Health instituted training grant
support of psychology departments with clinical psychology programs, and the American
Psychological Association (a) formalized a required curriculum for becoming a clinical psychologist
and (b) began accrediting programs that meet these requirements.
 In the 1950s, the newly formalized clinical psychology profession began to be recognized by state
licensure, and psychology has long since been a licensed profession in every state in the U.S. There
are currently approximately 105,000 licensed psychologists in the U.S. (Garfiled,2008).
DEVELOPMENT OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PAKISTAN
 A guidance clinic which existed before the independence F. C. College was recognized and a Journal
of Clinical Psychology was started as early as 1949.
 Unfortunately due to some conflict between the editorial staff the clinic and the Journal could not
survive long.
 The Institute of Clinical Psychology, University of Karachi was established under a directive of
General Zia-ul-Haq, President of Pakistan in 1983 as response to the dire need for mental health
professional and the acute shortage of professional psychological services in Pakistan.
 Centre for Clinical Psychology(CCP) was established by Prof. Dr. Rafia Hassan in 1983 in response
to the need felt by the president of Pakistan for an institution for the training of Clinical
Psychologists.
 The Public Service Commission and the Army Service Selection Board were among the first to apply
Psychological procedure for the selection of their personnel.
 PACP is the professional association of professionally trained, qualified and practicing Clinical
Psychologists of Pakistan. This association was formed in 1987.
 This is the brief story of development of Clinical Psychology in Pakistan – A bright fortune can be
predicted from the fact that the younger generation is taking keen interest in its development and
trained clinical psychologists are working hard to promote clinical psychology in Pakistan.

QUALIFIED PRACTICING CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST

Pakistan,
• Degree of M.Sc. in Psychology/Applied Psychology with an Advance Diploma of Clinical
Psychology (18 months duration in CCP)
U.K.
• to complete a Doctorate in Clinical Psychology (D.Clin.Psych.), which is a
practitioner doctorate with both clinical and research components. Then a licensure is required.
U.S.A. and Canada
• A license. Although every state is somewhat different in terms of requirements and licenses, there
are three common elements—
1. A degree from an approved educational program
2. A minimum amount of supervised clinical experience,
3. Passing an examination.

2. Child Psychology
Also called child development, the study of the psychological processes of children and, specifically,
how these processes differ from those of adults, how they develop from birth to the end of
adolescence.
Historical background
As a scientific discipline with a firm empirical basis, child study is of comparatively recent origin. It
was initiated in 1840, when Charles Darwin began a record of the growth and development of one
of his own children, collecting the data much as if he had been studying an unknown species. A
similar, more elaborate study published by German psycho-physiologist William Preyer put forth the
methods for a series of others. In 1891 American educational psychologist G. Stanley Hall
established the Pedagogical Seminary, a periodical devoted to child psychology and pedagogy.
During the early 20th century, the development of intelligence tests and the establishment of child
guidance clinics further defined the field of child psychology.
A number of notable 20th-century psychologists—among them Sigmund Freud, Melanie
Klein, and Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud—dealt with child development chiefly from the
psychoanalytic point of view. Perhaps the greatest direct influence on modern child psychology was
 Jean Piaget of Switzerland. By means of direct observation and interaction, Piaget developed a
theory of the acquisition of understanding in children. He described the various stages of learning in
childhood and characterized children’s perceptions of themselves and of the world at each stage of
learning.

The data of child psychology are gathered from a variety of sources. Observations by relatives,
teachers, and other adults, as well as the psychologist’s direct observation of and interviews with a
child (or children), provide much material. In some cases a one-way window or mirror is used so that
children are free to interact with their environment or others without knowing that they are being
watched. Personality tests, intelligence tests, and experimental methods have also proved useful in
understanding child development.
What is a child psychologist?
A child psychologist has professional training and clinical skills to evaluate and treat the mental,
emotional, social and behavioral health of infants, toddlers, children and adolescents. Child
psychologists have a thorough understanding of the basic psychological needs of children and
adolescents and how their family and other social contexts influence their:
 Social and emotional adjustment.
 Developmental processes.
 Behavioral adaptation.
Child psychologists also have expert knowledge of mental and behavioral conditions that affect
children.
What do child psychologists do?
Child psychologists use a wide range of procedures and skills when working with children and
adolescents, including:

o Assessing psychological, intellectual, cognitive and behavioral issues with testing and
evaluation.
o Using interventions such as psychotherapy (talk therapy) and behavior management.
o Developing prevention programs, such as preventing bullying, addictions, teen pregnancy,
etc.
o Consulting with other professionals and healthcare providers who work with children.
o Child psychologists are often included in the comprehensive care of children with medical
problems. For example, they may help children with sleep difficulties or chronic pain or those
coping with a chronic illness.
o The emotional, mental and behavioral conditions that affect children are often treated differently
from adults due to differences in age, cognitive levels and maturity. Because of this, child
psychologists can use several different types of therapy techniques based on your child’s age and
 unique situation. Depending on the age and needs of your child, child psychologists may work solely
with you (or guardians) to help with parenting skills or how to best address your child’s behaviors.
These therapies include:
 Art therapy.
 Behavioral therapy.
 Child-centered play therapy.
 Child-parent relationship therapy.
 Child anger management therapy.
 Child trauma therapy.
 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).
 Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT).
 Emotionally focused therapy.
 Group or family therapy.
 Music therapy.
 Occupational therapy.
 Parent-child interaction therapy.
A child psychologist has a doctoral degree (PhD) and often has extensive training in psychological
research or clinical practice.
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_psychology

4. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
ORIGINS
Forensic is derived from Latin Word “Forum” that was used for public gathering in roman cities state, where
most of the judicial work took place in form of debates__ thus forensic psychology deals with the
intersection of psychology and the legal process.
The term “Forensic” generally refers to clinical psychologist, who works with offenders, and/or victims of
crime. This branch of Psychology is concerned with the application of psychological principles within the
judicial system as it examines the interface between criminal justice and psychology.
Wrightsman (2001) states forensic psychology is any application of psychological knowledge or method to a
task faced by legal system; moreover it deals with all aspects of human behavior as it relates to the law or
legal system.
EARLY HISTORY OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
 In 1908 Hugo Munsterberg published On the Witness Stand in the United States and known as first
forensic psychologist.
 In 1917 William Marston develops first modern “POLYGRAPH”
 In 1921, in “State Vs. Driver” case, first time a psychologist testifies as an expert witness in an
American court.
 In 1931, Howard Brutt publishes Legal Psychology, the first forensic psychology text book.
 1n 2001, APA recognizes Forensic Psychology as a specialty.

INSANITY DEFENCE IN LEGAL SYSTEM

An insanity defense is based on the theory that most people can choose to follow the law; but a few persons
cannot be held accountable because mental disease or disability deprives them of the ability to make a
rational/voluntary choice. Forensic psychologist testifies insanity of the offender, which states that the
offender was suffering from Mental illness of such a severe nature, that a person…
cannot distinguish fantasy from reality,
cannot conduct her/his affairs due to psychosis, or
is subject to uncontrollable impulsive behavior.
FORENSIC PSCYHOLOGISTS WORK WITH
1. Offenders
2. Prison staff and Police
3. Victims
4. Witnesses
5. Judges and juries
FORENSIC PSCYHOLOGISTS WORK FOR
1. Courts and Legal System
2. Academic institutions
3. Prison Services
4. National Health Services
 5. Probation Services
6. Social Services
7. Forensic Labs
8. In university research and teaching.
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGISTS
 Jury Selection
 Consultation with Lawyers
 Expert Witness--- An expert witness, is a person whose opinion by virtue of education, training,
certification, skills or experience, is accepted by the judge as an expert.
 Competency Assessment--- competence refers exclusively to the defendant’s mental abilities at
the time of the proceeding.
 Insanity Assessment---relates to the defendants mental state at the time the offense occurs and
Lethality Assessment
 Custody Assessment
 Law Enforcement Screening
 Divorce and child custody mediation.
 Determinations of insanity and fitness to stand trial/plead guilty.
 Providing expert testimony in court on questions of a psychological nature.
 Personnel selection (e.g., for law enforcement agencies).
 Conducting critical incident stress debriefings with police officers.
 Designing and conducting treatment programs for offenders.
 Examining the effectiveness of risk assessment strategies
 Determining what factors influence jury decision making
 Developing and testing better ways to conduct eyewitness line-ups
 Evaluating offender and victim treatment programs
 Studying the impact of questioning style on eyewitness memory recall
 Examining the effect of stress management interventions on police officers
COURTS & FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
Forensic psychologists work with courts frequently. It has been observed that Psychologists and
Psychiatrists testify in an estimated 8% of all federal civil trials in USA, whereas mental health professionals
participate in as many as a 1,000,000 cases per year.
There are three types of courts
Family Court
Civil Court
Criminal Court
Where forensic psychologists play different types of roles.
In family courts, forensic psychologists are involved in Child Custody Evaluations, Mediation of Parental
Conflicts about Children, Child Abuse Evaluations, Adoption Readiness Evaluations, Development of
Family Reunification Plans, and Evaluations to Assess Termination of Parental Rights.
In civil courts, forensic psychologist work for Personal Injury Evaluations, Assessment of Emotional
Factors in Sexual Harassment and Discrimination, Worker's Compensation Evaluations, Civil Competency
Evaluations and Psychological Autopsies.
In Criminal Courts, Forensic Psychologist are involved in Evaluations of Juveniles accused of criminal
acts, Juvenile Pre-sentencing Evaluations, Juvenile Probation Evaluations, Juvenile Waiver Evaluations,
Evaluating the Credibility of Child Witnesses, Assessment of Juvenile and Adult Sexual Offenders,
Competency and Diminished Capacity Evaluations and Adult Pre-sentencing Evaluations.

CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS AND FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGISTS

Scope of Forensic Psychology also involves correctional setting---A prison, jail, penitentiary, detention
center, correctional center, or remand center, is a facility in which inmates are forcibly confined and denied
a variety of freedoms under the authority of the state. Forensic Psychologists work closely with inmates,
probationers, and parolees. They administer psychological assessments, interpret results, and prepare
comprehensive results about the inmates. They indulge in different assessment procedures including Suicide,
Lethality, and Cognitive Assessments. They provide appropriate individual and group therapy for Alcohol
and Other Drugs, Sex Offender, Anger Management; and also provide Domestic Violence Counseling and
Cognitive Intervention Counseling.

Though Forensic Psychology is modern branch of Psychology, but it has wide scope. Along with most other
healthcare professionals, the need for forensic psychologists is expected to keep growing in the years to
come. The Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that employment levels for forensic psychologists will grow
rapidly.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY/ NEURO PSYCHOLOGY
Neuropsychology is the study of brain–behavior relationships. Neuropsychology, as one of the
neurosciences, has grown to be a separate field of specialization within psychology over about the last 40
years, although there has always been an interest in it throughout the 120-year history of modern scientific
psychology. Neuropsychology seeks to understand the relationship between the brain and behavior, that is, it
attempts to explain the way in which the activity of the brain is expressed in observable behavior. What
mechanisms are responsible for human thinking, learning, and emotion, how do these mechanisms operate,
and what are the effects of changes in brain states upon human behavior? There are varieties of ways in
which neuropsychologists conduct their investigations into such questions, but the central theme of each is
that to understand human behavior. A psychology without any reference to physiology can hardly be
complete. The operation of the brain is relevant to human conduct, and the understanding of how the brain
relates to behavior may make a significant contribution to understanding how other, more purely
psychological, factors operate in directing behavior. Just how the brain deals with intelligent and complex
human functions is, in any case, an important subject of investigation in its own right, and one that has an
immediate relevance for those with brain injuries and diseases, as well as a wider relevance for medical
practice.