Appendices APPENDIX 1: CONVERSIONS In the SI system, the nevion (N) isthe basic unit of free. The weight of a Lkg mass is taken as 9.807 N. Stresses are given in pascals (Pa); 1 Pa = 1 N/m’ and 1 MPa = 1 N/mm’, Loads are given in kilopascal (KPa) or kilonewton per square meter (KN /m?) 1kPa = 1kN/m?. Note that 1 Ib = 4.448 N; 1 ft-1b = 1.356N-m; 11b/ft? = 47.88 N/m? = 47.88 Pa, and 1 Ib/in2 = 0.006895 N/mm?. Note also that 1.0 kip = 1000 Ib and 1 ksi = 1000 Ib/in?. APPENDIX 2: NONCONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEMS. In many situations, a varied series of forces act on a structure. Often, the lines of action of these forces do not meet at a single po.nt; hence, they are called nonconcurrent forces. It is frequently useful to corvert a complex set of nonconeurrent forces into a single statically equivalent force that produces translational and rotational effects on the structure that are the same as those produced by the original force set. Figure A.2.1 illustrates the process for finding a statically equivalent force. APPENDIX 3: MOMENTS OF DISTRIBUTED LOADS Many beams carry loads that are distributed along their length. It was previ- ously noted that, for purposes of determining the moment of a uniformly distributed load (a constant magnitude of w Ib/ft or w KN/m) along the Iength L of a member, an equivalent point or concentrated load of wL act- ing at L/2 may be used. A more general approach that allows the moment of any kind of load distribution is suggested in Figure A.3.1. An elemental por- tion of the load, w dx, produces a moment of (x). dr atout a point O. The total moment of the entire load can be found by integrating this value. When the load w is constant, M, = f w(dx) = w L?/2, the same as found before using the equivalent-load approach. The power of this technique, however, lies with its ability to describe any kind of distributed loading as a function of x [ie., w(x)] even when the equivalent point load ccncept is not valid. 589590 a rowe | Fr | F) _| MomentotF | Momentot Fy aia sap | 6p | v0P | (@y@rj=20r | (atm) =40P : wp | top | 0 | @\ior=20 10? woe | 0 10P ° obs Th t5P|ERy= 207] EM 40P t A=IG5PF + oP)" Ma= 100P APPENDICES, 11.2°| 10P case}. “SP ] _Coplanar nonparale force system Statically equivalent force systom— force Racing ata distance @ about A produces an effect onthe body equivalent othe original ‘orcs system. Resultant force = A= 25° Resultant moment = fa) = 100P Moment arm of resuitant force: seta a= EM/F'= 10025? =4.0 2 =tan’ = DF EF, =20P15P = 53° FIGUREA.2.1. Nonparallel forces: finding statically equivalent force systems. The qian conceited ad ~ we nine pommpfammmnoy | —— Hou | | un un (oe tte in (0) na pons to sean ont Badponte i=[lenne= nut Tee ete) = we FIGURE A.3.1 Moments from a distributed load ‘Thus, moment expressions for distributed loads that vary in intensity along the length of the member can be determined. APPENDIX 4: CENTROIDS ‘The center of mass of a body is that point which represents the mean posi- tion of matter in the body. The center of gravity of a body essentially repre- sents the position of the resultant of the earth’s gravitational pull on the body and is thus that point in the body from or on which it can be perfectly balanced or poised in equilibrium. Strictly speaking, the concept of center of gravity is applicable only to bodies having weight. The term centroid is usedAppendices to describe the analogous point in a geometric form such as a line or area. The centroid of an area can be defined as that point at which the entire area may be conceived to be concentrated and have the same moment with respect to any axis as the original distributed area has. With respect to this definition, it may be useful to visualize the geometric figure considered, such as a planar area, as a sheet of constant infinitesimal thickness that has a uni- form mass per unit area. This makes the analogy with the center of gravity of a body more direct. Thus, the centroid of an area can be visualized as that point on which a geometric figure can be balanced. For an area lying com- pletely in the xy-plane, the coordinates of the centroid, with respect to any arbitrary reference line, are [ ydA B A ¥ and V define the location of the centroid from the reference line. The alge- braic sum of the moments of each elementary unit area with respect to a given point or line is equal to the moment of total area about the same point orline. The terms x dA and y dA are often referred to as the first moments of the area about the reference line. If the reference axis used actually coin cides with the centroidal axis (i.e., = 0,y = 0), it follows that f,.xdA = 0 and f, ydA = 0. Wien an arca is symmetrical with respect to an axis, the centroid invariably coincides with the axis of symmetry. (See Figure A.4.1.) This colo- mn follows from the fact that the moments of the areas on opposite sides of the axis are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign. For areas having more than one axis of symmetry, the centroid must be a point that lies at the intersection of the axes of symmetry. ‘Centoid at point of symmetry ee ] | Ba a Bn-y) i | Cone -f- fe ns Rotronce axis | > (@) Symmetrical section (©) Nonsymmetica section. FIGUREAA1 Centroids of geametic figures. sot502 APPENDICES, Determining the location of the centroid of an area is a straightforward process based on the use of the equations for ¥ and y. Any set of reference ‘axes can be used to find the centroid of an area. The next example illustrates, the process for finding the centroid of a common figure—a triangle, The base of the triangle is arbitrarily selected as a reference axis, ———_——— EXAMPLE Find the centroid of te triangle indicated in Figure A.4.1. Solution: First sot up the expression wd tas y Hence, [ O/H dy [ennu-say ‘Many complex figures, commonly referred to as composite areas, can be considered as being composed of simpler geometric shapes. If a given area can indeed be divided into parts (whose individual centroidal locations are known), the location of the centroid for the whole composite figure can be found without integration. This is done by obtaining the algebraic sum of the area moments of each individual part about a reference axis and dividing by the total arca of the composite figure. The procedure follows from the definitions cited previously. Stated formally, ‘These expressions are obviously similar in character to ¥ = [',x dA/A and y = {yy dA/A. An example of how they are applied is given in Chapter 6. APPENDIX 5: MOMENTS OF INERTIA A5.1 General Formulation One of the most common expressions encountered in the analysis of strue- tures is of the form fy? dA. This expression is the moment of inertia (I) of the area A. Examined by itsell, it has little physical meaning. In the context of analyzing beams, columns, and other elements, however, it is of para- mount importance as a general descriptor of the amount and way in whichAppendices ‘material in the element is organized or distributed with reference to the cross section, ‘The moment of inertia of an area with respect to an axis in the plane of the area can be defined as the sum of the products obtained by multiplying each element of the area by the square of its distance from this axis. Thus, the moments of inertia of an area with respect to the x- and y-axes are Ik [yu i, [eu Strictly speaking, the name moment of inertia is misleading, since inertia is a property of physical bodies only. Since the preceding equations could be written as 1, = f,y(ydA) and 1, = f',x(xdA), the term second moment of the area is often considered preferable. The first moment of an area, as noted in the preceding section, is of the form xdA or ydA: hence, multiplying this term by the distance again yields the second moment of the area. Although the first moment of an area about an axis ean be either positive or negative, the second moment is always positive. The term moment of inertia, however, is widely used and is used here. ——S EXAMPLE Consider the rectangle shown in Figure A.S.1. Determine the moment of inertia, ofthe area with respect to its centroidal avis (Which iby inspection, at midheight). Any other reference axis could be used, but selecting the centroidal axis is most meaningful inthe context of analyz- ing beams or columns since the minimum J value for the section is obtained about that axis. FIGUREA.5.1 Moment of inertia ofa rectangle. Soltion: t= [da and d= day we fare =f], nt 2 sa594 APPENDICES For some shapes, such as circles, it is often more convenient to use polar coordinates rather than Cartesian coordinates to find J values. Figure A.5.2 gives formulas for the moment of inertia of many common geometric figures. A.5.2. Parallel-Axis Theorem If the moment of inertia of a figure with respect to its centroidal axis is known, the moment of inertia with respect to any parallel axis may be found ‘Tangle ‘is of moments ‘Square through centrois A= Rectangle ‘As of moments Circ p= be oera) eat +8 se Hollow cre ‘aig of moments Haltorcle through center peor =| 9 = Xoaah Ed VERE ci FIGUREA.S.2 Properties of geometric sections.Appendices tra jptans [ovarian = [yan «2a [yah oat dam Tact a nator L nen FIGUREA.S.3 | Moment of inertia of an area about an axis located a distance d away from the centroid of the area. quite easily. Doing this is a particularly useful tool in determining the ‘moment of inertia of a composite area. The area illustrated in Figure A.5.3 has a centroidal location ¢ and a moment of inertia of T about its own axis. The moment of inertia of this same area about a parallel axis located a constant distance d from the centroidal axis is given by Ip = fyP'dA = [,(y +d) dA =Jf,y¥dA + 2d fyydA +d [,dA. The first term, /,y’dA, in the expanded expression is the moment of inertia of the area about its own centroidal axis 7, The second term, 2d f',y dA, is equal to zero, since it involves f_, y dA, which is simply the first moment of the area about its own centroidal axis. (As noted in the discussion on centroids, this value is identically equal to zero when the refer- ence axis corresponds to the centroid of a figure.) The final term,d? |’, dA, is more simply d”A, where A is the total area of the figure. The expression becomes Ip = I + Ad*. Thus, the moment of inertia of the area with respect. to any axis in the same plane is equal to the moment of inertia of the area about its own axis, plus a transfer term composed of the product of the square of the distance between axes and the area of the ‘igure. This implies that the minimum moment of inertia a figure can have is about its own cen- troidal axis, a reason that the centroidal axis is often used as the reference axis when applied to engineering calculations. The only time the moments of inertia of individual areas forming a larger composite shape can be added directly is when their individual axes coincide with that of the larger composite shape. In such a situation, d = 0 for each individual shape. Hence, J = (7 + Ad*) = (I), A.5.3 Negative Areas With many symmetrical shapes, it is often convenient to dezompose the figure into what are commonly termed positive and negative areas. A positive area adds to the actual area or figure and contributes positively to the moment of inertia of the figure, while a negative area produces converse effects. This is merely an alternative way of looking at what has just been discussed. 595596 APPENDICES —— EXAMPLE Determine the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional shape shown in Figure A.5.4. ‘Assume that bj = 10 254mm), y = 10in, 254mm),bs = 8n. (2032mm),and fy = 6 (1524 mm).Note that d, = d, = O;hence, 1 = (I). bb by by NY dab T T yy = ho te I ES tr ” by rR = dyke FIGUREAS.4 Holes in symmetrical cross-sectional shapes can be treated as negative areas having negative moments of inertia Solution: Win, x (10in.? Bin. x (6in.)* Ip = Iyatve ~ Ingine = 254 mm) x (254mm)® _ (2032:mm) x (1524 mm)? 2 2 689 int = 286,900 10° mm APPENDIX 6: BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS, As noted in Chapter 6, the effect of bending is to produce deformations in a beams fibers of the type illustrated in Figure A.6.1. Observe that, while a plane of zero deformation and zero bending stresses (ic, the neutral axis) is le {~ fomax—| Stress at distance y 4 ‘rom neutral axis a CCentroidal axis fo Strain diagram Bending: stress diagram Section FIGUREA.6.1. Bending stresses in beams.Appendices known to exist, its exact location is not known a priori. Finding the location of this plane is necessary for further analysis. The plane can be located by considering the equilibrium of the beam in the horizontal direction, Assume that the maximum stress on a face a distance ¢ from the neu- tral axis is designated fmay-The actual bending stress f', at an arbitrary dis- tance y from the neutral axis can be found through simple proportions [i.e., Ful¥ = fimas/¢ OF fy = (¥/¢)(Fomax)]-Ata level defined by y, the force asso- ciated with the stresses /y is simply fy 4A. The total force in the horizontal direction produced by the entire stress field is merely [ fy dA. We also know that 2, = 0. If there are no external horizontal ferces acting on the beam, the total force produced by the tensile and compressive components of the whole stress field must be zero. Hence, /, fy dA = 0. Expressing f, in terms of the maximum stress, the outer fiber of the beam, we have Fim?) Add 0. Since omu/D cannot be 2ere, it follows thet J,y 4A = 0. The quantity J, dA is termed the first moment, or centroid, of the area of the beam with respect to the neutral axis. (See Appendix 3.) The quantity J, y dA = 0 defines the centroidal axis of a geometric figure and is readily calculable for any type of beam configuration. In the context of t analysis, the surfacing of the term fy dA = 0 means that the neutral axis of a beam corresponds with the ceniroidal axis of the cross-sectional shape of the beam. Earlier, it was noted that the sum of the elemental forces produced by the stresses in the horizontal direction had to equal zero from equilibrium consid- erations (ie., 2F, ~ 0).Note that for 2M = 0, the sum of the moments pro- duced by these elemental forces about the neutral axis must equal the applied external moment. The moment of an elemental force about the neutral a) ‘must also equal the applied external moment. The moment of an elemental force about the neutral axis is simply y(f, dA) or y(ftmax)(¥/¢) dA.’The sum of the moments of all these elemental forces becomes (fimay/¢) J'49° dA. This, then, is the internal resisting moment Mp, which identically equals the applied external moment Mg. Thus, M = (fmex/¢) [,y° dA. The term f,y’ dA is commonly called the second moment of an area in mathematics and the moment of inertia, I,of an area in an engineering context, In general, it is a descriptor of the amount and way material in a beam is organized or distrib- uted in a cross section. (See Appendix 4.) The final expression relating the maximum bending stresses (fax) tO the properties of the cross section (defined by J = f,y? dA, evaluated about the neutral or centroidal axis of the cross section) aad the moment M present at the section becomes frmax = Mc/J. The stress at any location y from the neutral axisis f, = My/I. APPENDIX 7: SHEARING STRESSES IN BEAMS, ‘This appendix derives relationships among the physical characteristics of a beam, the forces acting on the beam, and the shearing stresses developed in the beam as a consequence of these forces. Horizontal shearing stresses will be studied first. 307598 Bonding stresses | APPENDICES, a= fb os) Horizontal shear stresses belance ‘the diferenee in F, and F, FIGUREA.7.1 Horizontal shear stresses in beams. Consider an infinitesimal element of a beam, as illustrated in Figure A.7.1 As is typical in any beam, the bending moment, and consequently the bend- ing stresses, will be larger at one section than the other. For equilibrium in the horizontal direction, a horizontal shear force must be developed, as indi- cated in Figure A.7.1, to balance the difference in force produced by the action of bending. If f, represents the average shear stress over the differen- tial area of length dx and width b, and if one expresses the bending forces in terms of the bend.ng stresses acting on the beam, then equilibrium consider- ations in the horizontal direction yield filbdx) = LCP) = [CG di = B = A or, noting that Mz ~ My represents the differential change in moment between the distance dx and dM/dx = V (the vertical shear force), dM_ f° Mi Te “par, fem fo ‘The integral J}, y'4A is the first moment of the area above the horizontal section considered (and where the horizontal shear stresses in the preceding expression arc located) with respect to the neutral axis of the beam. This integral is commenly denoted Q. Hence, -v2 fa= Ty ‘This is the general expression for horizontal shearing stress in a beam of any cross section. Note that the maximum shear stress exists at the point whereAppendices Jf, aA is maximal. This occurs when the horizontal section considered coincides with the neutral axis. In a rectangular beam, the distribution of shearing stress can be found by setting up a general expression for the shear stress for a layer a distance y from the neutral axis. For a rectangular beam, on [vae~va-[s5-») [+36 -»)] Thus, VO _V aig f Ib 2 ”) ‘This relationship indicates that the shearing stress is parabolically distributed. Asis evident, the maximum shear stress occurs at y = 0 (the neutral axis). At any point in a beam, the horizontal shearing stress is accompanied by an equal vertical shearing stress f,.. This can be demonstrated in a variety of ways. A simple way is to look at the equilibrium of a typical element ina beam (Figure A.7.1) subjected only to shear. By summing the moments of the forces produced by the stresses acting on the elemient, we find that Faldx dz) dy — f (dy dz)(dx) = 0 and fy = fy. It is this vertical shear stress that actually forms the resisting shear force Vg = fy dA, which equilibrates the external applied shear force V,;. Since f, =f, the distrib- ution of the vertical shear on the face of a cross section is described for the horizontal shear stresses. This is the only way of finding the distribution of vertical shearing stresses in a beam APPENDIX 8: MOMENT-CURVATURE RELATIONS ‘This appendix explores the relationship between the moment at a point and the curvature of the member at the same point. Consider an elemental por- tion of a member subject to bending, (See Figure A.8.1.) Assuming that, ini- tially, plane sections in the member remain plane under the action of bending, the two adjacent planes bounding the element considered undergo a relative rotation dé because of the bending, The fibers at the top of the member are shortened, those at the bottom lengthened, The elongation of a typical fiber at a distance y from the neutral surface (the horizontal plane of zero deforma- tion) may be found by considering the initial undistorted ‘ocation of the two planes, The elongation is the arc of a circle having a radits y and subtended by the angle dé, or the elongation = y dé. Ifthe original undeformed length of the element is a length dx and the strain (deformation per unit length) at yis €,, then y d0 = e, dx, or €y = y(d0/dx), or (dd/dx) = €,/y. From inspecting Figure A.8.1, it can also be seen that the radius of cur- vature, p, for the whole beam and dx are related through the expression dx = p db, since the length dx at the middle surface is the arc of a circle of radius p and subtended by d@. Note that (dé/dx) = 1/p. Equating the two expressions for d@/dx yields 1/p = ey/y, or €, = y/p.APPENDICES Instantaneous radius of curvature o 4 +a a 0 _yo8 Fa (@) Detected shape of structure, (©) Curvature ata secon, FIGURE A.8.1 Moment-curvature relation: 1/p = M/EL ‘The relation between stress and strain in a homogeneous elastic mater- ial is E = fy/e,. Alternatively, e, = (1/E)f,. From the study of bend- ing stresses, we know that fy = My/J. Thus, ey = (1/E)(My/I), or y/p = (1/E)(My/I). Consequently, 1/p = M/EI, or p = EI/M. ‘The latter is the moment-curvature relationship. The instantaneous radius of curvature (p) is thus inversely dependent on the magnitude of the moment (M) in a member and directly dependent on the product of the ‘modulus of elasticity (£) and moment of inertia (J) for the member. Note that if M = 0, then p— ce, indicating that the member is straight (as it must obviously be under no moment). As the moment increases, the radius of cur- vature becomes smaller, indicating that the member is being more sharply curved or bowed under the action of the load. APPENDIX 9: DEFLECTIONS A9.1 General Differential Equation ‘The expression 1/p = M/EI found in Appendix 8 may be alternatively expressed in terms of the deflection curve of the member. If the curve is defined by y = y(x), then, from basic calculus, 1 (@y/de) sy P+ (ayjaxpp aeAppendices The expression dy/dx is the slope of the member at any point. For small deflections, the square of this term is negligible in comparison to other terms. Consequently, @y_M & x or M=(“2)er ae ET ae ‘This is the basic differential equation for the deflection curve of a member subjected to bending. Deflections: Double-Integration Method ‘The deflection of a beam at any point can be found by direct application of the result found in the previous section (d*y/dx? = M/ET). ee EXAMPLE Consider the cantilever beam illustrated in Figure A.9.1, and assume tht itis desired to know the deflection at the end of the member. Assume also that E and I are constant along the length of the beam. TTT, x= y=0 ylte=0 FIGUREA.9.1._Deflections in a uniformly loaded cantilever beam, Solution: ‘The moment at xis given by M, = ~wx*/2. Hence, ‘where C; is a constant of integration. C, can be found by using the boundary condition that the slope of the beam, dy/dx, is zero at x = L, When this is done, it is seen that C; is 11/6, Thus, wo! 6 ay 4 (<2 a EI\ 6602 APPENDICES, ‘The latter is the equation for the slope of the beam at any point x. Integrating once more yields 1 (_uxt , wRx ad {ey > vale) where Cz isthe second constant of integration, which can be found by noting that the deflec- tion y atx = Liszera Thus,C, = ~w1'/8, and wl? _ wt! 6 8 “This is the basic equation for the deflected shape of the member. The maximum deflection oceurs at x = 0: Henes, wot SET [Note that the boundary conditions are extremely important and must be handled with care. Resultant deflections from any loading condition on any type of member can be evalu- ated similarly, Note aso that if £ and J were not constant along the length of the member, they, too, would have tobe expressed as a function of. APPENDIX 10: MOMENT-AREA THEOREM: DEFLECTIONS The moment-area theorems are a powerful tool in structural analysis. In Appendix 8 on moment-curvature relations, it was noted that, with refer- ence to Figure A.8.1, dd/dx = 1/p and 1/p = M/EI. Consequently, db/dx = M/El,or dd = (M/EI) dx. These formulations can be used to cal- culate either the slope or the deflection of any point on a beam. The result- ing approaches are called moment-area theorems and have long been a primary way investigators have analyzed structures. Now largely supplanted by computer-based techniques, they remain powerful and supremely ele- gant, particularly for beams with varying cross sections. (An introduction to moment-area theorems is presented in Appendix 9 of Schodek, Structures, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2001.) LOPES AND APPENDIX 11: OTHER METHODS OF ANALYZING INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES Double-Integration Method. This section addresses a method of analysis that is frankly of little current practical importance as a structural analysis tool. It is, however, of interest in conceptual terms, as a direct extension and application of some of the formulations previously discussed. The double-integration method of analysis is based on the moment- curvature relation discussed in Appendix 8. In the example that follows, the ‘moment present at the end of a fixed-ended beam is treated as an unknown in the basie differential equation (see Appendix 9) for the deflection curve of the ‘member. Although the double-integration method of analysis demonstrated here is conceptually very elegant, its application becomes cumbersome inAppendices nonsymmetrical situations or when there are a large number of redundancies. For this reason, other methods of analysis are typically utilized. ———— EXAMPLE ‘Consider the fixed-ended beam illustrated in Figure A111. Using E(c?/y/ds*) = M, find the moments developed at the supports Solution: For the fixed-ended beam, EI(d'y/dx*) = M + wLx/2~ wx"/2. Integrating yields El(dyfde) = M"x + wLx'/4 — wx'/6 + C,. Since the slope ofthe beam is horizontal atthe support, dy/dx = 0, where x = 0; consequently, C, = 0. Also, dy/dx = 0 at x = L. Hence, MEL +w1/4 ~ wL'/6, and it follows that M = ~w13/12. Mf is the moment developed at the support. Using this moment, one can find the val- tues of the moment present at other points in the beam through equilibrium considerations. ‘The moment at midspan, for example, can be shown to be M = 11/24. Note that, in the preceding example, the moment of inertia, I, of the beam was assumed to be constant. If I were a variable, it would have to be expressed as a function of x and included in the inte- gration. The moment found as a result would no longer be M = —wL?/12, but a different formula. This illustrates that moments in continuous beams are not independent of varia- tions in member properties. Variations in the modulus of elasticity, Z, would also affect, results @ © ® v © wi? aM ge FIGUREA.11.1 Application of the double-integration method of analysis. 603os APPENDICES I it were desired to know the deflection at midspan of the member just analyzed, it is only necessary to make use of the moment found at the support. Thus, dy whe | whs? wx? a nt 4 6 wLx _ wx! nm mt Since y = Oat x wx _ wx! Dom By symmetry, the max:mum deflection occurs at midspan: wht a RAE Deflection Method. The deflection method of analysis is an older tech- nique that involves isolating one (or more) of the redundant supports, con- ceptually removing the redundant support(s) and allowing the structure to deflect freely (thereby making the structure statically determinate), deter- mining the deflection at the support point, and calculating the magnitude of the force required to push the structure from its freely deformed condition back to its original state, The force required to reestablish the original shape of the structure is equivalent to the reaction normally developed at that point. (See Appendix 10 of Schodek, Structures, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, ‘Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1992.) APPENDIX 12: REINFORCED-CONCRETE BEAMS: DETAILED U.S. DESIGN PROCEDURES. Bending Strength. In ultimate strength design (USD), the beam is designed to start failing under the amplified loads At that level, the steel is expected to have exceeded its yielding point, while the concrete is expected to have entered its nonlinzar plastic region. Figure 6.39 illustrates the general stress distribution that is present prior to failure. The curved stress diagram for the concrete follows from the assumption of a linear strain distribution and the stress-strain diagram for concrete shown in the figure. An internal resisting ‘moment that balances the externally applied moment is developed by a cou- ple formed by the tension force T (at failure) in the steel and the equivalent ‘compressive force C in the concrete. (From equilibrium considerations and in the absence of an axial load, these two forces must be equal.) This moment represents the nominal moment capacity of the section, A reduction factor is applied to the nominal moment capacity to drive the ultimate moment capacity of the section. This factor is 0.9 for most beams. It takes variations in material strengths, the somewhat inaccurate empirically derived equations, ‘and the importance of the member into account. In practice the ¢ factor is deter- mined based on the steel strain. ¢ is 0.9 for strains 0.005 and larger—as is rec- ‘ommended. Thus, the ultimate moment capacity of a beam is M, = 0.9M,, where M, is the aominal strength of the beam. Since the loads have beenAppendices amplified, no safety factors are placed on materials. Specified yield stresses for steel (F,) and failure stresses for concrete f', are used. The steel is assumed to have a bilinear stress-strain curve and be quite ductile, Concrete is assumed to have a nonlinear stress-strain curve that peaks and then declines before final crushing, which is assumed to occur at a strain level of 0.3% (0.003). ‘The ultimate moment capacity of a beam is given by the couple formed by the tension and compression forces acting at the cross section, or M, = OT (d ~ a/2) = $C(d — a/2), where d is the effective depth of the section to the steel and ais the depth of the stress block. Note that T = A,Fy, where A, is the cross-sectional area of steel; hence, M, = $A,F,(d — a/2). The value of the moment arm d — a/2 remains to be identified. An “equivalent stress block” is typically assumed in order to overcome the com- plex distribution of stresses in the concrete so that the restltant force C asso- ciated with the actual stress distribution and the equivalent stress block are identical. As shown in Figure 6.39 for a rectangular beam, the block is con- structed so that it acts over an area ab, where a is the depth of the stress block (to be calculated shortly) and b is the beam width. Also, the block has an aver- age maximum stress value of 0.85 f-.The moment arm thus becomes d — a/2. To calculate a, note that, since C = 7, it follows that O.85f.ab = A,F, or a = A,F,/0.85fb. The ultimate moment capacity of the beam thus becomes M, = $A,F,[d ~ (a/2)] with @ normally equal to 0.9. Maximum Reinforcement. Upper reinforcement levels are necessary to ensure that the steel yields hefore the concrete fails in a brittle way in case of extreme overloading, The visual warning of excessive deflection can be an important alert for occupants. ACI codes prescribe the maximum level of reinforcement as that which generated at least a steel strain of 0.004. In rec- ‘ommended practice a minimum steel strain of 0.005 should be designed for. Based on the known steel strain, and the equally known concrete strain of 0.003, the neutral axis of the beam can be found using the geometry of the strain diagram. The depth of the stress block a is derived next, which then allows for the corresponding amount of steel to be calculated. The proce- dure is shown in Figure A.12.1, Reinforcing Bars, In designing and analyzing a beam, ac:ual steel rod sizes and areas must be used. The bar sizes available in the United States are from Nos.3 to 11 and Nos. 14 and 18, Bar Diameter (in) Area (in2) Bar Diameter (in.) Area (in2) No.2 0.250 0s No. 8 1.000 079 No.3 0375 oat No. 9 1108 1.00 No.4 0.500 020 No.10 1270 121 Nos 0.625 031 No.1 1410 156 No.6 0.750 os No.4 1.693 225 No.7, 0.785 0.60 No.18 2257 400 In US. practice, the spacing between bars should be equal to the diameter of the bars, but not less than 1 in. A concrete cover is used to protect reinfore- ing bars, although the cover will inevitably crack if itis in tension. The minimum. 0s606 APPENDICES ee, 4 8 Bosr0 006 {Step 1] ©~0375 atasodon ‘geometry of th sain dagran [516921 Drive relate doph aot Sess ook abe By 20.88 or = 4000 pal For tegee subtract 005 for 2ach ‘cone! 1000 pup oa ranma otoss. (step 3} Find the maximum ares ot see 85 rb Pama FIGURE A.12.1. Maximum steel in U.S. practice is based on a steel strain of 0.004 or larger. In practice ‘a minimum stain of 0.005 is typical for beams. cover depends on the type of elements, the type of concrete (cast-in-place, pre- cast, prestressed), the size of the bars, and the exposure and varies from 1.5 in. for interior space to 2 in. for exterior space (0 3 in. when iti in permanent con- tact with the soil. Furthermore, the steel bars should have a minimum develop- ment length and, possibly, anchoring hooks so that stresses are transferred from the steel to the concerte. The steel bars should also be designed and placed in concerete members so that the distribution requirements are met in smaller bars rather than fewer large bars and sometimes a lower strength steel. Deflections. Calculating deflections of reinforced concrete members is complicated as a result of the properties of concrete, especially its cracking in the tension zone. According to building codes, the deflections are within lim- its if the slenderness of the members does not exceed a lower limit, based on. the type of the member and the supports, as shown in the next table. If the slenderness criter.on is satisfied, further deflection checks are not necessary. Note that these same guidelines are also useful as a starting point for dimen- sioning beams or slabs or for estimating the efficiency of sections, For com- puter analysis, the moments of inertia of the reinforced-concrete elements must be reduced before they are used to predict their deflections. In the United States, a simple approach calls for a reduction of the moment of iner- tia of members in bending by 60%. Minimum amount of tension steel. The minimum amount of tension steel Aymin is the larger value of either of the two equations 3x VR 200 ania = EX Ags = Sf” X Apo In genera, the first equationAppendices is valid for conerete strengths larger than 4400 psi, while the second equation governs for lower concrete strengths. SUPE Ene EXAMPLE (a) Determine the ultimate moment capacity of a beam with dimensions b = 10/in, and degeiye ® 15 in. and that has three No.9 bars (3.0 in2) of tension-reinforcing steel. Assume thal dye = I8in., F, = 40 ksi, and f= 5 ksi.(b) Assume also tha: the section is used as a cantilever beam 10 ft long, where the service loads are dead load = 400 bft and live load = 300 thf. Is the beam adequate in bending? Calculate the ultimate moment capacity of the beam firs. Solution: @ 4 = A,F,/0.85f'b = (3)(40,000)/(0.85)(5000)(10) = 2.82 in -M, = 6A,Fd ~ a/2] = 0.9(3)(40,000)(15 ~ (2.82)/(2)] = 1,466,640 in-Ib Check for overinforeement, ¢ = 0375-15 = 5625. Depth of ses block a = 0.80+5.525 45 im. Assay = (0.85)(Sksi)(4.5in.)(10in.)/(40ksi) = 4.78 in? The beam is not over rein- forced Check for minimum ste: Aynua = (3y\VF)/F = 016in?,40 beam is suficiently reinforced ©) = 120 + 1.6L = 12(400) + 1.6(300) = 9601 Myroga = Wul?/2 = (960)(10°)/2 = 48,000 16 = 576,00 in-Ib Since Myst = 576,000 < My = 1,466,640, the beam is adequate in bending EXAMPLE Determine the ultimate moment capacity of a beam of dimensions b= 250 mm and 50 mm and that has 300 mm? of reinforcing steel. Assume that F, fie = 25 MPa, Solution: ar - Fy (00a “~ o85p'5 ~ (a8s)(25)(2s0) ~ 6 = oar (a 94300 (400)(350 ~ 728) = a6 5k-m ———— EXAMPLE ‘A simply supported beam 20 ft long carries a service dead load of 300 Ibft and alive load of 500 Ibft. Design an appropriate beam, and check whether the amount of tension steel i within the limits for ductile beam behavior. The steel strength is 40 ks, the concrete strength is 5 ks. Solution: [1] Calculate the factored moment that the beam needs to carry. U = 1.2 D + 1.2 (300) + 41.6 (500) = 1160 Ibi; Mey = wL?/8 = 1160 (20)2/8 = $8,000 fb» = 696,000 in-Ib [2] Estimate the gross beam size based on slenderness ratios that would satisfy deflection cri- teria. For a span of 20 ft, simple supported beam would need to be 12in, deep. Assume a suit- ‘able width such that the beam can be easily built; here assume b = 8 in, [B] Find the effective depth d and assume a reinforcement ratio in order to determine the ‘beam’s moment capacity. Assume 2.5% reinforcement ratio,so A, = (12in.)(8in.) 0.025 = 2.4 in. Effective depth d: assume 1-in. diameter bars single layer, and 15-in, concrete cover, o d= 12in. ~ (05 +15) = 10in, 607608 APPENDICES [4] Try 2No. 10 bars A, = 2.54 Find a = (0.85 f{ A,b)/F, = 085(5)(2.54)(8)/40 = 2.159in. Find M, = 0.9(Ag Fy)(d ~ a/2) = 0.9(2.54)(40)(10 ~ 2.159/2) = 815,690 in-lb ‘The ultimate moment capacity of the beam is larger than Mya: 50 the beam is capable of carrying the factored leads, [5] Cheek strain compaibility: Find the location of the neutral axis ¢ (its distance from the top ‘of the beam) ¢ = 2.159/0,75 = 2.88 in. The factor of 0.75 is determined empirically based on ACT tables. tis 0.85 for f: = 4 ksi and 0.75 for f= Sksi Find steel strain e, = (01003/c) *(d ~ ¢) = (0.008/2.88)(10 ~ 2.88) = 0.007 Steel strain of 0.007 is large than 0.005. The ¢ factor to reduce nominal moment to ultimate moment was correctly assumed at 0.9; the beam is tension controlled. The beam is not overreinforced as stains are larger than 0.004, APPENDIX 13: CRITICAL BUCKLING LOADS. FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS ‘This appendix derives the buckling load for a pin-ended column. The critical buckling load is defined to be that axial force which is just sufficient to hold the bar in a slightly deformed configuration. Under the load P, the column, deflects into a curved shape such that the lateral deflection at a point x from one end of the column is defined by the distance y. ‘The necessary condition that one end of the bar be able to move axially with respect to the other end so that the lateral deflection may take place is assumed. The diffe-ential equation of the deflection curve is the same as that presented in Appendix 9: £1 (d*y/dx?) ~ M. ‘The bending moment in the preceding expression is merely the ‘moment of the force P times the deflection y at that point, Hence, the bend- ing moment is M = —Py. Thus, EI (d?y/dx*) = —Py. If we set P/EI = k?, then d*y/dx? + Ky = 0. ‘The latter differential equation is readily solved by any one of several standard techniques discussed in textbooks on differential equations. We need merely find a function that, when differentiated twice and added to itself (times a constant), is equal to zero. Evidently, either sin kx or cos kx possesses this property. These terms can be combined so as to form a solu- tion of the given equation. Thus, y = C sin kx + D cos kx. Its next necessary to determine the constants C and D. At the left end of the bar, y=0 when x = 0. Substituting these values, we obtain 0=0+ D,orD=0. ‘At the right end of the bar, y = 0 when x = L. Substituting these val- ues into the expression for y with D = 0, we obtain 0 = C sin kL. Evidently, either C = 0 or sin kL = 0. But if C = 0, then y is zero everywhere, and we have only the trivial case of a straight bar, which is the configuration prior to the occurrence of buckling. Since we are not inter- ested in this solution, we must then take sin KL = 0. For that equation to hold, we must have kL = nq radians (n= 1,2,3,...). Substituting k? = P/EI, we find that (VP/EI)L =na, or P= wr El/L’.Appendices The smallest value of this load P evidently occurs when n = 1. Then we have the first mode of buckling, where the critical load is given by WEL 2 ‘The equation for P,,is called Euler’s buckling load for a pin-ended column. ‘The deflection shape corresponding to this load is y = C sin VP/ETx, or y = Csin 7-x/L. Thus, the deflected shape is a sine curve. The effects of other types of column end connections (e.g. fixed ends) on the buckling load of a column can be determined in a similar manner. The moment expressions, however, and boundary conditions used are different from those just presented. Por APPENDIX 14: COMPUTER-BASED METHODS OF ANALYSIS: FORCE AND MATRIX-DISPLACEMENT TECHNIQUES ‘The use of computer-based methods of structural analysis and design is com- monplace. Capabilities exist for the rapid analysis of mos: types of two- and three-dimensional structural configurations. These techniques have virtually replaced most hand-calculation methods as a way of analyzing structures. ‘The hand-calculation methods, however, remain valuable as a way of under- standing how structures behave. Nonetheless, any designer must have a working knowledge of computer-based methods to be effective. In computer-based approaches, there are typically many conventions. Global geometries are defined in terms of nodes, node numbers, and node coordinates. Structural topologies are defined in terms of members, member numbers, and member properties. Member incidences (which member end frames into what node) are also specified, Member characteristics are fre- quently defined in terms of local geometries related to each specific mem- ber. Support conditions (e.g, fixed, pinned, spring, specified displacements) can and must be specified for specific members, along with any special releases or constraints wherein one member frames into another. In most analysis environments, related “degrees of freedom” must be carefully defined. The loading environment must also be specified in terms of either global or local geometries. Various “cases” representing different loading conditions can be specified as well. In many programs, “hese conventions are quite evident and must be specified carefully. Some programs have graphical interfaces that speed the process, but by and large, the same para- meters must be specified. Analysis outputs typically include reactions, axial forces, shear forces, bending moments, and torsional moments in each member. Also typically part of the output are nodal deflections and mem- ber deformations. ‘The foregoing features are common in most analysis programs, Design- oriented programs may then use the information obtained to do stress and deformation checks on members in given materials (c.g, steel), in which 609ow APPENDICES specific member designs are analyzed. Many programs include databases, for example, of commonly available stee! wide-flange members. Some pro- ‘grams seek to actually design (ie., determine member sizes) as well. ‘There are many different types of approaches used in computer-based methods of analysis. For frameworks of one type or another, one method is generally called the force method. The more widely used approach, however, is termed the displacement method. Other methods of analysis include vari- ous finite-element techniques, discussed in Appendix 15. In force methods, forces are the primary unknown values that are sought in the analysis. Ifa structure is statically determinate, these forces may be obtained through the laws of statics alone. Alternatively, displacement or stiffness methods may be used indistinguishably for both statically determi- nate and indeterminate structures in which nodal displacements are the pri- mary unknowns. For any structure, there are as many nodal displacements as there are externally applied nodal loads (including loads of zero magnitude). This observation leads to a powerful formulation of the problem relating nodal displacements with externally applied loads that requires the solution ofa large number of simultaneous equations. Matrix Force Method, An insight into the basic approach utilized in the matrix force method of analysis can best be gained by looking at the analysis of a simple truss structure by the joint equilibrium method discussed in Chapter 4, For any truss, close inspection of the solution of member forces in trusses by the jeint equilibrium method reveals that the procedures could be reflected in a series of equations (two for each joint, 2F, = 0 and SF, = 0) which could then be solved simultaneously instead of proceeding from one joint to another. For example, the two equations for a typical joint (B) in the truss shown in Figure A.14.1 are as follows: In the y direction, O.71F g¢ + 0.71F pp — P= 0, and in the x direction, Fac + 0.71F pp 0.71F pg — Fgq = 0. Alternatively, more fully including the unknown forces in all the members of the truss and defining P, and P, as external loads in the x and y directions, respectively, we have P, = OF gg + 0F gp + 10F gc + OTF pp ~ O.71F xe ~ 10F ga + OF pe P, = OF ag + 0F gp + OF gc + O.71F ap + O71F gp + OF 54 + OF De ‘The full system of equations for all joints can be defined in matrix form as {P} = [S]{F}, where {P) is the vector of the externally applied loads on the joints, [S] is the geometry or “direction cosine” matrix, and {F} is the vector of the internal forces in the truss members The matrix is a property of Fae fi E D 6 LN\Y\. tu Fee reve ite ‘Tres (also see Figure 4-20) Equllfum ot rode 8 FIGUREA.14.1. Force methods.Appendices FIGUREA.14.2 Displacement method for two-member structure, the geometry of the truss. The internal forces can be obtained by solving the equation {P} = [S]{F} in the form {F} = [S]"{P}. However, for any truss with more than a few joints, the solution of the series of equations is prohibitive by hand, but the approach lends itself quite well to computer for- mulations. For statically indeterminate trusses, there are more unknown forces than equilibrium equations; thus, the size of the internal forces vector is larger than the size of the externally applied loads. This requires the employment of elaborate solution techniques. For these reasons, the matrix force approach is now rarely used. Matrix Displacement (or Direct Stiffness Method). ‘This widcly uscd method of analysis is discussed in two parts. The current section briefly char- acterizes the essential nature of the matrix displacement approach by look- ing in detail at a simple two-member structural assembly. A more rigorous presentation for multimember structures follows. In the force formulation just presented and in most other techniques presented thus far, forces were considered as the primary unknown values, An alternative approach is to treat joint displacements, rather than forces, as the unknown values. This is a widely used formulation in many computer- based analysis programs. The discussion that follows briefly presents some of the basic theory underlying these programs. In this approach, the differ- ent ways each joint may freely move are examined first. In Figure A.14.2, the joint A of the simple two-member truss is displaced to the position A’ after the loads P, and P; are applied. The displacement from A to A’ is X in the direction of the movement, or X, and X; in the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively. For these displacements to occur, the attached bars AB and AC must elongate or compress a certain amount, depending on the geometry of the truss. Assuming that the change in the geometry is very small (the “small-displacement theory”), these deformations of the truss members are expressed in terms of X, and X: AL 4p = X; cos a —X> sin a and AL 4c = X, cos B + X2 in B. Recall from the discussion in Section 2.7 that there is a relation between the internal force in an axially loaded member and its deformation, $0 Fay = (AL 4pAE)/Lagand F 4c = (AL 4cAE)/Lac, where A is the cross-sectional area of the members and E is the modulus of elasticity of their material. Finally, the joint A is in equilibrium, so the applied ouor APPENDICES, foot P, and P; and the internal forces F 4 and F 4c must be in equilibrium: = F4pcos a + Fyccos B and P; = Fagsina + Fac sin B. By substi- fg the elongations and internal forces the applied loads P; and P> and the displacements X, and Xz can be related as (kay cosa + k4c cos? B) X X,+ (kag cosa sina +Kyc cos f sin B) X Xp =P; and (kp cos asin a k gc 0s B sin B) XX, +(Kagsin’ « + kacsin® B) x Xz= Py, where Kan = AE/Lan and kyc = AE/L ac. In matrix form, [z= Kn (zh= fe Ky Kn (Xo Py After the displacements are calculated from the preceding system of equa- tions, the deformation of the truss members and the internal forces are eas- ily calculated. The same technique can be employed for larger trusses with more joints. However, this technique, described next in more depth, requires the solution of a system of many simultaneous equations—a solution that can be carried out by computers only. ‘The matrix cisplacement method does not distinguish between stati- cally determinate and statically indeterminate trusses, since there are as many unknown displacements as there are externally applied loads on a truss, Hence, indeterminate structures are handled as easily as determinate structures. Furthermore, three-dimensional forms may be analyzed similarly to two-dimensional forms. The effects of settlements of supports and similar phenomena may also be treated with ease, Because of these advantages, matrix displacement techniques have achieved almost universal usage in computer-based siructural analysis. Degrees of Freedom. Essential to an in-depth understanding of displace- ment methods is an appreciation of the degrees of freedom that a structure possesses. At the node! level, there are as many degrees of freedom as there are different forces that can apply to a node to produce displace- ments, According to this definition, a two-dimensional truss joint has two degrees of freedom (horizontal and vertical translations). A two- dimensional beam node has three degrees of freedom (horizontal and ver- tical translations and rotation), since there are two forces and a moment that can apply to a beam node. Similarly, a three-dimensional truss has three degrees of freedom per node, while a three-dimensional frame has six degrees of freedom per node. Degrees of freedom can be either free or constrained. A free degree of freedom entails that the node can move under the application of loads, whereas a constrained degree of freedom implies that the displacement of the node in a particular direction is speci- fied and independent of the applied loads. As a result, externally applied loads act on free degrees of freedom, producing displacements, whereas 1 The user defines the neds ona sirutute so that the properties ofthe members among the nodes can be easly identified and calsulated Furthermore, the user cin define nodes at points of interest where dis- placement and force information s sought. Nodes donor imply the presence of released degrees of fee= dom, such a hingesAppendices Sree degrees of Bite degrees of freedom per node freedom par node 4 = : A eee eee tore leant Ofeamem= A nnnee arcane i aceareen @ ceed foes renee rea esas ecco FIGURE A.14.3 Matrix displacement methods of analysis. the displacements are specified on constrained degrees of freedom, pro- ducing reactions. A completely fixed connection in the foundation has all degrees of freedom constrained. At the structure level, the term degrees of freedom is used to designate the total number of degrees of freedom corresponding to the nodes of the structure, representing the number of ways in which a structure may respond to a loading. Initially, all the degrees of freedom in a structure are free, but some are constrzined after the sup- ports are introduced (Figure A.14.3). Often, some degrees of freedom are released within the upper structure. The introduction of a hinge at the con- nection between a beam and a column releases two degrees of freedom at that node. The presence of the hinge prohibits the application of a moment, thus eliminating the rotational degree of freedom from that node. Notice, however, that both the beam and the column will actually rotate at that node by different magnitudes and may be in different directions. These rotations will be determined from the equilibrium of each member after the nodal displacements are calculated, together with calculation of the rest of the rotations and displacements along each element. The Loads-Displacements Matrix Equation, The basic structural concept underlying matrix-displacement methods involves examining a structure for the movements that can occur at each free degree of freedom. These displacements of the free degrees of freedom are the unknowns of the structural system that are to be determined prior to calculating any other quantities. Structural members are seen as constraints among the degrees of ireedom (ice., constraining the displacements). The deformations of the structural members should be consistent with the displacements of the nodes; thus, a system of equations, the compatibility equations, is employed to express the member deformations as a function of the nodal displace- ‘ments. second set of equations, the constitutive equations, relates the mem- ber deformations to the internal forces in the structural members, engaging ousou APPENDICES material properties as well as the geometry of the structural members. Finally, the equilibrium equations relate the internal forces to the externally applied forces at each degree of freedom. The compatibility equations, the constitutive equations, and the equilibrium equations logically imply the equations that directly relate the externally applied loads to the displace- ‘ments of the structure: Py = KyXy+ KyXp te + KyXj to + Kinky Py = KyXy + KyXp to + KyX) +> Py = KaX1 + KaXqt-- + KyXy to + KieXe Py = Ky Xp + KyaXy bo + KyjXj 4000+ KanXn In matrix form, {P}nca = [K]ner{X}wxiP: denotes the externally applied load on the free degree of freedom i, while X; denotes the displace- ‘ment of the node along the degree of freedom j. The stiffness matrix [K] is always square. The stiffness coefficients Ky denote the force in the direction of the ith degree of freedom due to a unit displacement in the direction of the jth degree of freedom. The coefficients K j are forces per unit displacement— hence their designation as stiffness coefficients. It can be shown, on the basis of energy principles, that K;, always equals K,,, and as a result, the matrix [K] is symmetrical. This property leads to the development of efficient solu- tion techniques for solving the equation {X} = [K]'{P}, which provides the displacements of the structure. The internal forces of the structural members are then calculated on # member-by-member basis, employing the element's stiffness matrix to derive the forces in each element. Similarly, the reactions are calculated as the summation of forces on the degrees of free- dom corresponding to the constraint degrees of freedom of the support. + KaKn Types of Analysis Programs. A multipurpose computer program with six degrees of freedom per node is able to provide the displacements and, sub- sequently, the member forces and reactions for any framework structure. Such a program would be appropriate for a three-dimensional frame with six degrees of freedom (three translations and three rotations) for each node, but it would be difficult to use and might be numerically unstable for structures that have fewer degrees of freedom per node, such as two- dimensional frames or trusses. As a result, specialized computer programs have been developed that are applicable to certain classes of structures? With three-dimensional frames, few assumptions are made; each free node is assumed to have six degrees of freedom. With space rrusses,a node has three degrees of translatory freedom, since connections are assumed to be pinned and the rotations that do occur do not influence any forces that are found. With plane frames, all movements ate assumed to occur in the plane of the frame. (There are no loads applied out of plane, and out-of-plane motions 2For example see K. 1. Bathe, Fite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Ine, Englewood Citfs NI 1982 For example, sce Chu-Kia Wang and Charles G. Salmon, Inroduciory Structural Analysis, Prentice-Hall, Inc, Englewood Chis Ni, 1984,Appendices are considered negligible). As a result, there are two translatory and one rota- tional degrees of freedom per free node. A pinned support of a plane frame constrains the translatory degrees of freedom at that node, allowing a rotation, only; hence, one degree of freedom is present. A roller aligned with one of the axes constrains the free degrees of freedom present to two:one rotational and one translational. With plane trusses, each joint has two degrees of freedom. only. With grids, all translations are assumed to take place out of the plane of the grid. At a free node, one translation and two rotations exist. In any computer-based analysis procedure, required inputs focus on all possible nodal movements via a specification of the degrees of freedom for each node in a way that is compatible with the selected analysis procedure and assumptions. Computer-based programs are often called PLANE TRUSS, PLANE FRAME, SPACE TRUSS, ot SPACE FRAME analysis pro- grams or the like, depending on what assumptions of the type noted here have been built into the analysis techniques used. The analysis program type is matched with the characteristics of the structure analyzed, Thus, three- dimensional SPACE FRAME programs may involve the fewest assumptions, but are often cumbersome to use, since so many freedom-related movements must be defined. Normally, they should not be used to solve plane frame of plane truss problems if more appropriate programs are available. Inputs. Inputs in computer programs based on a displacement method fol- low very closely the assumptions and structure of the displacement method itself. Inputs are provided in the form of geometry, materials, and applied loads. The geometry of the structure is defined by the locations of the nodes and the specifications of the free and constraint degrees of freedom per node. The structural members are often defined as connecting nodes in the form of member incidences. In addition, the properties of the cross section (area, moments of inertia) of the members are input in order to establish, together with the material properties, the relationship between deformation, and internal forces. The information on the material and the cross-sectional properties makes a difference in the calculated displacements, but does not change the internal forces for statically determinate structures. For indeter- minate structures, the relative stiffness of the structural members influences the distribution of forces in each member of the structure. Finally, the applied loads are specified. Loads applied on the nodes are usually specified by their magnitude and the corresponding degree of freedom. Loads acting along the members are converted to nodal loads prior to the analysis. Alternatively, many newer programs provide a graphic interface that allows the user to define the geometry, materials, and applied loads interactively. Outputs. Outputs include the nodal displacements, the internal member forces (axial and shearing forces and moments), and the reactions at the sup- ports (constrained degrees of freedom). (See Figure A.144,) Depending on the program, axial and shearing forces and moment values may or may not be provided along the length of the members. If not, these values may be calculated by equilibrium considerations for individual members with end forces (axial and shearing forces and moments) applied. Notice that the16 APPENDICES, Deine system ‘geometry Sealy entra Sonn | | Sect carr conto, {| revives [o| aveyzo || Meno tos member ~ : Member moments anmate cs Sree FIGUREA.14.4 Input and output for typical structural analysis program. ‘material properties required for input are limited to stiffness and do not nor- mally include any strength information (i.e, there is no specification for a maximum allowable stress level). Comments. A clessic problem for the novice in using computer programs is that, in order to analyze a structure, certain material and cross-sectional prop- erties must be known a priori and entered as inputs. For example, for plane frame problems, the modulus of elasticity F, the cross-sectional area A, and the moment of inertia, J, of each member must be provided prior to the analy- sis. The approximare analysis techniques discussed earlier in the book may be employed to estimate force and sizes to be used as a basis for estimates of E,1, and A. Members should be designed on the basis of the analytical values obtained, so that assumptions about £, I, and A can be tested for reasonable- ness and the analysis process repeated if the assumptions prove later to be far off the mark. Another way is to input arbitrary initial values for E, I, and A and iterate a few analyses in order to define consistent values between input and output. For statically determinate structures, the arbitary values of E, J,and A will affect the displacements only, but the internal forces will be accu- rate at the first cycle. For statically indeterminate structures, the arbitrary val- ues of £, /,and A will affect both the displacements and the internal forces. ‘Common analysis programs perform the analysis subject to a single set of loads. Howeve-, multiple loading patterns may have to be applied and maximum force and moment values extracted from each, so that critical design values for each individual member may be determined, Members ‘would consequently be sized on the basis of critical values, which collectively may correspond to no single loading condition, Analyses may have to be repeated, using these member sizes. Beyond the basics, displacement method computer programs can have more features, often desirable for more sophisticated problems. Such features include the input of loads along the members (for frames only) and the cal- culation of axial end shearing forces and moments along the members, the specification of “forced” displacements, the introduction of elastic founda- tions, the specification of the orientation of rollers (so that the horizontal and vertical displacements have a constant ratio), and the option for released degrees of freedom within the structure (such as the introduction of a hinge ina frame, etc.). At a different level, computer programs can handle nonlin- car material properties and nonlinear geometrical deformations (buckling). Cables. An interesting application of nonlinear materials is the analysis of cables (and tension shells) that can take tension loads, but not compressionAppendices loads. For small-size structures, such an analysis can be done iteratively by adding and removing members so that all present members develop tension only and all members removed develop compression only. For larger prob- lems, such a manual process is quite tedious (and may not easily converge to asolution), and the computer program should be able to handle bilinear con- stitutive laws and solve the system of equations in an iterative manner. APPENDIX 15: COMPUTER-BASED METHODS OF ANALYSIS: FINITE-ELEMENT TECHNIQUES. ‘The matrix-displacement methods described briefly in Appendix 14 are suitable for complex frames, whose nodes are usually defined at the intercon- nection of the elements and whose stiffness coefficients are conceptually conve- nient to define. For continuum problems, such as the analysis of thin-surface shells, finite-element techniques enjoy wide popularity. In a finite-element ‘model, the continuum is replaced by a network or mesh of discrete pieces called finite elements. These elements are considered connected at specific nodes (typ- ically at corners, but sometimes at edges). Loadings on surfaces are converted to nodal loadings. A structural model is then used to predict forces and displace- ‘ments The model is often based on one or another of a variety of energy laws, Finite-clement models produce exact solutions under certain condi- tions, depending on the nature of the problem and the characteristics of the clement employed. The structural analysis computer prog-ams for trusses or frames are finite-cloment programs wherein the stiffuess matrix is formu- lated according to an exact theory. However, for most problems, finite- element models only approximate the continuum, and other assumptions must be involved in the formulation of stiffness measures of displaced shapes. The use of an approximate displacement state is a fundamental part of most discrete finite-element formulations of complex problems. Briefly, one process is as follows: The continuum is divided up into a ‘mesh. (Many shapes of elements are possible.) An exampleis shown in Figure A.15.1. The number of elements used affects both the degree of analytical complexity and the quality of the results. Small meshes may be used in critical places, coarser ones elsewhere. Each element is then assigred a displacement function that can be expressed in terms of displacements at designated nodes. Nodes are interconnected. A structural model, typically based on potential- energy concepts, is used to analyze the structure. (Complementary energy models may be used as well.) Minimization of potential energy for the mesh FIGUREA.15.1_ Finite-element analysis. Stress distibutions are displayed in the meshed ‘geometry. A beam with openings would be difficult to analyze w th other means, a7ois APPENDICES produces a stiffness model with nodal forces as known values and displace- ‘ments as unknown values. Via matrix analysis, a determination is made of nodal displacemerts, which in turn allows a determination of the displaced shape of each element and a subsequent calculation of stresses and strains ‘Analysis programs have been developed for both framed members and two-dimensional field problems. Since the method is approximate, care must be used in matching necessary analysis assumptions with the reality of the structure, as well 3s to avoid brute-force solutions. Dense meshes and more degrees of freedom per node than are required can lead not only to huge computer requirements, but also to numerical instabilities and wrong results. The distinction between plane-stress and plane-strain problems is crucial. Plane-stress formulations are typically used for problems such as the analy- s of thin surface roof shells (since certain out-of-plane stress components are assumed nonexistent in the formulation). Plane-strain formulations are used for the analysis of massive dams (and the other situations in which cer- tain deformations may be assumed to be zero). Furthermore, axisymmetric finite-element formulations make axisymmetric problems easier to analyze. ‘Once principal stresses are found via a finite-element solution, a struc- ture may be checked for safety with an algorithm which employs any of a variety of complex failure criteria that address stress interactions. Typical failure criteria include the maximum von Mies stress criterion, the Mohr- Coulomb stress criterion, the maximum normal stress criterion, and the max- imum shear stress criterion. The maximum von Mies stress criterion is based upon the energy essociated with the change of shape of the material and is highly applicable to ductile materials It is based on the premise that a ductile material yields when the distortion energy per unit volume equals or exceeds that associated with a comparable volume subjected to a simple tension test. ‘The von Mies stress can be written in terms of three principal stresses in the following way: The maximum normal stress criterion (sometimes known as Coulomb's criterion) is more simply based on a comparison of maximum principal stresses with stresses in a simple tension specimen. The ‘maximum shear stress criterion states that yielding begins when the maxi- mum shear stress equals or exceeds the stress associated with yielding in a simple tension test. It is also useful for ductile materials. The Mohr-Coulomb theory is used largely for brittle materials and compares selected values with tensile specimens The choice of criteria to be used depends very much on the type of material present and factors such as the rate of loading, temper- ature, and so forth. Rarely is a single theory appropriate for all conditions. ‘The aforementioned stress checks are commonly used in mechanical engineering situations (e.g., those involving objects with complex geome- tries and loading conditions, such as a ball joint) and in similar building design situations. In some finite-element analysis programs that are more directly tar- geted toward building applications and that use beam or column elements (e.g., SAP2000), stress-checking can be done directly in relation to actual code provisions, instead of the general failure criteria previously noted. ‘Be aware that finite-element programs are not necessarily the be-all and ‘end-all of structural analysis. Many novices often appear to believe that simplyAppendices because one can imagine a mesh drawn on a surface, the cifficulty ends there. Asnoted, care must be taken in formulating the problem properly, and results are always approximate and subject to interpretation. Often, many itera- tions are performed to identify critical points so that a new and more appro- priate mesh can be constructed. Finite-element techniques are used widely for nonlinear problems, with both material and geomet-ical nonlinearities. Furthermore, other approaches have resulted in boundary finite elements that discretize the continuum or part of it, with fewer elements that extend to the boundaries, rather than many discrete elements! APPENDIX 16: PROPERTIES ‘The tables here and in Appendix 17 show typical properties for members and materials. TABLE A.16.1 Member Properties? 9 Web Axis XX Axis VY Anis XX Thiekness § Shape Areatin?) (in) Ion’) S,Gin) ein) Iyfin’) Sn!) ryfin)—_S(amm? x 10°) W36x 280-824 0885189001080 1S 20a 381 16862 W36x201 S91 OS 12800757 4840108 359 12383 W30 x 99 21 0520 39026878 mS od 404 wax 30 osts 3000267 139 278 21s a7 wi4 x 90 265 0.440 999 814382 4937 2341 wa x 68 20 0.430 1490 140861578 22 wis x 2 241 0510 e213 was 8 293 248 2014 wis x78 218 0.450 6 126043 293 2.48 1834 wis x 60 6 oats se 108747 S013 .69 1768 W116 x 50, 470380 9 Sl 668372139 1326 Wi2 x 26 765 0230 208 34 S17 173, Sah St 847 Wax 913 028s 110 ee eee aa 927 202 450 Wio x 2 6490240 418 32 47d 37138, 380 W8 x 24 708 024s @8 2093428 563 161 32 Ws x18 526 0230 61952343797 30h 128, 249 9x15 4410285 s1 1334 193 LOL 0661 185, cox 3830487 114 58213 LOS 06420525 95 ‘The beams in the table are arranged according to their eative S values in Gsconding order of magnitade, The fst cny in group F@prewea a light member and one with a relatively large section modulus. Its thus an efient shape; MC, miscellaneous shape; WT, trutural tes cut from W shapes Typical designation: woux 6 weight per linear for, Ib ‘nominal depth, Shape designation 48cc, for example, Richard Gutkowski, Structures, Vn Nostrand Reinhold Co,, New York 1981, for & ‘more complete description of inite-clement techniques. ind often preferred member. W,wide-lange shape; C, channelea APPENDICES APPENDIX 17: TYPICAL MATERIAL PROPERTIES TABLEA.17.1 Allowable Stresses for Steel Allowable stress (ks1) Yield Siress Compression (no ASTM Grade (ksi) Tension buckling) Bending Shear ‘Typical Use A36 36 2 2 m4 144 8,Cyand MC-shapes A992 30 30 30 33 20 Wshapes ‘Nove: Allowable stresses are in Kipsin® (1 kipjin# = 1000 Thin2), Values show are based on US. practice and allowable stress design (ASD); ‘bending, Fy = 0.66 Fy;sheat, Fy 04 Fy; compression in laterally supported flange, F. = 0.6 Fy; tension Fy ~ 06 Fy. Other factors must be considered, so values ate not tobe use for actual allowable stres design purposes. For LRFD approaches, imate values are used. TABLEA.17.2 Allowable Stresses for Timber® Bending Stress Fy Compression and Tension a Parallel Horizontal Perpendicular to Parallel 0 ‘Types of Wood to. Grain ‘Shear the Grain the Grain Lumber Douglas fr B= 1.7 x 10) Ijin? 1200-2100 70-100 300-450 100-1800 Southern pine E17 x 10! Bofin? 1200-2800 85-160 260-485 900-2200 Glued-laminated timber: dry use Douglas fr E= 18 x 10° Ibjin? 1600-2600 165 375-480 1300 Southern pine E = 18 x 10'lbji 1600-2600 140-200 375-450 700-1500 Glued:-laminsted timber: wet use reduction factors E083 080 088 053 ons uration of loading factors Normal 1.00 Permanent 090 ‘Two months (snow) 115 Wind or earthquake 16 Impact 2.00 ‘Allowable stress values are in in2 (ps,Appendices ox TABLE A.17.3 Ultimate Strength Stresses for Concrete inate Strenath Modulus of Elasticity, 3400-10,000 pi BA x 10 ~ 5.7 x 108 psi ‘Equation: E = VF x $7,000 and f in psi 20-69 MPa or N/mm? 2.1 x 10 — 3.9 x 10° MPaor N/mm? Equation: E = Vf» $738 and ff in MPa ‘Note: psi= S948 KPaAininflated structures (see also ‘Membranes), 445, 450-453 Air-supported structures (see also ‘Membranes), 445-450 Allowable stresses, 89,620 ‘Arches (ee also Funicular structures), 10,27 analysis 202, 224-229 ‘end conditions, 243 lateral behavior, 231-232 masonry, 226 rigid, 240 three-hinged, 233-240 two-hinged, 240, 243, Axial forces, 65, Base isolation, $59 Beam and column systems, 9, 492. Beams, 9, 246-316 bearing stresses, 20,277 bending stresses, 251,255-271,277, 596-597 ox, 266, 562,564, 566 cable-supported, 360-361 centroids, 250,259, 590-592 computer methods of analysis, 609-619 continuous, 249, 347-372 deflections, 81-284, 367-369 Gerber, 367-369 lateral buckling, 270 ‘moment of inertia, 253, 259-262, 592-596 neutral axis 250,259 plastic behavior, 301 ‘post tensioning, 312-316 principal stresses, 284 prestressing, 312-316 on reinforced conerete, 304-312, 604-608 section modulus, 257, 262 shaping, 288-293, 365-367 shear center, 280 shear stresses, 252,272-271, 597-599) steel beams, 299-304, 619 T beams, 267 timber beams, 294-299 torsion, 278 wide flange beams,299, 619 Bearing stresss,22,277 Bending, 20,37 Bonding stresses, 251, 255-271, 277 Blast Load, 120 Bolts 586 Box beams, 266, 562, 564, 566 Bracing of columns, 323-333 Brittle materials, 95 Buckling (see also Columns), 20, 320-321, 325-327 Cable structures, 12, 201-224 cable stayed, 63, 222-204 catenary, 22 double cable system, 221-222 flutter due to wind, 215-216 forces in 61, 206-215 lengths, 215 reactions, 218-209 supporting slements, 218-220 wind effects 215-216 Cable-stayed, 222-224 Cantilever, beams, 60, 67,78, Centroids, 250,259 ‘Columns, 9,3:9-345, 336 Dacing, 332-333 buckling, 20,319-321, 325-327 Index critical buckling load, 325, 608-609 critical buckling stress, 329 cross sections, 327,335, eccentric loads, 323-324 effective lengths, 331 ‘end conditions, 330-332 Euler buckling, 325 long columns, 319,321,325 smidle-third, 324 radius of gyration,329 reinforced concrete, 344-345, short columns, 323-324 slenderness ratio, 329 steel columns, 342-344 timber columns, 341-342 ‘Compression, 21,65 ‘Components of forces, 40-41 Composites, 269 Computer analyses, 285 beams, 609) finite clement, 285 force methods, 610-611 ‘matrix displacement, 611-612 trusses, 610 Connections (see also Support Conditions) bolts, 583, 586-587 fixed ends, 50 pinned joints, 49-50, 583, ‘gid joints, 18, 583, roller joints 49-50 welds 588 ‘Continuous beams,347-373 approximate methods, 352-354 design moments, 362, 364-365, fixed ended, 353,354,359 stifiness effects, 355-358 ‘partial loadings, 363-364INDEX reinforced concrete, 371-372 shaping, 366-367 support settlement, 358-360 Contributory area, 105, 126 Couple, 45, Creep,97 Critical buckling load (see also Buckling), 325, Cylindrical shells, 11,476 Dead loads, 108-110 Deflections, 22, 281-284, 545,600 Diaphragms, 30 Distributed loads, 44 Domes (see also Shell Structures), 11 Ductile materials, 95 Dynamic effects of wind, 114-115, $48 Barthquake forces (see also Seismic design), 115-120 Effective lengths in columns, 331 Elasticity, 91 Elongations,97-98 End conditions (see also Connections), 49, 122-125 Equilibrium (see also Reactions) basic concepts, 24, 36 particle, 45 rigid body, 46 sign conventions, 46 three-foree members, 48 two-foree members, 47 Equilibrium diagrams,25,37 Euler buckling load (see also Columns), 325 Factor of safety, 89 Fatigue, 97 Finite-clement analyses, 617-619 Fixed-ended beams, 60,67, 78,353 Fixed joint, 50 Flat slabs (see also Plates), 422-429 Folded plates, 436-440 Forces, 19 ‘components, 40-41 definition, 38. line of action, 43,56 parallelogram, 38 reactive, 48 resultants,38 vector, 38, Foundations 576-579 Frames, 10, 374-404 approximate methods, 379-384 design moments, 398-399 ‘multistory, 390-391 sfifiness effects, 84-387 shaping, 394-398, 399 sidesway, 387-390 support settlements, 390 Vierendeel frames, 391-394 Free-body diagrams, 25,3748 Free-form, 462, 479-481 Funicular structures (see also Arches, Cables),27,201-203 Geodesic domes, 463 Graphic methods, 39, 1462-153, 210-211,228 Grid shells 481-482 Gtid structures (see also Plete Structures), 405-810 High-rse buildings (see Multstory construction), 544-548 Hooke's law, 91 Hoop forces, 467, 469-470 Horizontal forces (see Lateral forces),529 Horizontal shear stresses, 274 Hyperbolic paraboloids, 477-479 Indeterminate structures (see ‘Continuous beams, Frames), 171-172, 347-397, 378 Kem point, 324 Kern area, 324 LERD, 303 Lamella structures, 564 ‘Laminated timber, 298, 563 Lateral buckling in arches, 231-232 in beams, 270, in trusses, 192-195 Lateral forces Earthquake, $29-559 wind, 549-551 Lenticular structures, 184-187 Line-of-action, 43,56 Live loads, 108-111 ‘Load models, 122-137 Loads ‘combinations, 121-122 dead, 23, 108-110, earthquake, 115-120 live,23, 108-111 wind, 112-115 Masonry arches, 223-226 Matrix displacement, 611-612 63 Membrane stresses, 20, 447,461 ‘Membrane structures, 12, 442-458 Midale-third row, 324 Modulus of elasticity, 91 Moment arm, 43 ‘Moment of inertia, 283, 259-262, 592-596 Moments bending, 20,37 couple, 45 rotational, 37,42 sign convention (rotational, 46 sign convention (bending), 72 uniform loading 4, 78-79 Maltstory construction, 390-391, 544-548 [Natural period of vibration, 557-558 [Net structures, 12,442 ‘Neutral axis, 250,259 (One-way systems, 7,410, 491-494 Overturning, 16, 57°59, $46,553 Parallelogram of forces, 38 Parallel axis theorem, 266, 394-595 Pinned joints 49, 123-125, Plastic behavior in beans, 301 Plate girder, 292, 573, Pate structures, 11,405, 410-419 analysis of plates, 410-417 bay proportions, 417, 421, capitals, 428 design moments, 418 folded plates, 436-440 isostatic lines, 430, one-way systems, 410 reinforced concrete, 422-429 shear, 427-429 thicknesses, 425 span range, 422,427 ‘woeway beam and slab, 426,567 waffle slab, 426-427 Pneumatic structures, 444-453 Points of inflection in columns, 330 inbeams,84 in continuous beams, 349, 350-354 in frames, 379-380 Post and beam structures (see Beam ‘and coluran systems) Post-tensioning, 234, 12-316 Prestressing, 88,312-316 Principal stresses, 284 Poisson's ratio, 93 Proportional limit, 93os Radius of gyration, 329 Reactions, 15, 36, 48,51, 127-139 Reinforced concrete beams, 304-312 ‘columns, 342-345, ‘continuous beams, 371-372 flat plate, 422-429 prestressing and post tensioning, 312-316 reinforcing steel, 309-310 shear stresses,310-312 spain ranges, 309, 425,572 stirups, 305,311 ‘ultimate strength design, 305, 604-608 Wattle slabs, 426 Retaining walls (see Foundations), 516-579 Rigid frames, 374-404 Rigid joints 18, Roller joint, 49-50 Sandwiches, 269 SI. Units, 589 Scalar, 38 Section modulus, 257,262 Seismic design, $49-559 Settlement, 358-360, 390 Shes forees, 21,67 Shear and moment, 20, 66 ‘Shear and moment diagrams, 68-86 ‘ign conventions, 72 typical, 82 relations among load, hear and ‘moment, 85 Shear center, 280 Shear stresses jn beams, 20, 252,272-277 in bolts, 583-586 Shear walls, 17, 330-531, 537 ‘Shell structures, 11, 460-483 ‘buckling, 475| compression rings, 471 cylindrical, 476 free-form, 462, 479-481 rid, 481-482 hoop forces, 467, 469-470 hyperbolic paraboloid, 477-479 ‘membrane stresses, 461 ‘meridional forces, 467-469 tension rings, 471 Short columns, 323, idesway, 387-389 Sign conventions 46,72 for rotatioaal moment calculations, 46 {or shear and moment diagrams, 72 Slab structures (see Plate structures) Slenderness ato, 329 Snow, 111-112 ‘Space frames, 405, 431-436, 494-496 Span lengths 499, 66, 572,577 ‘one-way systems, 66, 572,577 reinforced concrete structures, 425,572 steel struccures, 577 timber structures, 566 two-way siructures, 94 ‘Spherical shells (see also Shell structures), 11,463 Stability, 16, 151-152 Statially indeterminate structures, 50, 171, 347-367, 374-404 Staties,24, 35 Steel, 93-95,299, 342 Strain, 92 Strain rate, $6 ‘Stress, 19,37 allowable, 89 bearing, 20,277 bending, 251, 255-271,277, 596-597 combinations, 88 ‘compression (see also Columns), 86 ‘membrane, 20,447,461 principal,284 shear, 252,272-277, 597-599 tension, 85 torsion, 278 Stress strain diagram (see Modulus of, Elasticity) Stitiness,6 ‘Superposition, 57 ‘Support corditions (see also ‘Connections, 49, 122-125 ‘Temperature effects, 96 “Tension members, 21,65 allowable stresses, 89

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