MattMyers UndergraduateHonorsThesis
MattMyers UndergraduateHonorsThesis
MattMyers UndergraduateHonorsThesis
Dissipators
Thesis
By
May 2012
2012
Abstract
Lithium-Ion batteries are used in a wide variety of devices over a broad range of
powers. All batteries generate heat due to the internal resistance of the battery and
entropic effects which is roughly proportional to amount of power being drawn from the
cells. This heat can cause many problems in the operation of the battery including
shortening the lifetime of the cells, reducing their power output, electrical imbalance
between the cells due to non-uniform heating within a pack, and even the possibility of
fire and explosion in extreme cases. Thermal management of the cells then becomes
an important study. As technology progresses, higher power demands are put onto the
battery packs. In addition, cells are routinely packed together as tightly as possible to
conserve space. This increasing power density demands that heat be shared evenly
between individual cells and ultimately removed from the battery pack. This research
investigates the application of flexible graphite material in managing the heat production
The pack chosen for this study is a 10 cell, 36 volt pack consistent with the type
found in modern hand-held rechargeable power tools. Three packs were designed
including a control and two packs with different heat spreader geometries. The packs
were constructed and instrumented with voltage leads on the individual cells and
charge/discharge cycles. Deviations in the voltages of the cells and the temperatures at
several points within each pack were monitored as the batteries were cycled. When a
ii
predetermined exit condition based on a maximum limit on voltage and temperature
While there was not enough data as of yet to detect a significant slowdown in
voltage imbalance increase, there did appear to be a reduction in the rate of increase in
temperature imbalance by using the graphite heat spreaders that should lead to an
iii
Acknowledgements
There are several people I would like to offer my thanks to for helping me to
complete my research and this thesis. Dr. Yann Guezennec has my heartfelt thanks for
keep on schedule. I am also grateful for the funding and support provided by GrafTech
International, without whose support this research would not have been possible. Dr.
Marcello Canova, Hussam Khasawneh, John Neal and Jim Shively have my sincere
gratitude as well for their time, technical support and advice. I would also like to
acknowledge the support and effort of Dr. Robert Siston who has greatly expanded my
public speaking skill-set. Finally I would like to thank the rest of the staff at the Center
for Automotive Research in making it possible for me to have access to the facilities at
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Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
3.1: GrafTech 16
v
4.2: Problems with Original Pack Design 21
Chapter 5: Results 35
Chapter 6: Conclusion 35
6.1: Contributions 42
6.3 Summary 43
References 44
vi
List of Figures
vii
Figure 23: Top view of pack 3 heat spreaders 27
Figure 38: Maximum cell voltage difference vs. cycle for all packs 40
viii
Chapter 1: Introduction
This thesis focuses on a relatively new method for the cooling and thermal
management of lithium-ion battery packs. A material called flexible graphite, sold under
the trade name Spreadershield™ by GrafTech International, will be installed into several
test packs and the effect on cell performance and endurance investigated.
such as nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium. This performance has led to these
batteries becoming ubiquitous in our everyday lives. Lithium-ion batteries are used in
cell phones, computers, power tools, and have recently made the move into production
automobiles and even some light experimental aircraft. More and more attention is now
being focused on improving the performance and safety of these batteries. One of the
Heat is produced in a battery from both resistive “joule heating” and from entropic
effects. When this heat is not removed, it causes a variety of problems. A thermal
imbalance between cells will cause a resulting charge imbalance, which will limit the
amount of charge that can be drawn from a pack. Overheating cells can also degrade
the cell, shortening its life and power output. In extreme cases, overheating can lead to
physical cell damage which could cause the battery to catch fire or explode.
There are currently several methods being used to try and control the heat output
in lithium ion batteries. These methods include active and passive air cooling, liquid
1
cooling, refrigerant cooling, and the use of heat pipes. All of these solutions share a
common problem however, which is weight. One of the weaknesses of using batteries
as power sources is their relatively low power and energy densities. Any weight added
for cooling systems further reduces this power density. Even using aluminum in these
heat management systems can cause the weight of the battery to rule it out for some
applications. Lighter weight heat management solutions are therefore needed to make
light weight thermal management systems for lithium-ion batteries. Graphite is 30%
lighter than aluminum and has a higher thermal conductivity in the direction of the
crystalline planes[2]. It is also thin and flexible, which can lead to higher power to
volume ratios for the batteries. It is produced in large quantities and is easily applied to
most surfaces. For very high power uses, the flexible graphite could be used in
conjunction with other heat management methods, serving as a way to transport heat
away from the center of a large battery pack to an external heat sink.
Preliminary research has already been done at GrafTech and the Center for
Automotive Research (CAR) here at The Ohio State University with promising results.
Using resistive heaters to simulate batteries, GrafTech has found that flexible graphite
heat spreaders provided a 27% higher heat transfer coefficient than a similar aluminum
The flexible graphite construction also weighed 28% less than the aluminum which
2
The Center for Automotive Research at The Ohio State University performed
computer simulations and ran experiments on two heat spreader configurations and
found that the flexible graphite was effective at decreasing peak cell temperature and
These results were promising, but more research and experimentation needed to
This thesis continues this previous research and aims to determine the efficacy
the endurance and overall lifetime of the pack. The cells used for the evaluation of the
cooling system are the same cells used in the previous CAR study and are typical in
type and number to the cells used in commercial hand-held power tools.
This study begins with the design, construction and instrumentation of two new
battery packs using two different geometric configurations of the flexible graphite
material. A third pack is carried over from the previous CAR experiments and is used
as a non-thermally managed control. The packs are then balanced to ensure a baseline
starting point with minimal cell unbalance. The packs are then cycled by charging and
discharging under a selected current profile. The packs continue to cycle until an exit
condition is reached by one of the packs based on temperature and voltage divergence
between an individual pack’s cells. The final imbalance in all the battery packs is finally
evaluated and a correlation sought between pack aging and thermal management.
3
This thesis will begin with an overview of lithium-ion cells, including their
advantages, disadvantages and need for thermal management. Next, the flexible
Chapter 4 will take a look at the preliminary research conducted both by GrafTech and
also by Center for Automotive Research at The Ohio State University. Then, in chapter
performance and endurance will be fully described. The results of this experiment will
be detailed as well. Finally, chapter six will then provide the conclusions and future
4
Chapter 2: Background Information
research on lithium based batteries started in the mid 1970s at academic institutions
and over the next decade the technology was developed and refined[5]. The first
commercial lithium-ion battery wasn’t released until 1991[5] by Sony and Asahi Kasei (a
Japanese materials science company). Over the next twenty years, the technology was
quickly improved and soon out-performed other battery types such as nickel cadmium
improvement across the board, they soon became the largely dominant rechargeable
battery across industries including personal electronic devices, hand-held power tools,
electric and hybrid vehicles, and even a couple experimental electric aircraft.
electrode separated by a liquid electrolyte which allows the free passage of ions. In a
typical modern lithium-ion battery, the negative terminal, or anode, is made from a
used as lithium metal reacts strongly with water and poses a safety risk.) As the cell
discharges, lithium ions are transferred from the anode to the cathode, and as the cell is
charged the ions migrate back to the cathode. Figure 1 below shows the general
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structure of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell, as well as a schematic showing ion and current
flow.
The advantages of these cells and the reason these batteries have become so
popular is that they possess several distinct advantages over other battery chemistries.
A large part of this is their superior power density and energy density. Power density is
the amount of po1wer that can be delivered by a system divided by that systems mass
(W/Kg in SI units) and energy density is the total amount of energy stored in a system
divided by the systems mass (J/Kg in SI units.) Simply put, given two batteries of
similar size and weight, the lithium-ion battery will hold more charge at higher energy,
and also deliver that energy at a faster rate. Figure 2 below shows the power and
energy density of several different energy storage devices. Note that lithium-ion
1
http://spectrum.ieee.org/images/sep07/images/lithf2.gif
6
batteries are shown at the leading edge of battery technology, but also note that they
still fall short of internal combustion engines. In addition, lithium-ion batteries do not
suffer from a “memory-effect” which is an effect which can cause losses in cell capacity
over time when the pack is not completely discharged before recharging. Lithium-ion
batteries also have a low self-discharge rate compared to other battery chemistries and
will not lose a significant amount of charge when left to sit for a number of weeks.
Figure 2: Power and energy densities for several energy storage solutions2
Lithium-ion batteries are not perfect, however and do suffer from several disadvantages.
2
http://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0378775311001108-gr2.jpg
7
2.3: Battery Overheating Issues
The high power density of lithium-ion batteries turns out to be a bit of a double-
edged sword. Because no energy storage and delivery system is perfectly efficient, any
comes from both the chemical reactions in the cell, and the joule heating caused by the
current flow through the batteries intrinsic internal resistance. Having a high power to
weight ratio then means producing more heat in less mass, which means less material
to store the heat in. All this translates into cells that heat up faster and attain higher
shortened lifetime, charge imbalance between the cells in the battery, decreased power
output, and in extreme cases fire or explosion. Figure 3 below shows the results of
3
http://priuschat.com/forums/attachments/prius-hybrid-ev-alt-fuel-news/10650d1216925442-prius-
a123-battery-fire-report-prius_a123.jpg
8
Thermal management then becomes an important issue when dealing with high power
The ideal operating temperature range for lithium-ion batteries is between 20-
40°C. If the cells are operated outside this range for extended periods of time, the
endurance of the battery pack can be significantly reduced. This can be due to damage
to the individual cells, or by imbalance between the cells in the battery pack.
aging of a battery pack is due to unwanted chemical reactions occurring alongside the
reactions that produce the electric power. These unwanted chemical reactions cause
the capacity of a cell to drop and the internal resistance of a cell to increase. Any
increase in temperature will then accelerate this aging process and reduce the useful
further. Consider two battery packs that both generate an equal amount of heat, with
one pack thermally equalized and the other with a significant temperature gradient. The
pack that is thermally equalized by the use of heat spreaders has the heat distributed
among all the cells in the pack, and therefore thermal aging is shared by all the cells as
9
In the pack with no thermal management, some cells become hotter than others,
meaning that some cells age faster than others. Because the cells in a pack are often
arranged in series to increase the voltage of a certain battery chemistry, the current
through all the cells is the same, so that if one cell reaches a zero SoC before the
Another way to say this is that the battery is only as strong as its weakest cell.
Without thermal management, some cells become hotter than the cells in the equivalent
pack with thermal management, and because the pack is only as strong as its weakest
The capacity is limited largely due to voltage requirements. Lithium Ion packs
will start to severely overheat or become irreversibly discharged if they are drained
much below two volts. If there is a voltage imbalance due to a thermal imbalance, the
most degraded cell will reach the cut-off voltage first and use of the pack must be
unbalanced 3-cell battery pack. As shown below, when cell 3 reaches the cut-off
voltage, its usable capacity is shown on the x axis directly below where the discharge
curve intersects the cut-off voltage. The other two cells still have a usable capacity, but
this capacity is inaccessible as further discharging the battery pack would result in cell 3
10
Figure 6: Typical discharge curve for a three cell battery pack
battery packs. The simplest solution is just a passive air cooling system such as that
used in the Nissan Leaf lithium-ion battery system shown below in figure 7.
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This, however, has raised some eyebrows in the automotive engineering community as
under-engineered, and the CEO of Tesla motors even describes it as “primitive”. Other
more powerful cooling systems include active air cooling with aluminum heat spreaders,
liquid cooling systems, and refrigerant cooling systems. Shown in figure 8 below is the
battery pack from a Tesla Roadster which utilizes an proprietary active liquid cooling
system.
This type of cooling system is much more effective at removing waste heat from the
lithium-ion cells and keeps them running stronger and longer, however these more
The liquid cooled systems come with reliability and maintenance concerns due to
the possibility of leaks and pump failures. All of the actively cooled systems reduce the
available power from the pack slightly due to operation of pumps and fans. And even
the passively cooled aluminum heat spreader solutions share the major problem
common to all of these cooling solutions. That problem is weight. Referring back to
4
http://www.teslamotors.com/roadster/technology/battery
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figure 2, while lithium-ion batteries are at the forefront of secondary battery technology,
they are far behind the kinds of power and energy densities that internal combustion
engines are capable of. Any extra weight added to the battery system drops their power
and energy densities even lower and makes it more difficult for them to compete with
other technologies. It is important, then, to find a cooling solution that is not only
figure 9 below, and shares with it the anisotropic thermal properties of that material.
Due to the tight lattice structure within the horizontal planes shown, phonons (discrete
quanta of vibration) travel readily and efficiently which leads to a high thermal
conductivity in this direction. In addition, the conjugated p-orbitals in these planes lead
to high electrical conductivity along the same planes which would lead to a high
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electrical component of thermal conductivity, although this effect is probably
anywhere from 300-1500 W/mK, with a crossplane conduction of 6-16 W/mK. The
material has a density of between 1.3-2.2 g/cm3 and can be produced in sheets
The material is also very flexible and can be bent around small radii and bent
around corners. It is able to be produced in large quantities and can be die-cut into any
planar shape, and can also be manufactured with a pre-applied adhesive backing.
Figure 14 shows meter-wide rolls of the stock material, as well as some smaller cut-
outs.
These characteristics of the flexible graphite make it an ideal solution for thermal
conductivity. It is around 30% less dense than aluminum, has at least a 20% higher
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thermal conductivity (in-plane). It’s flexibility allows it to be easily threaded in between
the cells of a battery pack without any special tooling needed for shaping, and the
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Chapter 3: Previous Research
3.1: GrafTech
their flexible graphite material in removing heat from flat prismatic cells compared to
heat spreaders made from aluminum. The experiment consisted of several simulated
batteries constructed from 1/8 inch thick aluminum plates approximately 8x6 inches in
dimension. To these plates were affixed 2 80W Kapton Heaters measuring 2x8 inches.
A water cooling pipe was wrapped around 3 edges of the cells. One cell was fitted with
aluminum heat spreaders on the faces of the cells to conduct heat from the large
surface to the cooling pipe on the periphery, and the other was fitted with graphite heat
A control with no heat spreaders and only a peripheral cooling pipe was also tested.
Thermocouples were affixed to monitor the simulated cells, and a thermal imaging
At the start of the test, the heaters were powered at 21W. Four hundred seconds
after the heaters were activated, water at 15°C was pumped through the peripheral
cooling pipe. Data was then taken every 10 seconds for a period of thirty minutes. The
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Figure 12: Results of GrafTech simulated battery cooling experiment[2]
The graphs and pictures clearly show that the graphite heat spreaders
GrafTech states that the graphite solution reaches the target temperature 80% faster
than the aluminum solution. In addition the graphite provided a 27% higher heat
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transfer coefficient, decreased temperature gradients by 25% under steady-state
conditions and 48% under transient conditions. Clearly the graphite material showed
promise in removing heat from the simulated battery packs when used in conjunction
with a liquid cooling system. More study was needed, however, to see if this
performance would be seen using actual battery packs with passive cooling systems.
direction of Dr.s Marcello Canova and Yann Guezennec. This work entailed studying
lithium-ion cells. Three packs were constructed with the cells configured in two rows of
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This configuration is often used in modern-day commercial hand-held power tools.
Three different variations of this design were constructed: a control pack with no
cooling, one with the graphite heat spreaders, and one with the graphite heat spreaders
and an aluminum heat sink. Each of these pack designs were also simulated using
COMSOL Multiphysics® FEM software. Both the simulated and experimental cells
were subjected to a several duty cycles comprised of a current vs. time profile
consistent with hand-held power tool use. The resulting temperatures and temperature
gradients were compared between the different pack configurations, and between the
temperatures at several points in the battery pack vs. time between the experimental
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Figure 16 below shows thermographs for the simulated and experimental packs (using
an infrared camera). Please note that the temperature scale for the experimental
thermograph is an estimate.
The study served both to validate the COMSOL thermal FEA simulation and to
to lithium-ion battery thermal management. Further work was suggested at the time to
evaluate the effect of this thermal management on actual battery performance and
endurance.
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Chapter 4: Methods and Procedure
decided to evaluate the actual performance and endurance benefits that might be
gained using flexible graphite heat spreaders as a thermal management solution for
lithium-ion battery packs. To this end, an experiment was designed in which three
battery packs would be cycled repeatedly while the voltage and temperature balance
within the packs was tracked. If the flexible graphite was effective in promoting cell
balance and endurance, then as the packs age, the voltage and temperature imbalance
increase in the control battery pack should gradually outpace the unbalance in the
The battery pack design from the previous CAR experiments was retained,
having ten A123-ANR26650 cells wired in series in a two by five configuration. These
cells are lithium-ion phosphate based with a 3.3V nominal cell voltage with a capacity of
2300 mAh. Figure 17 below shows the cell and extended specifications.
5
http://www.a123systems.com/collateral/Images/English-US/26650.jpg
21
The graphite material is GrafTech’s Spreadershield™ SS-400 flexible graphite with a
range of in-plane thermal conductivity of 360-420 W/mK. Three battery packs were to
be tested including a control with no thermal management, and two packs with separate
heat spreader configurations. During pack construction, however, a problem arose with
A significant problem was discovered with the original battery packs. The flexible
graphite heat spreaders were detaching from the cells and from the heat sink. Figure
18 below shows the graphite material peeling away from the pack surfaces.
Three possible causes exist for this failure. The graphite material supplied by
GrafTech was a slightly thicker stock than some of the original material, and may have
exerted a greater force on the adhesive bonds where the curved profiles tried to
straighten back out flat. Even the original graphite material was beginning to peel
however. This may be have been due to either dirty cell and heat sink surfaces, or to
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Whatever the reason, the failing adhesive caused the graphite material to come
away from the cells and the heat sink, lessening the available surface area through
which to conduct heat away from the cells. A solution was needed to keep the graphite
in close contact with the cells and make sure the contact remained tight throughout the
testing process. To achieve this goal, a new battery pack case was designed and
constructed.
The new design implemented a solid piece of gray PVC plastic that was
machined to closely fit the contour of the cells in their pack configuration. Figure 19
below shows the CAD model of the proposed pack design with the cells and graphite
installed.
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The heat sink is not shown in the model, but will bolt onto the end where the exposed
cells are seen. The pack compresses the cells and graphite together and will hold the
graphite material in close contact with the cells and the heat sink, even if the adhesive
begins to weaken. Figure 20 below shows the components of the pack laid out prior to
assembly.
Because the old packs were completely disassembled, (excepting the control pack
which does not have any thermal management) the opportunity was taken to redesign
the geometries of the heat spreader material. Figure 21 below shows the routing paths
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Figure 21: Routing of graphite material
In this diagram the red and green contours show the paths of the flexible graphite for
As can be seen, the heat spreading system of pack two consists of two pieces of
the flexible graphite material. One piece snakes back and forth between the top row of
cells, and the other snakes between the bottom row of cells. While going between the
cells, both pieces of graphite are the same width as the height of the cells. Where the
strips come up to fold over and make contact with the heat sink, they are split to half
their width so that the strips for the top and bottom cells can share equal contact area
with the heat sink. Figure 22 shows a top view of pack 2 as it’s being assembled, just
prior to the heat sink being bolted down. The brown backing of the graphite material
seen in the photo was then peeled and the strips laid down flat across the tops of the
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Figure 22: Top view of pack 2 prior to heat sink addition
The heat sink compressed the entire assembly as it is tighten on with the bolts assuring
The heat spreading system of pack three consists of ten different pieces of the
flexible graphite material. Referring back to figure 21, five strips form horseshoe loops
around the bottom cells, and five strips similarly wrap around the top cells. The strips
are the full width of the battery height as in pack two until they come up to meet the heat
sink. They are then trimmed down to half this width and bent over in a staggered
pattern so that each set of strips shares an equal area of the heat sink. A view of pack
three just prior to heat sink installation is shown below in figure 23.
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Figure 23: Top view of pack 3 heat spreaders
For instrumenting the battery packs, both were fitted with 7 thermocouples at
different locations in the packs. The locations are shown below in figure 24.
In addition, voltage leads were then attached to each individual cell so that the voltages
of each cell could be monitored, both for experimental data and for safety sake when
27
A completed cell is shown below in figure 28 fully instrumented and connected to the
testing apparatus.
The testing apparatus consisted of two primary components. The first was a
battery tester whose function it was to run a program which would subject the battery
packs to a specified current profile during both charging and discharging. The tester
also tracked current and total pack voltages during cycling. The second component
was a data acquisition setup whose function was to collect more precise data on the
battery packs. It tracked ten voltages (one for each cell) and 7 thermocouple data
streams for each battery pack, for a total of 51 total channels of data. The data
acquisition setup also recorded this data for later analysis and also alerted the operator
The battery tester used was a Maccor battery tester. This tester is capable of
testing eight battery packs simultaneously and independently, although for this
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experiment only three of the channels were needed. Figure 26 below shows the
be written to deliver a specific current profile to the battery pack. The Maccor is also
capable of altering or terminating the program based on the total battery pack voltage.
Figure 27 below shows the GUI of the Maccor Tester monitoring the current flow in each
pack.
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Figure 27: User interface for Maccor tester
acquisition system collected all 51 data streams from the battery pack instrumentation.
The data was displayed and recorded as lvm files for later analysis and processing.
The data acquisition system was also capable of communicating to the Maccor system
by means of a controller area network (CAN) bus. This allowed the battery cycling
voltage signal from any one of the monitored 51 channels. Figure 28 shows the
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Figure 28: User interface for the data acquisition system
The data acquisition system and the battery tester system ran essentially
independently. The Maccor PC gave instructions to the Maccor tester to dictate current
flow conditions. The Maccor ran this current through the pack to either charge or
discharge the pack, and also read the overall pack voltage and current. This data was
relayed back to the Maccor PC, where it was displayed on the monitor, logged, and also
fed to the current program algorithm. The data acquisition board took the signals from
the thermocouples and cell voltage sense leads and fed them to the data acquisition
PC, where the data was displayed and logged. The only communication between the
data acquisition system and the battery tester was over the CAN bus, where the data
acquisition PC could send error flags to the Maccor in case any one cell or
thermocouple went outside allowable limits. A summary of the overall data flow is
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Figure 29: Overall system data flow
All three battery packs were cycled simultaneously by this system. Figure 30
below shows a picture of the entire experiment. The DAQ computer is on the left, the
Maccor computer is on the right. The packs are located behind the Maccor towers.
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4.5: Testing Parameters
The parameters of the test were modeled after simulated use of a hand-held
power tool. The cells were subjected first to a light current discharge profile for a
number of cycles until the system was determined to be functioning properly. After this,
a more abusive charge cycle was used, which drained the batteries at a much higher
current. This would not only reduce the time needed for one complete cycle, but would
also age the packs faster resulting in a fewer number of cycles needed before results
were seen.
The light current discharge profile consisted of a 6.5 amp discharge (3C rate) for
75 seconds (1.25 minutes) followed by a 4.5 amp discharge (2C rate) for 1425 seconds
(23.75 minutes). A plot of the current If the pack voltage dropped below 20 volts, or if
any individual cell dropped below 2 volts, the discharge was stopped and the pack was
allowed to rest for two minutes before a one C constant current charge (2.3A) until the
pack reached 37 volts or any individual cell reached 3.7 volts. This was followed by
another two minute rest. If the exit conditions for pack imbalance were not met, the
cycle was repeated. A flow chart of the charge/discharge cycle is shown below in figure
31.
6
Courtesy of John Neal
33
The medium discharge cycle followed the same structure as the light discharge
The exit conditions were based off the imbalance inside each of the battery
packs. As the battery packs became more and more imbalanced, the deviations in the
voltages and the thermocouple signals increased. Four metrics were looked at to
determine the extent of this deviation. The first two were the standard deviation of the
cell voltages and thermocouples. The second two were the difference between the
maximum and minimum voltage and thermocouple signals respectively. The choice for
exit condition values for these parameters will be determined after initial observations of
34
Chapter 5: Results
Although the experiment is still in the earlier testing stages, some preliminary
data has been obtained. Some sample results are shown below. Again the key metrics
are cell voltage standard deviation and maximum difference, and thermocouple
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Volts
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Time [s]
The tall peaks around 9000 and 14000 seconds represent the end of a discharge cycle,
where the cells are nearly drained and the cell voltages are very sensitive to changes in
charge. In order to get a fair measurement of charge imbalance, the cell imbalance for
7
Courtesy of John Neal
35
a given cycle is averaged over the entire cycle. In the plot above, this is around forty
millivolts.
Figure 33 below shows the standard deviation of the cell voltages for the same
0.3
0.25
0.2
Deviation
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Time [s]
As can be seen, the contours of the two plots appears very similar, as is expected as
both standard deviation and maximum cell difference both are a measure of disparity in
the cell voltages. Again, the peaks occur at the end of the discharge cycle, and the
unbalance for a cycle is read just prior to the start of the discharge cycle. In this case
around 20 millivolts.
8
Courtesy of John Neal
36
Figure 34 below shows a plot of the maximum thermocouple distance as a
function of time for the same cycles as the above voltage plots.
4.5
3.5
3
Temp
2.5
1.5
0.5
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Time [s]
Although the thermocouple plot does not resemble the voltage plots, the trends are still
the same in that the temperature differences between the thermocouple locations
increase as the packs near the end of discharge. Because temperature ages cells
throughout the cycling of the pack, the temperature imbalance is read as the average
temperature difference throughout the entire cycle. For the second cycle above, this
9
Courtesy of John Neal
37
Figure 35 below shows a plot of the thermocouple standard deviation, again for
1.4
1.2
1
Deviation
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Time [s]
As with the voltage plots, the maximum thermocouple difference and thermocouple
standard deviation plots are very similar. The thermocouple standard deviation is read
in the same way as the maximum thermocouple difference in that the average is taken
over the entire cycle. In this case, the value is around 0.8°C.
the cycle number, the aging of the battery can be visualized. As of the completion of
this paper, a series of seven cycles have been completed. The raw data of the voltage
and temperature traces for pack one are shown below in figures 36 and 37.
10
Courtesy of John Neal
38
Figure 36: Pack 1 voltage traces for preliminary 7 cycles
39
From this raw data, the averages of the maximum voltage and temperature
difference were computed for each cycle. The results for the voltage imbalance in all
Figure 38: Maximum cell voltage difference vs. cycle for all three packs
Unfortunately, not enough cycles have been run yet for a trend to emerge from
this data. Pack one maximum voltage imbalance only increase by 0.6 mV over the 7
cycles, where pack two increases by 2mV, and pack three by 0.2 mV. This fluctuation
is presumed to be in the noise of the experiment. Hopefully, after many more hundreds
of cycles are run, the data will show the curve for pack one increasing at a greater rate
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A plot of the temperature imbalance in the cells for all three packs is shown
This data is slightly more promising. The data shows that the temperature imbalance in
pack one is higher than packs two and three right from the beginning. Additionally,
even over seven cycles, there appears to be a much greater rate of increase in
imbalance per cycle in pack one than in packs two and three. Pack one’s imbalance
increases by around 0.40°C over the seven cycles, pack three shows an increase of
only 0.15°C, and pack two actually shows a decrease in imbalance of 0.12°C. Because
imbalance should lead to the voltage imbalance expected as more cycles are run.
While it is far too early in the experiment to call this a positive result, it certainly is
41
Chapter 6: Conclusion
6.1: Contributions:
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the efficacy of a flexible graphite
ion battery packs. My research accomplished this by constructing several battery packs
and then cycling them while tracking data regarding cell imbalance and performance
over the life of the packs. The data shows not only that the flexible graphite can reduce
the temperature imbalance in the packs, but it appears to show that the increase in this
imbalance as the packs are cycled is slowed when the flexible graphite is used. While
there is yet not enough data to show the graphite’s effect on voltage imbalance
reduction, the temperature imbalance improvement gives strong reason to believe that
this effect will be seen as the experiment progresses and more cycles are completed.
There is still much work that needs to be done. In addition to completing the mild
cycle experiment until exit conditions are met, there are other avenues of performance
that might be explored. Cell capacity as a function of cycle number might be calculated
is a direct measure of how long the battery can last in a given application.
Other areas that might be explored include testing the flexible graphite material in
prismatic battery packs. These packs are made of cells consisting of thin, flat foil
pouches whose geometry would permit ease of pack construction as well as nearly
100% cell surface coverage of the flexible graphite heat spreaders. The cooling effect
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would presumably be more pronounced so results should be seen sooner than the
current experiment using cylindrical cells. In addition, these cells are becoming more of
6.3: Summary
endurance and performance. Three battery packs were constructed, two of which
incorporated flexible graphite heat spreaders and one control pack was made without
them. The cells were charged and discharged over several cycles, and the average
there was not enough data as yet to detect a significant slowdown in voltage imbalance
imbalance by using the graphite heat spreaders that should lead to an improvement in
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References
2.) J. Taylor, R. Wayne, M. Smalc, J. Norley, “ Active Thermal Management of Lithium Ion Batteries Using
Flexible Graphite Heat Spreaders”, GrafTech Presentation, 2011
5.)M. Wakihara, O.Yamamoto, “Lithium Ion Batteries Fundamentals and Performance”, Wiley-VCH, 1998
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