TLED 203

Statistics in Education

Gemma F. Agustin EdD KIMBERLY O. CATALAN REGINE ACLARACION PATRILESA ARTUS

COURSE FACILITATOR DISCUSSANTS
LEARNING TARGETS:
Recap:
Unlocking words:

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Data Collection
What is Data Collection?
 Data collection is the process of gathering and
measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic manner that enables
one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
Data collection is a systematic process of gathering
observations or measurements. Whether you are
performing research for business, governmental or
academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain
first-hand knowledge and original insights into
your research problem.
What is Data?

The word data is from the Latin word , which means

something given. The numerical figures collected through a survey
are called data and can be represented in two forms - tabular form
and visual form through graphs. Once the data is collected through
constant observations, it is arranged, summarized, and classified to
finally represented in the form of a graph. There are two kinds of data
- quantitative and qualitative. is more structured,
continuous, and discrete with statistical data whereas
is unstructured where the data cannot be analyzed.
Types of Data
 Qualitative Data
 Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually
descriptive or nominal in nature.
 Qualitative data collection methods play an important
role in impact evaluation by providing information useful
to understand the processes behind observed results and
assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-
being.
Methods use:
 In-depth interviews
 group discussions
 Documents
 focus groups, etc.
 Qualitative Data

 Qualitative data collection refers to non-numerical research

that gathers information on concepts, thoughts or experiences.
Typically, qualitative results are useful for experience-based
topics, Qualitative research is common in humanities research
and may use more personal methods of data collection.

 Qualitative data is expressed in words and

analyzed through interpretations and
categorizations.
Qualitative Data
 Quantitative Data
 Quantitative data is collected based on scales
such as nominal, interval, ratio, and ordinal.
Resultantly, this data is usually more accurate,
reliable, and credible.
Methods use:
 surveys and questionnaires,
 observations,
 structured interviews,
 experiments, etc.
 Quantitative Data
Quantitative data Quantitative data
collection is the can be useful for Quantitative
opposite of measuring research is typically
qualitative and demographics for common in financial
instead collects marketing or or scientific areas of
numerical or comparing key study. Some
statistical statistics in board examples of
information. For reports. quantitative data
example, your results Quantitative data is collection and
might be a number expressed in numbers and research include
of something, a graphs and is analyzed observations and
percentage or an through statistical surveys.
amount of time. methods.
Quantitative Data
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH RESEARCH

INTERVIEWS 01 01 SURVEY

SECONDARY
FOCUS GROUP 02 02
DATA
QUALITATIVE
ETHNOGRAPHY 03 VS OBSERVATIONAL
03
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH
CASE STUDIES 04 04 EXPERIMENT

LITERATURE CONTENT
05 05
REVIEW ANALYSIS
classification of Data
Primary data -collection
happens when researchers
obtain information directly
from the original sources.
For example, if you were
researching to find the best
material for your product, you may
interview experts to gather primary
research data to help inform the
development of your product.
 classification of Data
Secondary data collection refers to information gathered from
previous research. The previous research might come from
researchers who originally conducted the studies for another project
and then made their findings public, or organizations who have
published the research for awareness, like government organizations
or nonprofits. This data is usually already analyzed and put
into context. Sources of secondary data can
include:
 Books
 Scholarly journals and papers
 Newspapers
 Websites
 Podcasts
classification of Data
 METHODS OF SECONDARY COLLECTION

: There are varieties of published printed sources.

Their credibility depends on many factors.
Books are available today on any topic that you want to
research. The use of books start before even you have selected the
topic.
J Journals provide up-to-
date information which at times books
cannot and secondly, journals can give information on the very
specific topic on which you are researching rather talking about
more general topics.
 METHODS OF SECONDARY COLLECTION

Magazines are also effective but not very

reliable. Newspapers on the other hand are more reliable
and in some cases the information can only be obtained
from newspapers as in the case of some political studies.
As internet is becoming more advance,
fast and reachable to the masses; it has been seen that
much information that is not available in printed form is
available on internet.
 METHODS OF SECONDARY COLLECTION

e-journals are more commonly available than

printed journals. Latest journals are difficult to retrieve
without subscription but if your university has an e-library you
can view any journal, print it and those that are not
available you can make an order for them.

Generally websites do not contain very

reliable information so their content should be checked for
the reliability before quoting from them.
 METHODS OF SECONDARY COLLECTION

Some unpublished data may also be useful in

some cases. Diaries: Diaries are personal records and are rarely
available but if you are conducting a descriptive research then they
might be very useful.
Government records are very important for
marketing, management, humanities and social science research.
Health records; Educational institutes’
records etc.
NGOs’ survey data; Other private companies
records.
 Primary data vs. Secondary data
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
•Data that has been collected •Data collected from a source
that has already been published
from first-hand-experience is
in any form is called as
known as primary data. secondary data.
• Primary data has not been •The review of literature in any
published yet and is more research is based on secondary
reliable, authentic and data. It is collected by someone
objective. else for some other purpose (but
being utilized by the investigator
•Primary data has not been
for another purpose).
changed or altered by human
beings; therefore its validity is
greater than secondary data.
 Primary data vs. Secondary data
PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA

Example: Example:
Documents Unpublished thesis
Creative Works and dissertations
Interviews Manuscript
Man-Made Materials Books
Survey Journals
 Primary data vs. Secondary data
Primary data Secondary data

real time data past data

Help to give results/findings refining the problem

costly and time consuming cheap and no time

process consuming process

more flexible less flexible

 classification of Data

 Statistical method  Financial Report

 Surveys  Sales Report
 Polls vs  Government Reports

 Interview  Mission
 Delphi Technique  Vision Report
 Focus Group  Internet
classification of Data
Data Collection Methods
 Data Collection Method
The main methods
include :
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Focus Group
 Discussions
 Observation
 Survey
 Data Collection Method
1. QUESTIONAIRE METHOD
• A questionnaire is a research
instrument consisting of a
series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of
gathering information from
respondents.
• A distinction is made
between open-ended and
closed-ended questions.
 QUESTIONAIRE METHOD

Question Sequence:
The order is as follows :
 Screens - are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not
someone should complete the questionnaire.
 Warm-ups - are simple to answer, help capture interest in the survey, and
may not even pertain to research objectives.
 Transitions - are used to make different areas flow well together
 Skips - include questions similar to ‘If yes, then answer question 3. If no, then
continue to question 5’.
 Difficult -are towards the end because the respondent is in ‘response
mode’
 Changing Formula
 QUESTIONAIRE METHOD
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction:
• Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by
members of different subpopulations of the population of
interest.
• Use statements where persons that have different opinions or
traits will give different answers.
• Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of
possible answers.
• Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per
item.
• Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double
negatives.
 QUESTIONAIRE METHOD
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction:
• Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
• Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily
understandable for all educational levels.
• Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
• Avoid items that contain more than one question per
item (e.g. Do you like strawberries and potatoes?).
• Question should not be biased or even leading the
participant towards an answer.
 QUESTIONAIRE METHOD
Advantages of Questionnaires:
• Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of
people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
• Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with
limited affect to its validity and reliability.
• The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily
quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software
package.
• Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of
research.
• When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast
other research and may be used to measure change.
• Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new
theories and / or test existing hypotheses.
 QUESTIONAIRE METHOD
Disadvantages of Questionnaires:
• To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes
of emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
• Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial
creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of
information without explanation.
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
• There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of
the situation.
• People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based
on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to someone
may be ‘poor’ to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity
that is not acknowledged.
 Data Collection Method
2. INTERVIEWS METHOD
• Interviewing involves asking
questions and getting answers from
participants in a study.
Interviewing has a variety of forms
including: individual, face-to-face
interviews and face-to-face
group interviewing.

• The asking and answering of

questions can be mediated by the
telephone or other electronic
devices (e.g. computers).
INTERVIEWS METHOD Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews

The followings describe the preparation need to do for an interview

• Preparation study and then the process of conducting the interview itself.

Role of the Interviewer: Training the Interviewers:

• Locate and enlist • Describe the entire study
cooperation of respondents:
• State who is sponsor of
• Motivate respondents to d
o good job research:
• Clarify any confusion/conc • Teach enough about surv
erns: ey research:
• Observe quality of • Explain the sampling
responses: logic and process:
• Conduct a good interview: • Explain interviewer bias:
INTERVIEWS METHOD Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews

The followings describe the preparation need to do for an interview

• Preparation study and then the process of conducting the interview itself.

‘Walk through’ the Interviewer’s Kit:

Interview: • a ‘professional-looking’ notebook (this
might even have the logo of the company
• Reading maps
or organization conducting the interviews);
• Identifying • maps;
• households • sufficient copies of the survey instrument;
• Identify respondents • official identification (preferable a picture ID);
• Rehearse interview • a cover letter from the Principal Investigator or
• Explain supervision Sponsor; and
• a phone number the respondent can call to
• Explain scheduling
verify the interviewer’s authenticity.
INTERVIEWS METHOD Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews

• process

 0pening Remarks  ask questions exactly as

 Gaining entry written
 Introduction  Elaboration.
 Explaining the study  Ask for clarification
 Record responses
 Asking the Questions immediately
 Use questionnaire  Include all probes
carefully, but informally  Use abbreviations where
 Follow the order given possible
 Concluding the Interview
INTERVIEWS METHOD Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews

Advantage of interviewing Disadvantages of Interviewing

•Interviewing participants can paint •First, there can be complications
a picture of what happened in a with the planning of the
specific event, tell us their
interview.
perspective of such event, as well
as give other social cues, such as •Second, coding can be
voice, intonation, body language extremely time consuming.
etc.
•Researchers can tailor the
questions they ask to the
respondent in order to get rich, full
stories and the information they
need for their project.
 Data Collection Method
3. FOCUS GROUP A focus group discussion (FGD) is
an in-depth field method that
DISCUSSION (FGD) brings together a small
homogeneous group (usually 6 to
12 persons) to discuss topics on a
study agenda. The purpose of this
discussion is to use the social
dynamics of the group, with the
help of a moderator/ facilitator,
to stimulate participants to reveal
underlying opinions, attitudes,
and reasons for their behavior.
 3. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
The design of focus group research will vary based on the research
question being studied. Below, highlight some general principles to
consider:
Standardization of questions - focus groups can vary in the
extent to which they follow a structured protocol or permit
discussion to emerge
Number of focus groups conducted - or sampling will
depend on the ‘segmentation’ or different stratifications
(e.g. age, sex, socioeconomic status, health status) that the
researcher identifies as important to the research topic.
 3. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
Conducting FGD
The following guideline may be provided for conducting FGD:

Preparation
Selection of topic: It is appropriate to define and clarify the
concepts to be discussed.
Selecting the study participants: Given a clear idea of the issues to
be discussed, the next critical step in designing a focus group study
is to decide on the characteristics of the individuals who are to be
targeted for sessions.
Physical arrangements: Communication and interaction during the
FGD should be encouraged in every way possible. Arrange the
chairs in a circle.
 3. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
Conducting the Session
One of the members of the research team should act as a
‘facilitator’ or ‘moderator’ for the focus group. One should serve as
‘recorder’.

 Functions of the Facilitator: The facilitator should not act as an

expert on the topic. His/her role is to stimulate and support
discussion.
 Introduce the session
 Encourage discussion
 Encourage involvement
 Avoid being placed in the role of expert
 Control the timing of the meeting but unobtrusively
 3. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as
they –
•Are useful when exploring cultural values and health
beliefs;
•Can be used to examine how and why people think in a
particular way and how is influences their beliefs and
values;
•Can be used to explore complex issues;
•Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;
•Do not require participants to be literate.
 3. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
Disadvantages of focus groups include –
• Lack of privacy/anonymity;
• Having to carefully balance the group to ensure they are culturally and
gender appropriate (i.e. gender may be an issue);
• Potential for the risk of ‘group think’ (not allowing for other attitudes, beliefs
etc.);
• Potential for group to be dominated by one or two people;
• Group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups, dealing with
conflict, drawing out passive participants and creating a relaxed,
welcoming environment;
• Are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time consuming
to analyze
 Data Collection Method
4. SURVEY METHOD
Survey research is often used to
assess thoughts, opinions, and
feelings. It can be specific
and limited, or it can have
more global, widespread
goals.
A survey consists of a
predetermined set of
questions that is given to a
sample.
 4. SURVEY METHOD
Key steps in the survey process include:
•Planning and Designing • Testing and Modifying
• Define the purpose, objectives • Pilot test all aspects of the
and the output required.
• Design collection methodology
survey if possible.
and sample selection method. • Analyse test results
• Develop survey (completed questionnaires,
procedures. Design and print test response/consent rate, etc).
questionnaires and any other • Modify procedures,
documentation (for example, questionnaires and
instructions for interviewers and
introductory letters).
documentation according to
test evaluation.
 DATA COLLECTION METHOD IN SURVEY
Commonly used methods for collecting quantitative
data include telephone and face-to-face interviews, self-
completion questionnaires (such as mail, email, web-
based or SMS) or combinations of these.
Self-completion Surveys via mail, email, the internet or SMS are
generally the least expensive, particularly for a widespread
sample.
Interviewer-based Surveys such as face-to-face or telephone
surveys generally allow more data to be gathered than self-
completion surveys and can include the use of more complex
questionnaires.
 DATA COLLECTION METHOD IN SURVEY
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) is
a particular type of telephone survey
technique that helps to resolve some of the
limitations of general telephone-based surveying.
Combinations of Collection Methods such as interviewers
dropping off a questionnaire to be mailed back or
returning to pick it up, a mail survey with telephone
follow-up, or an initial telephone call to obtain
cooperation or name of a suitable respondent followed
by a mail survey
 Data Collection Method
5. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
Observation is a fundamental way
of finding out about the world
around us.

Observation is a systematic data

collection approach.
Researchers use
all of their senses to examine
people in natural settings or
naturally occurring situations.
 5. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
Use of Observational Method
 There are a variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of
these reasons include:
When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on
answering a how- or what-type question.
 When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the
behavior of people in a particular setting.
 When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is
valuable.
 When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting.
 When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be different
from actual behavior (what people actually do).
 When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may
be used in conjunction with other quantitative data collection techniques.
 5. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
Classification of observational method

Casual and Scientific Observation: An observation with a casual

approach involves observing the right thing at the right place and also at
the right time by a matter of chance or by luck whereas a scientific
observation involves the use of the tools of the measurement.

Subjective and Objective Observation: Subjective observation involves the

observation of the one’s own immediate experience whereas
the observations involving observer as
an entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the o
bjective observation
 5. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
Classification of observational method

Natural Observation: Natural observation involves observing the

behaviour in a normal setting and in this type of observation

Structured and Unstructured Observation: Structured

observation works according to a plan and involves specific
information of the units that are to be observed and also
about the information that is to be recorded. But in the case of
the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically agains
t the structured observation.
 5. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
classification of observational method
Direct and Indirect Observation: With the help of the direct method of
observation, one comes to know how the observer is physically present in
which type of situation is he present and then this type of observation monitors
what takes place. Indirect method of observation involves studies of
mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means like
photographic or electronic.
Participant and Non Participant Observation: In participant observation, the
degree of the participation is largely affected by the nature of the study and
it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its demands. But in the
non-participant type of
observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the group
takes place and also there occurs no relationship between the researcher
and the group.
 5. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
classification of observational method

Structured and Unstructured Observation: Structured

observation works according to a plan and involves
specific information of the units that are to be observed
and also about the information that is to be recorded. But
in the case of
the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically
against the structured observation.
 5. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD
Advantages and disadvantages
Disadvantages
Advantages •There is a measure of unreliability.
•Much of the interaction is missed.
•It is relatively free of •It usually ignores the temporal and
observer bias. spatial context in which the data is
•Reliability can be collected.
•It is not good for generating fresh
strong. insights.
•Generalizability. •The pre-specification of categories
•It is precise. predetermines what is to be discovered
and allows only partial description.
•It provides a structure •It ignores process, flux, development,
for the research and change
 Data Collection Method
Method When to use When to collect data
Experiment To test a causal Manipulate variables and
relationship. measure their effects on
others.
Survey To understand the Distribute a list of questions
general characteristics or to a sample online, in
opinions of a group of person or over-the-phone.
people.
Interview/ To gain an in-depth Verbally ask participants
focus group understanding of open-ended questions in
perceptions or opinions individual interviews or
on a topic. focus group discussions.
 Data Collection Method
Method When to use When to collect data
Observation To understand Measure or survey a sample
something in its natural without trying to affect
setting them
Ethnography To study the culture of a Join and participate in a
community or community and record
organization first-hand. your observations and
reflections.
Archival To understand current Access manuscripts,
research or historical events, documents or records from
conditions or practices. libraries, depositories or the
internet.
 Data Collection Method
Method When to use When to collect data

Secondary To analyze data from Find existing datasets

data populations that you that have already been
collection can’t access first- collected, from sources
hand. such as government
agencies or research
organizations.
Levels of measurements
 Levels of measurement
Levels of measurement, also called scales of measurement,
tell you how precisely variables are recorded. In scientific
research, a variable is anything that can take on different
values across your data set (e.g., height or test scores).
There are 4 levels of measurement:
Nominal: the data can only be categorized
Ordinal: the data can be categorized and ranked
Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly
spaced
Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced,
and has a natural zero.
 Levels of measurement
Depending on the level of
measurement of the
variable, what you can do
to analyze your data may
be limited. There is a
hierarchy in the complexity
and precision of the level of
measurement,
 Levels of measurement

Nominal level Examples of

nominal scales
You can categorize your •City of birth
data by labelling them in •Gender
mutually exclusive groups, •Ethnicity
but there is no order •Car brands
between the categories. •Marital status
 Levels of measurement

Ordinal level Examples of ordinal

scales
You can categorize and rank your data •Top 5 Olympic
in an order, but you cannot say anything medallists
about the intervals between the •Language ability
rankings. (e.g., beginner,
Although you can rank the top 5 intermediate, fluent)
Olympic medallists, this scale does not •Likert-type
tell you how close or far apart they are in questions (e.g., very
number of wins. dissatisfied to very
satisfied)
 Levels of measurement
Examples of interval
Interval level scales
You can categorize, rank, •Test scores (e.g., IQ or
exams)
and infer equal •Personality inventories
intervals between neighboring •Temperature in
Fahrenheit or Celsius
data points, but there is no true
zero point.
 Infer means to draw a conclusion or guess at
something based on some sort of (typically indirect)
evidence.
 Levels of measurement
Examples of ratio scales
Ratio level
You can categorize, rank, and infer equal •Height
intervals between neighboring data points, and •Age
there is a true zero point. •Weight
•Temperature in Kelvin

A true zero means there is an absence of the

variable of interest. In ratio scales, zero does
mean an absolute lack of the variable.
For example, in the Kelvin temperature scale,
there are no negative degrees of temperature –
zero means an absolute lack of thermal energy.
Levels of measurement
When measuring
the central
tendency or
variability of your
data set, your
level of
measurement
decides which
methods you
can use based
on the
mathematical
operations that
are appropriate
for each level.
 Levels of measurement
Why do levels of measurements matter?
The level at which you measure a variable
determines how you can analyze your data.

The different levels limit which descriptive statistics

you can use to get an overall summary of your
data, and which type of inferential statistics you
can perform on your data to support or refute
your hypothesis.
 Levels of measurement
How do I decide which level of measurement to use?
Some variables have fixed levels.
For example, gender and ethnicity are always nominal level data because
they cannot be ranked.
However, for other variables, you can choose the level of measurement. For
example, income is a variable that can be recorded on an ordinal or a ratio
scale:
At an ordinal level, you could create 5 income groupings and code the
incomes that fall within them from 1–5.
At a ratio level, you would record exact numbers for income.
If you have a choice, the ratio level is always preferable because you can
analyze data in more ways. The higher the level of measurement, the more
precise your data is.
Levels of measurement
Tabular and graphical
presentation of data
 Tabular presentation of data
What is Tabular Presentation of Data?
-It is a table that helps to represent even a large amount of data in an
engaging, easy to read, and coordinated manner. The data is arranged in
rows and columns. This is one of the most popularly used forms of
presentation of data as data tables are simple to prepare and read.

The most significant benefit of tabulation is that it coordinates data for

additional statistical treatment and decision making. The analysis used in
tabulation is of four types. They are:
 Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Temporal
 Spatial
 Tabular presentation of data
Concept of tabulation
Tabulation, i.e., tabular presentation of data is a method of
presentation of data.
● It is a systematic and logical arrangement of data in
the form of rows and columns with respect to the
characteristics of data.
● It is an orderly arrangement which is compact and self-
explanatory.
● Its objective is to: Present the data in a simple form,
economies (save) space, facilitate comparison, facilitate
statistical analysis, reduce the chances of errors.
Tabular presentation of data
Illustration of table
 Tabular presentation of data
Objectives of tabulation

Following are the objectives of tabulation:

 To simplify the complex data

 To bring out essential features of the data
 To facilitate comparison
 To facilitate statistical analysis
 Saving of space
 Tabular presentation of data
Limitations of table
Following are the major limitations of a table:
(1) Lacks description
The table represents only figures and not attributes.
It ignores the qualitative aspects of the facts.
(2) Incapable of presenting individual items
It does not present individual items.
It presents aggregate data.
(3) Needs special knowledge
The understanding of the table requires special knowledge.
It cannot be easily used by a layman.
 Tabular presentation of data
Main parts of the table
Table ● Table number is the very first item mentioned on the top of
number each table for easy identification and further reference.

Title ● Title of the table is the second item that is shown just above
the table.
● It narrates the contents of the table, hence it has to be very
clear, brief, and carefully worded.
Head note ● It is the third item just above the table and shown after the
title.
● It gives information about units of data like, ‘amount in pesos
or dollar "quantity in tons’, etc.
● It is generally given in brackets.
 Tabular presentation of data
Main parts of the table
Table ● Table number is the very first item mentioned on the top of
number each table for easy identification and further reference.

Title ● Title of the table is the second item that is shown just above
the table.
● It narrates the contents of the table, hence it has to be very
clear, brief, and carefully worded.
Head note ● It is the third item just above the table and shown after the
title.
● It gives information about units of data like, ‘amount in pesos
or dollar "quantity in tons’, etc.
● It is generally given in brackets.
 Tabular presentation of data
Main parts of the table
Captions ● At the top of each column in a table, a column designation/head is given to explain the
or Column figures of the column.
headings ● This column heading is known as ‘caption’.

Stubs or ● The title of the horizontal rows is known as ‘stubs’.

Row
headings
Body of ● It contains the numeric information and reveals the whole story of investigated facts.
the table Columns are read vertically from top to bottom and rows are read horizontally from left to
right.

Source ● It is a brief statement or phrase indicating the source of data presented in the table.
note
Footnote ● It explains the specific feature of the table which is not self-explanatory and has not been
explained earlier. For example, points of exception if any.
 Graphical representation of data
is a
way of analyzing numerical data.
It exhibits the relation between
data, ideas, information and
concepts in a diagram. It is easy
to understand and it is one of the
most important learning
strategies. It always depends on
the type of information in a
particular domain.
 Graphical representation of data
A graphical representation is a visual
representation of data statistics-based
results using graphs, plots, and charts.
This kind of representation is more
effective in understanding and
comparing data than seen in a
tabular form

Graphical representation helps to qualify, sort, and

present data in a method that is simple to understand
for a larger audience.
 graphical representation of data
Types of graphical representation

Line Graphs – Line graph or the linear graph

is used to display the continuous data and it
is useful for predicting future events over
time.
Bar Graphs – Bar Graph is used to display the
category of data and it compares the data
using solid bars to represent the quantities.
Histograms – The graph that uses bars to
represent the frequency of numerical data
that are organised into intervals. Since all the
intervals are equal and continuous, all the
bars have the same width.
graphical representation of data
Types of graphical representation
Line Plot – It shows the frequency of data on a
given number line. ‘ x ‘ is placed above a
number line each time when that data occurs
again.
Frequency Table – The table shows the number
of pieces of data that falls within the given
interval.
Circle Graph – Also known as the pie chart that
shows the relationships of the parts of the
whole. The circle is considered with 100% and
the categories occupied is represented with that
specific percentage like 15%, 56%, etc.
 graphical representation of data
Types of graphical representation
Stem and Leaf Plot – In the stem and leaf plot,
the data are organized from least value to the
greatest value. The digits of the least place
values from the leaves and the next place value
digit forms the stems.
Box and Whisker Plot – The plot diagram
summarizes the data by dividing into four parts.
Box and whisker show the range (spread) and
the middle ( median) of the data.
 graphical representation of data
Advantages and disadvantages of graphical representation
Listed below are some advantages of using a graphical representation
of data:
 It improves the way of analyzing and learning as the graphical
representation makes the data easy to understand.
 It can be used in almost all fields from mathematics to physics to
psychology and so on.
 It is easy to understand for its visual impacts.
 It shows the whole and huge data in an instance.
 It is mainly used in statistics to determine the mean, median, and
mode for different data
 graphical representation of data
Advantages and disadvantages of graphical representation
The main disadvantage of graphical representation
of data is that it takes a lot of effort as well as
resources to find the most appropriate data and
then represent it graphically.
 References
 https://byjus.com/maths/presentation-of-data/
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/collection-and-presentation-
of-data/
 https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/data-collection/
 https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-
development/methods-of-data-collection
 https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/levels-of-measurement/
 https://www.cuemath.com/data/graphical-representation-
of-data/