Laboratory Manual

In
College Physics 1

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Laboratory Activity No. Title Page

1 Graphical Representation 4
and Analysis
2 Measurement: The 14
Vernier Caliper
3 Vectors 17

4 Uniformly Accelerated 25
Motion
5 Freely Falling Bodies 33

6 Projectile Motion 38

7 Newton’s Second Law of 43

Motion
8 Static and Kinetic 51
Friction
9 Uniform Circular Motion 56

10 Simple Machines 60

11 Torque: Demonstration 65
Balance
12 Static Equilibrium: 70
Simple Crane
13 Conservation of Linear 74
Momentum

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 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Physical laws and principles express relationships between physical quantities. These
relationships may be expressed (1) in words, as is commonly done in the formal statement; (2) by
means of symbols in an equation; or (3) by the pictorial representation called graph. The choice of
the means of expression is dictated by the use to be made of the information. If calculations are to
be made, the equation is ordinarily the most useful. The graph, however, presents to the trained
observer a vivid picture of the way in which one quantity varies with another. In graphing, there
are specific rules that should be considered:

1. The independent variable should be plotted along the abscissa or the x-axis while the
dependent variable should be plotted along the ordinate or the y-axis. Heavy lines should
be drawn for these axes.

2. The size of the graph should be chosen in such a way to bear some relation to the
accuracy with which the plotted data are known. Generally, the curve should fill most of
the sheet; if the range from the lowest value to the highest value is small and the data are
reliable to only two significant figures, do not spread out the graph to permit points to be
read from the curve three or four significant figures. In many cases, it is not necessary to
represent the intersection of the two axes as the zero value of both variables.

3. The main divisions on the graph must be a scale that can easily be subdivided. The best
values for the main divisions are 2, 5, and 10, but sometimes 4 is also used. Using the
values 3, 7, or 9 are not recommended because these makes it very difficult to read the
values from the graph. It is not necessary that the divisions on the abscissa and ordinate
be the same. If the values are exceptionally small or large, use some multiplying device
that will permit the use of two digits maximum to indicate the value of the main division.

4. Put a clear complete label in the white space outside the scale; letter everything on the
graph so that it can be read from the lower right-hand corner. The scale label must include
the name of the quantity plotted and its unit, separated by a comma. All units must be
abbreviated in standard form.

5. Locate each point in its proper place and encircle it. If the sheet contains several curves
and the points might interfere with each other, surround the points of the second and third
curve with squares and triangles, respectively to differentiate it from the first curve. In the
clear space on the graph sheet, make a legend to identify the curves on the sheet.

6. Draw the best smooth curve through the average of the points by ignoring the points that
are obviously erratic. Indicate by dashes any extrapolated portions that extend past the
terminal data points.

7. Indicate the title of the graph at an open space near the top of the paper. Do not include
in the title unnecessary words such as “Curve showing…”

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 Figures 1.1 shows the best fit line and extrapolation made while Figure 1.2 shows the
best fit curve.

                                 
                                  Extrapolation
                               
14
                               
                               
12
                               
                               
10
                               
                               
8
                               
                               
6
                               
                               
4
                               
                               
3
                               
                               
2
                               
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  

Figure 1.1 Best Fit Line

                                 
                                 
                               
8
                               
                               
 
                               
                               
6
                               
                               
 
                               
                               
4
                               

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2
                               
                               
 
                               
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 1.2 Best Fit Curve
One of the great advantages of using graphs in the analysis is the simplicity with which
new information can be obtained directly by observing its shape, slope, and intercepts.

The shape of the graph indicates whether one variable increases or decreases as the other
one increases and it also distinguishes between intervals of slow and rapid variation. In case of a
straight-line graph, one can easily determine the form of the variation. Careful distinction must be
made between linear variation and direct proportion. Linear variation means simply a first-degree
relationship and is indicated by any straight-line graph. A direct proportion, on the other hand,
means that the variables are directly proportional and therefore simultaneously zero, which occurs
only for straight-line graphs that pass through the origin of coordinates.

In discussing the slope of a graph, careful distinction between physical slope and
geometric slope must be made. In the case of a linear graph, the physical slope can be determined
by drawing a large triangle (see Figure 1.3) and dividing y by x using for each the scale and
units chosen for those axes. The result may express a significant fact about the relationship
between the plotted variables. In a typical case, the physical slope m of a graph is given by the
formula below.

y2

y
θ
y1

x

Figure 1.3
x1 x2 Method of
finding physical slope

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 In contrast to the physical slope, the geometrical slope of a graph is defined to be
the tan θ, where θ is the angle between the line and the abscissa or x-axis. This slope
depends upon the inclination of the line and hence depends upon the choice of scales. In
graphical analysis, one is always concerned with the physical slope rather than the
geometrical slope. For curved-line graphs, the slope is varying from point to point and its
value at any point is defined as the slope of the tangent line at that point.

Significant information is also revealed by the intersection of a graph with a

coordinate axis. We call these intersections as the intercepts of the curve.

Laboratory Activity No. 1

Graphical Analysis and Representation

OBJECTIVE: To represent graphically the relationships existing between two physical quantities.

MATERIALS: Hooke’s Law Apparatus (with accessories)

Set of masses (20g denominations)
Stopwatch
Set of wooden blocks
Metal sphere (as pendulum bob)
Piece of string (1.2m long)
Protractor

PROCEDURE:

A. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND ELONGATION OF THE SPRING

1. Set up the Hooke’s Law apparatus. Record the position of the pointer when there is no
load hanging on the spring. This reading is the zero reading which has to be subtracted
from all the succeeding readings to get the elongation. This could also be taken as the
original length of the spring. See Figure 1.4 below.

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 Initial Length (lo)

Final Length (lf)

Figure 1.4 Hooke’s Law Apparatus

2. Place 20 g load on the weight hanger and locate the position of the pointer. This is the
final length of the spring. Enter the value in Table 1.1.

3. Continue adding 20-g load on the weight hanger until the load is 160 g. In each addition of
load, measure the final length of the spring. Enter the values in Table 1.1.

B. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LENGTH AND THE WIDTH OF A BLOCK OF WOOD

1. Starting with the one having the longer length, measure the length L and width W of eacn
block of wood and enter obtained values in Table 1.2.

C. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LENGTH AND THE PERIOD OF A PENDULUM

1. Make a 1-meter long pendulum out of the metal sphere, the string and the multi-purpose
stand. The measurement should be made from the point of suspension to the center of the
bob.
2. Pull the bob away to an angle of 15o and release it carefully (see Figure 1.5 below). Using
the stopwatch, get the time for 10 complete oscillations. One oscillation is one complete to
and fro from the original position.

15o

- vii -
 Figure 1.5

3. Repeat Step 2, this time decrease the length of the pendulum to 90 cm.
4. Continue decreasing the length by 10 cm until the length of the pendulum is only 10 cm. in
each length, get the time for 10 oscillations.
5. Record the data correctly in Table 1.3.

DATA AND RESULTS:

Initial length of the spring: _____________ cm.

Total Load Final Length of Spring Elongation of Spring

Trial No.
(N) (m) (m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 1.1 Relationship between the load and elongation of spring

Length of Wood (L) Width of Wood (W) Area of Wood (A)
(cm) (cm) (cm2)

Table 1.2 Relationship between the length and width of a block

Time for 10
Length of Pendulum Period, T Period, T2
Trial No. oscillations
(m) (s) (s2)
(s)
1 1
2 0.90
3 0.50

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 4 0.70
5 0.60
6 0.50
7 0.40
8 0.30
9 0.20
10 0.10

Table 1.3 Relationship between the length and elongation of a pendulum

COMPUTATION AND ANALYSIS:

A. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LOAD AND ELONGATION OF THE SPRING

1. Get the elongation of the spring by subtracting the initial length of the spring from the
obtained length of the spring in each addition of load. Enter the obtained value in Table
1.1.

2. Plot the elongation against the total load. What can you infer from the graph?

3. Determine the slopes between the first two trials. Do the same for the other trials. What
can you say about the slopes in a direct proportionality relationship? From the slopes,
derive an expression for the relationship between the total load and the elongation of the
spring.

B. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LENGTH AND THE WIDTH OF A BLOCK OF WOOD

1. Compute the area of each of the blocks and enter the values in Table 1.2.

2. Plot the length, L vs. the width, W. What does the shape of the graph indicate about the
relationship between the length L and the width W of the block.

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 3. Based on the results, express mathematically the relationship between L and W.

4. If the increase in one quantity would mean a decrease in the other, is it always correct to
say that the relationship between these quantities is inverse proportionality? Defend your
answer.

C. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LENGTH AND THE PERIOD OF A PENDULUM

1. Solve for the period of the pendulum, T, using the equation below. Enter calculated values
in Table 1.3.

2. Get the square of the Period, T2, and enter the values in column 5
of Table 1.3.

3. Plot the Period of the pendulum, T, against its Length, L. What can you say about the
relationship between L and T based on the shape of the graph?

4. On the same sheet of paper, plot the Square of the Period, T 2, against the Length, L of the
pendulum. What relationship exists between these two quantities? Determine the slopes
between points. From the obtained trend in the slopes, derive an expression for the
relationship between L and T2.

-x-
CONCLUSION:

                                                   

- xi -
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

- xii -
 GRAPH OF LOAD vs. ELONGATION

                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

- xiii -
                                                   
                                                   

GRAPH OF LENGTH vs. WIDTH

                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

- xiv -
                                                    
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

GRAPH OF LENGTH vs. PERIOD

MEASUREMENT

The scientific method is an effective approach to solving physical problems, providing that
several conditions have been met. Two of the conditions are: (1) that the observations made in the
study be valid and relevant, and (2) that the conclusions drawn be expressed in such a manner
that they may be communicated to others. Both conditions require that techniques of
measurement be developed.

Measuring anything means comparing it with a standard to determine its relationship to

the standard. To carry out accurate measurements, we have to establish a system of standards
and a system of units in which to express the standards. A standard is the physical embodiment of
a unit provided that certain conditions are met. For example, a standard meter bar has the length
of 1 meter only when maintained under certain atmospheric conditions.

Although we take much care in measuring anything, the results of our measurement is
never exact, this is due to the fact that estimates of fractions of the smallest division in the ruled
scale is inevitable. Hence, the accuracy and sensitivity of the measuring devices come to the fore.

The common measuring devices that increases the accuracy of the measurement process
are the Vernier Caliper and Micrometer Caliper.

THE VERNIER CALIPER:

A vernier caliper is a device invented by Pierre Vernier in 1631 which assists in the
accurate reading of the fractional part of a scale division. A pictorial diagram of this device is
shown in the figure below. It is calibrated in both English and Metric scales with two pairs of jaws,
the thick jaw (A) for measuring the outside diameter, the pointed jaw (B), for measuring the inside
diameter, and a depth bar (C), for measuring the inside depth. The knurled wheel, (F) is used for
adjusting the space between the jaws and the latch G is used for locking the jaws.

B G D C

- xv -
 A F E

Figure 2.1 The Vernier Caliper

There are two scales in a vernier caliper, namely the main scale or the fixed scale (D) and
the sliding scale or the vernier scale (E). The object of the vernier scale is to measure fractions of
a division of the main scale (D). Usually, n divisions on the vernier are equal to n-1 divisions on the
main scale. Suppose 10 vernier divisions are equal to 9 main scale divisions and that the latter are
millimeters, then 1 division on the vernier scale is clearly 0.9 mm and the difference between one
main scale division and vernier scale division is 0.1 mm.

To get the actual reading or measurement using the vernier caliper, the equation below
can be used.

Actual Reading = p + (q x least count)

where: p = main-scale reading just before the zero-mark of the vernier scale
q = nth vernier-division that coincides with a main-scale division.

The least count is the number found at the bottom right corner of the vernier scale.

- xvi -
 Laboratory Activity No. 2

The Vernier Caliper

OBJECTIVES: To familiarize and use a precise measuring instrument (Vernier Caliper)

To be able to determine by experiment the ratio of the circumference to the
diameter of a circle ()

MATERIALS: Vernier Caliper

Metal sphere
Thin sheet of paper
Metal cylinder

PROCEDURE:

1. Study the scales of the vernier caliper. Observe S (length of the smallest main-scale
division), n (number of vernier divisions), V (length of the smallest vernier-scale division),
and LC (the least count), in millimeter and in inch. Learn how to read the instrument.
Study the parts and how to make various measurements with it.
2. Close the instrument and observe the readings in millimeter and in inch. These are the
corrections which must be subtracted algebraically from subsequent readings.
3. Measure the circumference, C, of the metal sphere and of the metal cylinder, both in
millimeters and in inches, by wrapping around the object a thin strip of paper and marking

- xvii -
 where the two ends overlap. Measure this distance between the marks using the Vernier
Caliper. Obtain three trials and record the data in Table 2.1.
4. Measure the diameter, D, of the metal sphere and of the metal cylinder, both in
millimeters and in inches, using the Vernier Caliper. Obtain three trials and record the data
in Table 2.1.

DATA AND RESULTS:

Trial Metal Sphere Metal Cylinder

Quantity
No. mm in mm in
1
2
Circumference (C)
3
Average
1
2
Diameter (D)
3
Average
π experimental
Percentage Error (%)

Table 2.1 Vernier Caliper

COMPUTATION AND ANALYSIS:

1. In the space provided show your computation for the circumference and diameter of the
sphere and the cylinder (both in mm and in inches).

2. Get the mean of the readings of the circumference and diameter of the metal sphere and
metal cylinder. Enter obtained values in Table 2.1.

3. Compute the experimental value of pi using the equation:

- xviii -
 4. Compare the obtained value of pi () from 3 above with the accepted value by computing
for the percentage error.

where: TV = true value or accepted value

EV = experimental value

5. Compare the measurements (using average values) obtained using the metric (mm) and
the English (in) of the Vernier Caliper.

6. Discuss the principles involved in using the Vernier Caliper.

CONCLUSION:

VECTORS: GRAPHICAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

All measurable quantities may be classed either as scalar quantities or as vector quantities.
Scalar quantities are those that have only magnitude, such as 10 sec, 4 g/cm 3, and 50 ohms.
Vector quantities are those that have direction as well as magnitude, such as a velocity of
20 km/hr N or a weight of 25 N vertically downward.

Scalar quantities involve algebraic addition while vector addition involves a more
complicated or difficult process because the direction must be considered. The vector sum or
resultant of two or more vector quantities is the single vector quantity that would produce the
same result as the original vectors.

- xix -
 There are two ways to determine the resultant of two or more vectors; the graphical
method and the analytical method. Graphical methods are simple and direct but are limited in
precision to that obtainable by drawing instruments. There are two kinds of Graphical methods;
the parallelogram and polygon. The parallelogram method is especially suitable when there are
only two forces; the polygon method is used when there are more than two.

On the other hand, the

Like velocity and acceleration, force is also a vector quantity. In this experiment you will
study the properties of forces as vectors. The condition for static equilibrium (a body at rest will
remain at rest) is that the vector sum of the forces acting on the body is zero. Stated analytically,
F1 + F2 + F3 + ... = 0, or Σ iFi = 0. Stated another but fully equivalent way, the condition on the
components of the vectors is that the sum of the x-components of all the forces acting on the
object must be zero, and independently the sum of the y-components and of the z-components
must each equal zero, or F1x + F2x + F3x + ... = 0, F1y + F2y + F3y + ... = 0 and F1z + F2z + F3z + ...
= 0. Note that the condition on the components is an algebraic sum, so that some of the
components must be positive and some negative such that their sum is zero.

You should be familiar with the concepts of vector addition and vector components from
your work in class. The diagram below illustrates how the components relative to a given choice of
x and y axes are found for a vector F.

Fx + Fy = F

Fx = F cos θ

Fy = F sin θ

tan θ = Fy/Fx
 
 

One kind of force is the weight of an object. This is simply the gravitational attractive force
on the mass of the object produced by the mass of the Earth. The direction of this force (weight)
is always downward. However, if the weight is attached to the end of a flexible string and the
string is tied to an object, the force is transmitted along the string and produces a force on the
object equal to the weight (assuming no frictional forces in pulleys, etc.) in the direction that the
string is pulling at the point at which it is tied. A diagram of the apparatus (force table) used in this
experiment is shown below.

The weight and mass of an object are different properties and a clear distinction must be
made between them, as will be carefully covered later in this course. The mass of the weights
used in this experiment is stamped on the weight. The relationship W = mg is used to convert the
mass units to force units, where m is the mass in kg and g = 9.8 N/kg. (N = Newton, the unit of
force in the SI system). Note that you must include the weight of the hanger as part of the force.

- xx -
Laboratory Activity No. 3

Vectors

- xxi -
OBJECTIVES: To determine the equilibrant of several forces using the Force Table.
To determine by experiment the sum of three vectors.

MATERIALS: Force Table

Weights
Protractor
Ruler
Platform balance

PROCEDURE:

1. Check whether the mass of the weight hangers are engraved on them, if not, get the mass
of the weight hangers using the platform balance and enter obtained values in the Table
3.1.

2. Set up on the Force Table the 3 vectors given by the instructor using the appropriate
slotted masses/weights. Consider the weights of the weight hanger as part of the vector.

3. On the 4th weight hanger, place slotted weights and adjust its position until the vectors are
in equilibrium. Equilibrium is attained when the ring on the table is at the center of the
fixed point. Check whether equilibrium is already attained by displacing the ring at
different positions. When the ring returns to its original position, the vectors are already in
the state of equilibrium.

Figure 3.1 Force Table

- xxii -
DATA AND RESULTS:

Mass of Slotted Magnitude of Direction

weight masses (g) vector
hanger (g)
Vector A
Vector B
Vector C
Vector D (Equilibrant)

Table 3.1 Assigned Vectors from the instructor

Component Graphical Percentage Error

Resultant, R Experimental
Method Method Experimental Graphical
Magnitude, R
Direction, θ

Table 3.2

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

1. Determine the equilibrant of the vectors from the result in Step 3 above. Enter the value in
Table 3.1.

2. From the results in Step 3 above, determine the resultant (both magnitude and direction)
of the given vectors. This is the experimental value of the resultant vector. Enter the value
in Table 3.1 under the column “Experimental”.

3. Determine the resultant of the three vectors (both magnitude and direction) using the
graphical method. Use the graph at the end of the experiment for your graphical solution.
Enter obtained value under the column “Graphical Method” of Table 3.2.

4. Solve for the magnitude and direction of the resultant using the component method. Enter
the values obtained in Table 3.1 under the column “Component Method”.

5. Compute for the Percentage Error in both magnitude and direction of the Resultant in
Graphical Method and Experimental value. Use the value obtained in the Component
Method as the true or accepted value.

CONCLUSION:

- xxiii -
NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: ______________ DATE: ________

1. In wandering, a grizzly bear makes a displacement of 1563 m due west, followed by a

displacement of 3348 m in a direction 32.0 o north of west. What are: (a) the magnitude and
(b) the direction of the displacement needed for the bear to return to its starting point? Specify
the direction relative to due east. [(a) 4746 m; (b) 21.9osouth of east]

2. Two ropes are attached to a heavy box to pull it along the floor. One rope applies a force of
475 N in a direction due west; the other applies a force of 315 N in a direction due south. (a)
How much force should be applied by a single rope, and (b) in what direction (relative to due
west), if it is to accomplish the same effect as the two forces added together? [ (a) 5.70x102 N;
(b) 33.6osouth of west]

3. A rope 26.0 m long is attached to two points A and B, 20.0 m apart at the same level. A load
of 250 N is carried at the middle of the rope. What force is exerted on A?

4. A scallop forces open its shell with an elastic material called abductin, whose elastic modulus is
A body weighing 100 N is suspended by a rope. A second rope attached to the body is drawn
aside horizontally until the suspended rope is deflected 30 o from the vertical. Find the
stretching force in each rope.

- xxiv -
5. A grasshopper makes four jumps. The displacement vectors are (1) 27.0 cm, due west; (2)
23.0 cm, 35.0o south of west; (3) 28.0 cm, 55.0 o south of east; and (4) 35.0 cm, 63.0 o north of
east. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant displacement. Express the direction
with respect to due west.

- xxv -
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
Graphical Method

                                                   

-0-
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

Component Method
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED LINEAR MOTION

-1-
 Motion is defined as a continuous change of position, with respect to a specific frame of
reference during a given time. It is seldom that a body moves with constant speed. When a body
undergoes change in velocity, it is being accelerated and the motion described by the body is
called accelerated motion. One of the simplest types of accelerated motion which one could study
by a simple method is uniformly accelerated motion along a straight line.

The graph in Figure 4.1 shows the relationship between the time and distance for the cart
moving at uniform velocity. For motion along a straight line, the speed is defined as the distance
traveled per unit time. In symbol,

(4.1)

 
 
30
 
 
25
 
 
20
Distance, S (m)

 
 
15
 
 
10
 
 
5
                       
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, t (s)

Figure 4.1 Distance-Time graph for uniform motion

If the speed is constant, the time-distance graph as shown in Figure 4.1 would be a straight line.
The slope of the line is equal to speed.

The graph in Figure 4.2 shows that the distance increases faster than time or the speed of
the cart is constantly increasing. Hence the cart is being accelerated. Acceleration is defined as the
time rate of change of velocity, or

(4.2)

                         
                         
                         
250                          

-2-
                          
                           
200

Distance, S (m)
                           
                           
150
                           
                           
100
                           
                           
50
                           
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time, t (sec)

Figure 4.2 Distance-Time graph for uniformly accelerated motion

If the change in velocity of the body is constant, then the body is moving with uniformly
accelerated motion. From the time-distance graph, the instantaneous speed of the body at a
particular time is equal to the slope of the line drawn tangent to the curve at that time.

Figure 4.3 is the time squared-distance graph. The graph is a straight line showing the
relationship of t2 and S. The slope of the line represents one-half of the magnitude of the
acceleration of the body. The formula is,

for Si = 0 ; ti = 0

but when Vi = 0, so we have ---------- then,

(4.3)

                               
                               
                               
250
                               

-3-
                                
200

Distance, S (m)
                               
                               
150
                               
                               
100
                               
                               
50
                               
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
t2

Figure 4.3 Time squared-distance graph

Hence, the magnitude of acceleration can be determined from the slope of t 2 – S graph.

Laboratory Activity No. 4

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

-4-
OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationships between velocity, distance, and time in uniformly
accelerated motion.

MATERIALS: Dynamic cart (wooden cart) recording timer

String (2 ½ m long) dry cells
C-clamp with pulley battery holder
Stopwatch paper tape
Set of masses iron stand with clamp
Meter stick scotch tape (1 in)
Protractor wooden board with pulley at its end
Weight hanger

PROCEDURE:

A. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

1. Set up the dynamic cart, string, pulley, and mass as shown in Figure 4.4.

A B

Mass

Figure 4.4

2. Measure the distance S between point A and B with your meter stick and record it in Table
4.1.
3. Using your stopwatch, measure the time it takes for the cart to travel from rest at point A
to point B, making point A as the starting point where the cart is released.
4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 by moving point B farther and farther apart and record the data in
Table 4.1. Make at least 5 to 8 trials.

B. MOTION IN AN INCLINED PLANE

1. Set up the wooden board at an angle of 10o with the horizontal.

2. Place the cart on the higher end of the wooden board. At the level of this end of the
board, place the recording timer.
3. Attach one end of the paper tape to the cart by means of the scotch tape. Pass this paper
through the guides of the timer.
4. Put the timer on and release the cart.
5. Examine the dots on the paper tape. Choose a part on the paper tape where the spacing
between the dots is increasing.
6. Repeat the foregoing steps but this time set the angle of inclination of the board at 15 o
with the horizontal.

DATA AND RESULTS:

-5-
 Trials Distance, S (cm) Time, t (sec) Time squared, t2 (sec2)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Table 4.1

Trial 1 (10o) Trial 2 (15o)

No. of Time
a v a v
Dots (unit) S (cm) S (cm)
(cm/unit2) (cm/unit) (cm/unit2) (cm/unit)
5 1
10 2
15 3
20 4
25 5
30 6
35 7
40 8

Table 4.2

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

A. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

1. Using the data obtained, make a graph of time (t) against distance (S) by placing S on the
vertical axis and t on the horizontal axis. Does the shape of your graph suggest any
relationship between S and t?

2. To verify the graph obtained between S and t, square the time (t 2) and draw the time
squared (t2)-distance (S) graph and determine the slope of the line.

3. What does the slope represent?

-6-
B. MOTION IN AN INLINED PLANE

1. Mark the first dot on the paper tape as the reference or starting point. From here, mark
the fifth dot, the tenth dot, and every fifth dot thereafter. In here, the unit of time is again
5 dots, (i. e., 1 unit of time = 5 dots).
2. Measure the distances traveled by the cart every 5 dots. Meaning, from the starting point,
measure the distance up to the 5 th dot (or 1 unit of time); the distance up to the 10 th dot
(or 2 units of time), and so on. The measurement should always start from the reference
point. Record these distances in Table 4.2.
3. Compute the acceleration of the cart at each time interval by using Equation 4.2, with the
initial speed of the cart to be zero. Enter the values obtained in Table 4.2.
4. Compute the speed of the cart at the end of each unit of time using the equation below

Δṽ
a = ------------ where Δṽ = change in velocity
t

with the initial speed of the cart to be zero.

5. Plot the distance (S) against time (t) and the speed, (ṽ) against time (t) for both trials.
6. What can you infer from the shape of the graph of S vs. t?

7. Compute the slope of the graphs of ṽ vs. t. In each graph, be sure to have slopes between
two points until all the points in the graph have been covered.

8. Compare the obtained values of the slopes. State the relationship between the speed and
time. Express such relationship in an equation form. What do the slopes of the graphs
actually represent?

-7-
CONCLUSION:

NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: _______________ DATE: ________

1. The length of the barrel of a primitive blowgun is 1.20 m. Upon leaving the barrel, a dart has a
speed of 14.0 m/s. Assuming that the dart is uniformly accelerated, how long does it take for
the dart to travel the length of the barrel? (0.17 s)

-8-
2. A tourist being chased by an angry bear is running in a straight line toward his car at a speed
of 4.0 m/s. The car is a distance d away. The bear is 26 m behind the tourist and running at
6.0 m/s. the tourist reaches the car safely. What is the maximum possible value for d? (52 m)

3. A race driver has made a pit stop to refuel. After refueling, he leaves the pit area with an
acceleration whose magnitude is 6.0 m/s 2, and after 4.0 s he enters the main speedway. At the
same instant, another race car that is on the speedway and traveling at a constant speed of
70.0 m/s overtakes and passes the entering car. If the entering car maintains its acceleration,
how much time is required for it to catch the other car? ( 15 s)

4. In getting ready to slam-dunk the ball, a basketball player starts from rest and sprints to a
speed of 6.0 m/s in 1.5 s. Assuming that the player accelerates uniformly, determine the
distance he runs. (4.5 m)

5. In the one-hundred-meter dash as sprinter accelerates from rest to a top speed with an
acceleration whose magnitude is 2.68 m/s 2. After achieving top speed, he runs the remainder
of the race without speeding up or slowing down. If the total race is run in 12.0s, how far does
he run during the acceleration phase?

                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

-9-
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

- 10 -
                                                    
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY: FREELY FALLING BODIES

The most common example of a Uniformly Accelerated Motion is the motion of an object
being acted by gravity alone. When an object falls freely and moves under the action of gravity
alone, neglecting air resistance, it is said that the body is a freely falling body. Neglecting air
resistance, all freely falling bodies take the same amount of time to travel a certain distance. If the
distance covered is not too great, the acceleration remains constant throughout the fall. This
acceleration of a freely falling body is called the acceleration due to gravity g. Near the Earth’s

- 11 -
surface, its magnitude is approximately 9.8 m/s 2 and it is directed towards the center of the Earth.
The distance traveled by a freely falling object from rest in a time t is given by the equation:

(5.1)

The value of g is also given as approximately 32 ft/s 2 or 980 cm/s2.

In this experiment, we will study the falling of a steel ball at different height, and also, the
fall of different sizes of steel ball on a fixed height and measure the acceleration due to gravity,
using the Free Fall Apparatus shown below.

Figure 5.1 Free Fall Apparatus

Laboratory Activity No. 5

Freely Falling Bodies

OBJECTIVES: To verify by experiment the value of local gravitational acceleration (g) using the
Free Fall Apparatus.
To familiarize the Free Fall Apparatus.

MATERIALS: Free Fall Apparatus and accessories

- 12 -
PROCEDURE:

A. VARYING THE DISTANCE

1. Set up the Free-fall apparatus as shown in Figure 5.1. Be sure to connect the sockets on
the Upper Platform to the Momentary START sockets and connect the Lower Platform
sockets to the Momentary STOP sockets on the Event Timer.
2. Measure the distance S between the steel ball and the receptor pad.
3. Release the ball and get the time t for the ball to travel distance S. Perform 3 trials and
enter obtained values in Table 5.1.
4. Vary the distance D and repeat Steps 2 and 3.

B. VARYING THE MASS OF THE OBJECT

1. Set up the Free-fall apparatus as shown in Figure 5.1. Be sure to connect the sockets on
the Upper Platform to the Momentary START sockets and connect the Lower Platform
sockets to the Momentary STOP sockets on the Event Timer.
2. Unscrew the heavy ball (brass) from the storage screw and taking the wire loop at the
Upper Platform of the free-fall apparatus; firmly press it into the hole in the ball so that it
grips in the hole.
3. Adjust the Upper Platform such that its Lower Reference Edge coincides with the 100 cm
mark. This will be the height of the fall. Lower and finally release the weight gently so that
the ball is lifted and held into the hole in the underside of the platform.
4. Gently pull the weights downward until the release loop is extracted from the ball and the
ball falls. Notice the timer will start as the ball begins to fall and will stop exactly as the ball
hits the Lower Platform. If the timer starts before the ball falls, reset the timer and repeat
this procedure. Record the time of fall as reflected in the timer. Get the time of fall for
three trials and get the average. Enter the average time in Table 5.2.
5. Repeat Steps 2 to 4 using the light ball (aluminum).
6. Repeat Steps 2 to 4 using the small ball. In this case, the initial height of fall, which is 100
cm, should be based from the Upper Reference Edge on the Upper Platform. Again, get
the time of fall for three trials.

DATA AND RESULTS:

Time Acceleration due

No. of Time, t
Distance, S (cm) squared, t2 to Gravity, g
Trials (sec)
(sec2) (cm/s2)
1
100
2

- 13 -
 3
ave
1
2
75
3
ave
1
2
50
3
ave

Table 5.1 Varying the height of Fall

Type of Ball Average Time of Fall Value of g Percentage Error

Heavy Ball (Brass)
Light Ball (Aluminum)
Small Ball

Table 5.2 Varying the Mass of the Object

ANALYSIS AND COMPUTATIONS:

A. VARYING THE HEIGHT OF FALL

1. From the values obtained in Step 3, get the square of the time and enter values in Table
5.1.
2. Solve for the value of the acceleration due to gravity, g, using the average values in Table
5.1.
3. Plot the graph of distance, S, vs. Time squared t2 and solve for the slope of the graph.
4. Is the slope of the graph equal to the value obtained in 2 above?

5. Discuss what you have observed for the value of g when the height of fall is varied.

B. VARYING THE MASS OF THE OBJECT

- 14 -
 1. Using the equation below, calculate the value of g for each type of ball. Assume the initial
speed of the ball to be zero. Enter the obtained values in Table 5.2.

2. Compare the obtained values of g with the true value by computing the percentage error.
Record the results in Table 5.2.
3. Does the kind of ball significantly affect the value of g?

4. Does the size of ball significantly affect the value of g?

5. Does the height of fall significantly affect the value of g?

CONCLUSION:

NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: _______________ DATE: ________

1. A spelunker (cave explorer) drops a stone from rest into a hole. The speed of sound is 343 m/s
in air, and the sound of the stone striking the bottom is heard 1.50 s after the stone is
dropped. How deep is the hole? (10.6 m)

- 15 -
2. Two arrows are shot vertically upward. The second arrow is shot after the first one, but while
the first is still on its way up. The initial speeds are such that both arrows reach their
maximum heights at the same instant, although these heights are different. Suppose that the
initial speed of the first arrow is 25.0 m/s and the second arrow is fired 1.20 s after the first,
determine the initial speed of the second arrow. (13.2 m/s)

3. A penny is dropped from rest from the top of the Sears Tower in Chicago. Considering the
height of the building is 427 m and ignoring air resistance, find the speed with which the
penny strikes the ground. (91.5 m/s)

4. A hot-air balloon is rising upward with a constant speed of 2.50 m/s. When the balloon is 3.00
m above the ground, the balloonist accidentally drops a compass over the side of the balloon.
How much time elapses before the compass hits the ground?

5. A ball is thrown upward from the top of a 25.0-m-tall building. The ball’s initial speed is 12.0
m/s. At the same instant, a person is running on the ground at a distance of 31.0 m from the
building. What must be the average speed of the person if he is to catch the ball at the bottom
of the building?

PROJECTILE MOTION

A projectile is any body that is given an initial velocity, projected either horizontally or at
an angle, and is moving under the action of gravity alone. In this case the acceleration
experienced by the projectile is the acceleration due to gravity. Obviously, the trajectory or the
path followed by the projectile is a curve or parabolic. It is for this reason that the motion of the
projectile can be resolved into x (horizontal) and y (vertical) directions. Since gravity only acts
towards the center of the earth or downward, only the y-motion has acceleration and the x-motion
remains to be uniform.

- 16 -
 In the analysis, therefore, of the motion of a projectile, quantities describing both the
horizontal and vertical motion have to be determined and treated as independent of each other.
The following formulas are particularly useful in describing these quantities.

HORIZONTAL MOTION:

VERTICAL MOTION:

Laboratory Activity No. 6

Projectile Motion

OBJECTIVES: To determine the range of a projectile.

To determine the angle of projection that will give maximum range.

MATERIALS: spring loaded projectile gun meter stick

carbon paper protractor

- 17 -
 piece of paper scotch tape (1 in)

PROCEDURE:

A. PROJECTED HORIZONTALLY

1. Put the ball in the position on the rod at the tip of the gun. Hold the base of the gun with
one hand and then pullback on the ball with the other hand until the collar in the rod
engages the trigger.
2. Position the spring-loaded projectile gun at a corner of the table in such a way that the ball
and the trigger coincides the corner of the table. This will facilitate the firing of the gun
and the measurement of the height and range of the projectile. Mark this position on the
table and measure the vertical distance (height), Sy. See Figure 6.1 below.

SY

SX

Figure 6.1 Determination of Initial Velocity of a projectile

3. With some members of the group closely watching where the ball would fall, fire the gun.
Place the piece of paper and carbon paper in such a way that the center is on the spot
where the ball hit the floor.
4. Reload and reposition the gun on the same corner of the table previously marked. Fire the
gun and repeat for two more trials. Measure the range S x for the three trials and record
the data in Table 6.1.

B. PROJECTED AT AN ANGLE

1. Position the gun as shown in Figure 6.2 below with = 30o.Fire for three trials, and
measure the ranger for each trial. Record the data obtained in Table 6.2.

- 18 -
 vo

Figure 3.2 Projected at an angle

2. Repeat Step 1 for = 45o and = 60o. Record the data obtained in Table 6.2

DATA AND RESULTS:

Trial No. Range, Sx Vertical Distance, Sy Initial Speed, vo

(m) (m) (m/s)
1
2
3
Average

Table 6.1 Projected Horizontally

Measured Range, R (m)

Trial No. o
30 45o 60o
1
2
3
Average
Computed R (m)
Percentage Error

Table 6.2 Projected at an Angle

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

A. PROJECTED HORIZONTALLY

- 19 -
 1. From the average of Sx and Sy, compute the initial velocity, v o, of the ball using the
appropriate equations for uniformly accelerated motion. Enter values obtained in Table
6.1.

B. PROJECTED AT AN ANGLE

1. Using the average of the computed vo of the ball from part A above, compute the Range of
the projectile when = 30o. Use the equation for determining the range of a projectile
given below.

Enter this value in Table 6.2. Compare this computed Range with the Range obtained in
Part B of the Procedure, by computing the percentage error. Use the computed range as
the true value.

2. Compute the range for = 45o and = 60o. Repeat 1 above to get the percentage error
taking the computed value of R as the true value and enter the value obtained in Table
6.2.

3. What angle gives the maximum range for a projectile?

CONCLUSION:

NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: _______________ DATE: ________

1. The highest barrier that a projectile can clear is 13.5 m, when the projectile is launched at an
angle of 15.0o above the horizontal. What is the projectile’s launch speed?

- 20 -
2. A horizontal rifle is fired at a bull’s-eye. The muzzle speed of the bullet is 670 m/s. the barrel is
pointed directly at the center of the bull’s-eye, but the bullet strikes the target 0.025 m below
the center. What is the horizontal distance between the end of the rifle and the bull’s-eye?

3. A projectile is launched from ground level at an angle of 12.0 o above the horizontal. It returns
to ground level. To what value should the launch angle be adjusted, without changing the
launch speed, so that the range doubles?

4. A fire hose ejects a stream of water at an angle of 35.0 o above the horizontal. The water
leaves the nozzle with a speed of 25.0 m/s. Assuming that the water behaves like a projectile,
how far from a building should the fire hose be located to hit the highest possible fire?

5. During a baseball game, a fly ball is hit to center field and is caught 115 m from home plate.
Just when the ball is caught, a runner on third base takes off for home, and the center fielder
throws the ball to the catcher standing on home plate. The runner takes 3.50 s to reach home,
while the baseball is thrown with a velocity whose horizontal component is 41 m/s. Which
reaches home first, the runner or the ball, and by how much time?

FORCE AND MOTION

Whenever a net force acts upon a body, an acceleration of the body is produced; the
acceleration is proportional to the net force, in the direction of the net force, and inversely

- 21 -
proportional to the mass of the body. This statement is a form of Newton’s second law of motion.
Symbolically,

and

or F ma
whence, F = kma (7.1)

where F is the net accelerating force acting on a body of mass m, and a is the resulting
acceleration. The factor k is proportionality constant whose numerical value depend upon the units
used in the equation. Units of force and mass are commonly so chosen that k has a value of unity.
For these choices of units and only for these,

F = ma (7.2)

Some suitable sets of units are: force in dynes, mass in grams, and acceleration in centimetres per
second per second; force in pounds, mass in slugs, and acceleration in feet per second per second;
force in Newton’s, mass in kilograms, and acceleration in meters per second per second.

Laboratory Activity No. 7

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

- 22 -
OBJECTIVES: To verify by experiment Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
To determine the relationships between mass, force and acceleration of a body.

MATERIALS: Dynamic cart (wooden cart) String (3 m long)

C-clamp with pulley Stopwatch
Set of masses Meter stick
weight hanger
Platform balance

PROCEDURE:

A. FORCE AND ACCELERATION

1. Determine the mass of the cart and that of the weight hanger using the platform balance.
2. Set the dynamic cart, the weight hanger, the string, and the pulley as shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1

3. Ask one of your group mates to hold the cart in place while another places 50 gm as
hanging mass. (F = mg)
NOTE: m = mass of weight hanger + added mass
4. Release the cart. Synchronize the release of the cart with the timer you are using.
5. Measure the distance S the cart moves during a time t. Note that the distance S is equal to
the height of the mass m falls before hitting the floor. Enter the value obtained in Table
7.1.
6. Repeat Steps 1 – 3, this time reduce the hanging mass. Use 40 gm, then 30 gm and so on.
Enter the values obtained in Table 7.1.
7. Compute for the acceleration of the cart for every trial you have made.
8. Graph acceleration vs. force.

B. MASS AND ACCELERATION

1. Determine the mass M of the dynamic cart using the platform balance.
2. Set the dynamic cart, pulley, string, and weight hanger as shown in Figure 7.2.

- 23 -
 S

Added mass

M1

Figure 7.2

3. Ask one of your group mates to hold the cart in place while another hangs 200 gm at the
end of the string.
4. Synchronize the release of the cart with the timer you are using.
5. Measure the time t required for the cart to travel distance S.
6. Compute the acceleration of the cart.
7. Repeat the same steps, but this time, load the cart with additional mass m 2. Continue
adding load until you have six trials.
8. Enter obtained values in Table 7.2.

DATA AND RESULTS:

Force, F Distance, S Acceleration,

Trials Time, t (sec)
(dynes) (cm) a (cm/s2)

Table 7.1 Force and Acceleration

Total Mass,
Time, t Distance, S Acceleration,
Trial No. MT = M + m2
(s) (cm) a (cm/s2)
(gm)

- 24 -
 1

Table 7.2 Mass and Acceleration

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

A. FORCE AND ACCELERATION

1. From your observation, what happens to the acceleration of the cart as you reduce the
force?

2. Graph the acceleration of the cart against the force. State the relationship between the
force and the acceleration of the cart.

B. MASS AND ACCELERATION

1. From your observation, what happens to the acceleration of the cart as you vary the mass
of the cart?

2. Graph the acceleration of the cart against the total mass. State the relationship between
the acceleration and the mass of the cart.

- 25 -
CONCLUSION:

NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: ____________ DATE: ________

1. A person whose weight is 5.20 x 10 2 N is being pulled up vertically by a rope from the bottom
of a cave that is 35.1 m deep. The maximum tension that the rope can withstand without

- 26 -
 breaking is 569 N. What is the shortest time, starting from rest, in which the person can be
brought out of the cave? (8.7 s)

2. A person whose weight is 5.20 x 10 2 N is being pulled up vertically by a rope from the bottom
of a cave that is 35.1 m deep. The maximum tension that the rope can withstand without
breaking is 569 N. What is the shortest time, starting from rest, in which the person can be
brought out of the cave? (8.7 s)

3. A 15-g bullet is fired from a rifle. It takes 2.50 x 10 -3 s for the bullet to travel the length of the
barrel, and it exits the barrel with a speed of 715 m/s. Assuming that the acceleration of the
bullet is constant, find the average net force exerted on the bullet. (4290 N)

4. A student is skateboarding down a ramp that is 6.0 m long and inclined at 18 o with respect to
the horizontal. The initial speed of the skateboarder at the top of the ramp is 2.6 m/s.
Neglecting friction find the speed at the bottom of the ramp. (6.6 m/s)

5. Two objects (45.0 and 21.0 kg) are connected by a mass less string that passes over a mass
less, friction less pulley. The pulley hangs from the ceiling. Find (a) the acceleration of the
objects, and (b) the tension in the string. (3.56 m/s2;281 N)

6. A rescue helicopter is lifting a man (weight = 882 N) from a capsized boat by means of a cable
and harness. (a) What is the tension in the cable when the man is given an initial upward
acceleration of 1.10 m/s2? (b) What is the tension during the remainder of the rescue when he
is pulled upward at a constant velocity? (914 N;822 N)

                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

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Acceleration vs. Force

                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

- 28 -
                                                    
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   
                                                   

Acceleration vs. Mass

FRICTIONAL FORCES

Whenever one body is made to slide over another body, frictional forces opposing the
motion are developed between the surfaces in contact. Frictional forces by definition are resistive
forces.

- 29 -
 The frictional force acting between surfaces at rest relative to each other is called static
friction. The value of static friction ranges from zero up to a limiting value, which is the smallest
force necessary to start motion. Once a body is set in motion, friction between the surfaces usually
decreases so that a smaller force is required to maintain uniform motion. The frictional force
between surfaces of bodies in relative motion is called sliding (kinetic) friction.

The following observations have been found to apply to nearly all cases of sliding friction
to within a certain percent accuracy: (1) The frictional force is parallel to the sliding surfaces; (2)
The frictional force is proportional to the normal which presses the surfaces together; (3) The area
of contact of the surfaces has no considerable effect on the frictional force; (4) The frictional force
is roughly independent of the speed of sliding provided that the resulting heat does not alter the
condition of the surfaces; (5) The frictional force depends upon the properties of the surfaces in
contact and the conditions of the surfaces.

The ratio of the magnitude of the maximum force of the static friction to that of the
normal force N is the coefficient of static friction:

or fs = sN (8.1)

The ratio of the magnitude of the frictional force of sliding (kinetic) friction f k to the
magnitude of the normal force N is the coefficient fo sliding friction:

or fk = kN (8.2)

Both s and k are dimensionless constants, being the ratio of the magnitude of two
forces. These forces are always directed perpendicular to one another. The actual values of s and
k depend on the property of the materials in contact.

For any two surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient of
sliding friction, that is s > k.

Let an object be at rest on an incline. Increasing the angle of inclination also increases the
tangential component of the weight down until at some angle , this tangential component
overcomes the limiting force of starting friction, and motion begins. This is the angle of repose, r.
The s is related to r by the following formula:

(8.3)
Laboratory Activity No. 8

Static and Kinetic Friction

OBJECTIVE: To determine the factors affecting friction between two contacting bodies.

MATERIALS: wooden block platform balance C-clamp with pulley

- 30 -
 set of slotted masses glass plate
weight hanger Styrofoam piece of string (2m)

PROCEDURE:

A. AREA

1. Get the mass of the wooden block, place the block on the table with its larger surface in
contact with the table.
2. Set the wooden block, the string, the weight hanger, and pulley as shown in Figure 8.1
below.

Figure 8.1

3. Get the minimum force necessary just to start the block by adding slotted masses on the
weight hanger. The combined weight of these slotted masses and that of the weight
hanger is the force necessary just to start the block.
4. Repeat Step 3, but this time, turn the block so that its smaller surface is now in contact
with the table.
5. Repeat the foregoing arrangements of the block, but this time get the force necessary to
keep the block moving in uniform motion . You may either increase or decrease the load on
the hanger so that after the block is started by giving a slight push, it will continue to
move uniformly along the table.

B. NORMAL FORCE

1. With the larger surface of the block in contact with the table, place 200 g on the block.
2. Again, get the force necessary to:
a. Just start the block, and
b. Keep the block moving uniformly.
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2, this time the load on the block is 300 g.
4. Enter obtained values in Table 8.1.

C. NATURE OF SURFACE IN CONTACT WITH THE BLOCK

1. On the table, lay the glass plate. Place the block on the glass plate with its larger surface
in contact with the glass.
2. Again, get the force necessary to;
a. Just start the block, and
b. Keep the block moving uniformly

- 31 -
 3. Repeat the foregoing steps, only this time the glass plate is replaced by Styrofoam. Enter
obtained values in Table 8.1

DATA AND RESULTS:

f 
Factor N
fS fK S K
A. AREA
1. Larger
2. Smaller
B. NORMAL
1. with 200 g
2. with 300 g
C. SURFACE
1. wood
2. glass
3. Styrofoam

Table 8.1

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

1. Using Equations 8.1 and 8.2, compute for the coefficient of static ( S) and kinetic (K)
friction. The Normal force in cases A and C is just the weight of the wooden block. In case
B, the Normal force is the weight of the wooden block plus the weight of the added load.
Enter these values in Table 8.1.

2. Based on the results, on which factor(s) does the coefficient of frictional force depend?

3. Compare the obtained values of S and K in all the three cases.

CONCLUSION:

- 32 -
NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: _____________ DATE: ________

1. A block of mass 1525 gm rests on a horizontal surface. A force of 685gm-wt is required to

start the block into motion but only 512 gm-wt are required to maintain a uniform speed.
Compute the coefficient of kinetic friction and coefficient of static friction from these data.

- 33 -
2. A block on an inclined plane just begins to slip if the inclination of the plane is 60 o. If the
inclination were 30o the block would, after it had been started, continue to slide with uniform
speed. What are the coefficients of static and kinetic friction?

3. A 120-lb block is placed on a plane inclined at an angle of 35 o. The coefficient of static friction
is 0.25; the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.15. What force parallel to the plane is necessary
to (a) hold the block from sliding down the plane; (b) pull the block up the plane with uniform
speed?

4. A box is sliding up an incline that makes an angle of 15.0 o with respect to the horizontal. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and the surface of the incline is 0.180. The initial
speed of the box at the bottom of the incline is 1.50 m/s. How far does the box travel along
the incline before coming to rest? (0.265 m)

5. A penguin slides at a constant velocity of 1.4 m/s down an icy incline. The incline slopes above
the horizontal at an angle of 6.9 o. At the bottom of the incline, the penguin slides onto a
horizontal patch of ice. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the penguin and the ice is the
same for the incline as for the horizontal patch. How much time is required for the penguin to
slide to a halt after entering the horizontal patch of ice? (1.2 s)

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Another type of motion is the so-called Circular or Rotational motion. When a body is in
uniform circular motion, the magnitude of its velocity remains the same all throughout the circular
path, but the direction of its velocity changes with time, i.e., its velocity is constantly changing.
Consequently, this results to an acceleration that is always directed towards the center of the
circular path, called the centripetal acceleration (ac). The value of this acceleration is given by:

- 34 -
 (9.1)

where: v = speed of the rotating body or magnitude of its velocity

R = radius of the circular path in which the body is moving

Consider a body moving with constant speed around one complete circular path of radius
R during the time interval T (period). Its speed is given by:

(9.2)

Period of motion of a rotating body in circular path is defined as the time required for
completing one whole revolution; frequency is defined as the number of revolutions per unit time.
So, frequency is also defined as the reciprocal of period.

f = T-1 or v = 2Rf (9.3)

According to Newton’s second law of motion, for a body to have an acceleration, there
must be a net force acting on it. In the above case, the net force acting on the body is called the
centripetal force (Fc) which is directed toward the center of the circular path. The value of this
force is given by:

(9.4)
Without this centripetal force, circular motion would be impossible.

Figure 9.1 Centripetal Force Apparatus

Laboratory Activity No. 9

Uniform Circular Motion

OBJECTIVES: To familiarize with the Centripetal Force Apparatus.

To determine the centripetal force in a uniform circular motion.
To verify centripetal force using the spring and weight hanger.

- 35 -
MATERIALS: centripetal force apparatus platform balance
Stopwatch set of slotted masses
meterstick

PROCEDURE:

A.
1. Get the mass of the suspended body by detaching it from the centripetal force apparatus.

2. Replace the body to its position in the centripetal force apparatus and move the movable
indicator to its maximum outward position. Rotate the shaft so that the suspended body
swings more than the maximum position of the indicator. As the shaft slows down, the
body will reach the approximate position of the indicator. At this point, measure the period
of revolution of the body using the stopwatch.

3. Measure the radius of revolution from the final position of the reference indicator to the
base of the shaft.

4. Get two more trials and record the data in Table 9.1.

B.

1. Attach one end of the nylon string to one side of the suspended body via the screw, and
let the string pass over the pulley. On the other end of the string attach the weight
hanger.

2. Place enough slotted masses on the weight hanger until the suspended body is directly
above the final position of the reference indicator obtained in A-3 above. Record the load
in Table 9.2.

DATA AND RESULTS:

Mass of suspended body: __________ kg

Radius of Revolution, R Period, T Centripetal Force, FC

Trial No.
(m) (s) (N)
1
2
3
Average

Table 9.1

Radius, R Load, M Stretching Force, FS

(m) (kg) (N)

Table 9.2

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

- 36 -
A.

1. Using Equation 9.4, compute the centripetal force, F C, in each trial. Enter obtained values
in Table 9.1.

2. Get the average of the centripetal force and enter the value obtained in Table 9.1.

B.

1. Use the same value of radius from Table 9.1 and enter in Table 9.2.

2. Compute the stretching force, FS, using the equation below and enter obtained values in
Table 9.2.

FS = mgwhere: m = total mass of the hanger and added masses

g = acceleration due to gravity

3. Compare FC and FS by computing the percentage error in the value of F C. Use FS to be the
true value.

4. Account any discrepancies in the values of FC and FS.

CONCLUSION:

NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: _______________ DATE: ________

1. How large must the coefficient of friction be between the tires and the road if a car is to round
a level curve of radius 85 m at a speed of 95 km/h?

- 37 -
2. A 150-g ball at the end of a string is revolving uniformly in a horizontal circle of radius 0.600
m. The ball makes 2.00 revolutions in a second. What is its centripetal acceleration?

3. A child on a merry-go-round is moving with a speed of 1.35 m/s when 1.20 m from the center
of the merry-go-round. Calculate (a) the centripetal acceleration of the child, and (b) the net
horizontal force exerted on the child (mass = 25.0 kg).

4. A 0.40-kg ball, attached to the end of horizontal cord, is rotated in a circle of radius 1.3 m on a
frictionless horizontal surface. If the cord will break when the tension in it exceeds 60N, what
is the maximum speed the ball can have?

5. A ball on the end of a string is cleverly revolved at a uniform rate in a vertical circle of radius
85.0 cm. If its speed is 4.15 m/s and its mass is 0.300 kg, calculate the tension in the string
when the ball is (a) at the top of its path, and (b) at the bottom of its path.

SIMPLE MACHINES

A simple machine is most frequently used to lift a large weight through a small distance by
the application of a small force which acts through a large distance. Thus the effectiveness of the
applied force is magnified, but at the expense of a greater distance.

- 38 -
 The ratio of this resisting force (perhaps a weight being lifted) to the applied force
required is called the actual mechanical advantage (AMA). For a given resisting force the
amount of the applied force will always depend upon the kind of machine and the amount of
friction.
(10 – 1)

where: resisting force = Fo or the output force or load

applied force = Fi or the input force

The ratio of the distance through which the applied force moves to the distance through
which the load is lifted is called the velocity ratio. If there were no friction in the machine this
ratio would be equal to the force ratio given above; hence it sometimes carries the name ideal
mechanical advantage (IMA). The velocity ratio or IMA depends only on the design of the
machine and not on the amount of friction.

(10 – 2)

where: Input distance = si or input distance

Output distance = so or output distance

The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the work accomplished by the
machine to the work expended upon the machine by the applied force. the work in each case is
the product of the force and the corresponding distance through which it acts. A portion of the
work into the machine is used against friction, consequently the efficiency is always less than 100
per cent.

(10 – 3)

Laboratory Activity No. 10

Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency of Simple Machines

OBJECTIVES: To determine by experiment the IMA and AMA of a simple machine.

To determine by experiment the efficiency of a simple machine.

- 39 -
MATERIALS: Inclined plane platform balance support stand w/ clamps
Set of slotted masses weight hanger string (2 m long)
Meter stick protractor pulley
Wooden block wheel and axle vernier caliper

PROCEDURE:

A INCLINED PLANE

1. Get the weight of the wooden block using the platform balance. The resisting force (F o) of
the load is equal to the weight of the block multiplied by the sine of the angle θ. Enter
obtained value in Table 10.1.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 10.1. Make the angle of inclination of the plane
with the horizontal be 30o.

L
load

h


df
dL

Figure 10.1 Inclined Plane

3. Place the wooden block on the plane, attach a string to the block and pass the string
parallel to the plane over a pulley to a weight hanger.
4. Add weights to the hanger until the weight F i of hanger and the added weights will just
pull the block up the incline with uniform speed after it is started by giving it a slight push.
Record this value of Fi in Table 10.1.
5. Repeat Steps 2-4 but this time the angle of inclination of the plane is 45 o with the
horizontal.

B WHEEL AND AXLE

1. Set up the wheel and axle as shown in Figure 10.2 with the wooden block attached to the
smallest wheel (axle) and the weight hanger to the largest wheel (wheel).

- 40 -
 FI

SO SI

FO

Figure 10.2 Wheel and Axle

2. Find the required force on the largest wheel required to lift the load in uniform motion
after it is started by placing slotted masses on the weight hanger and enter obtained
values in Table 10.2.
3. Measure the corresponding displacements of the load and the force using the meter stick
and enter values in Table 10.2.
4. Measure the diameter of the wheel and axle used using the caliper and enter obtained
values in Table 10.2.
5. Repeat Steps 1-4 but this time, apply the force on the second largest wheel.

DATA AND RESULTS:

Angle of Inclination 30o 45o

Force Applied (Fi)
Resisting Force (Fo)
Displacement of Force (si)
Displacement of Load (so)
AMA
Experimental IMA
Efficiency
True IMA
% error

Table 10.1 Inclined Plane

1 2
Diameter of Wheel (D)
Diameter of Axle (d)

- 41 -
 Applied Force (Fi)
Load (Fo)
Displacement of Force (si)
Displacement of Load (so)
AMA
Experimental IMA
True IMA
Efficiency
% error

Table 10.2 Wheel and Axle

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

1. Get the True IMA for each machine by using respective equations below:
INCLINED PLANE:

WHEEL and AXLE:

2. Compute for the experimental value of IMA for each machine by taking the ratio of the
input and output displacements.

3. Compare these values from the true values by computing the percentage errors in the IMA
for each machine.

4. Determine the efficiency of each machine using Equation 10-3.

CONCLUSION:

NAME: ______________________________ COURSE/YR: _______________ DATE: ________

1. A pulley system has a mechanical advantage of 5 and it is used to lift a load of 1000N. If the
effort moves 2 meters, how far does the load move? If the machine has an efficiency of 80%,
how much effort is needed to move the load now?

- 42 -
2. A man uses wheel and axle to raise water from a deep well. A jar of water weighs 200 N. The
diameters of the wheel and axle are 10.0 and 0.50 cm, respectively. If the efficiency of the
machine is 85%, what effort is applied to the rim of the wheel to lift the load?

3. An inclined plane is used to push a 5000-N piano from the ground level to a point 1.2 m above
the ground level. The plane is 2.4 meters long and the effort needed to accomplish this task is
3500 N. Find the actual mechanical advantage, ideal mechanical advantage and the efficiency
of the machine.

4. The air conditioning unit operates at its rated load of 1 ½ hp for 10.0 hrs a day, 6 days a
week. Its efficiency is 90%. What is the monthly electric bill if electrical energy costs PHP1.50
per kwhr? (1 hp = 746 watts)

TORQUE: EQUILIBRIUM

The effect of a force in producing a change in the rotation of a body depends not only
upon the magnitude of the force but also upon the point at which it is applied and the direction in

- 43 -
which it acts. The torque, or moment of force, about any axis is the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of the force. The defining equation is

L = Fs

where L is the torque developed by the force F which acts at a perpendicular distance s from the
axis. This distance is frequently referred to as the lever arm.

A body is said to be in equilibrium if it has no translational or rotational acceleration. The

conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body are (1) the vector sum of all forces must be zero; (2)
when the forces are in a single plane, the algebraic sum of the torques about any axis must be
zero. The algebraic sign of a torque is perfectly arbitrary; for convenience counterclockwise
torques are usually called positive and clockwise torques negative.

The two conditions for equilibrium can be expressed mathematically below:

Fnet = 0 (Fnet = net force)

Lnet = 0 (Lnet = net torque)

The center of gravity of a body is the point at which all the weight of the body may be
considered to act. The weight, then, may always be used as a single force acting downward at the
center of gravity.

A common apparatus used to demonstrate the concept of torque is the demonstration

balance, which is shown in Figure 11.1 below.

Figure 11.1 Demonstration Balance

Laboratory Activity No. 11

Torque: Demonstration Balance

- 44 -
OBJECTIVES: To determine the center of gravity of a beam, the weight of the pans and the
weight of an unknown body using the demonstration balance.

MATERIALS: demonstration balance platform balance

unknown mass set of slotted masses
meterstick protractor

PROCEDURE:

A. LOCATING THE POSITION OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

1. Support the beam (meterstick), without the pans, from the lower knife edge. Slide the
meterstick through the frame until it balances in a horizontal position. The position of the
lower knife edge is the position of the center of gravity.

B. DETERMINING THE WEIGHTS OF THE PANS

1. Hang the two scale pans from the meterstick at the extreme ends. Slide one of them until
the beam is again balanced in a horizontal position. Record the positions of each pan.
Sketch the set-up, showing the positions observed. Be sure to identify pan 1 from pan 2.
2. Add a 50-g slotted mass to one pan. Slide this pan until the beam is balanced in a
horizontal position. In doing this, be sure not to move the other pan. Record the positions
of the pans and sketch the position observed.
3. Detach the pans and weigh them.

C. DETERMINING THE WEIGHT OF THE BEAM

1. Support the beam by the fixed knife-edge at the 75-cm mark. At the end of the short
section, hang one pan and add slotted masses on it until the beam balances in a horizontal
position. Record the positions of the pan, the fulcrum, and the center of gravity obtained
in A1. Sketch the set-up, showing the positions observed.
2. Using the platform balance, weigh the beam.

D. DETERMINING THE WEIGHT OF AN UNKNOWN MASS

1. With the fulcrum set at the center of gravity, place the pans at the extreme notches at the
end of the meterstick.

2. Place the unknown mass on the left pan and add masses to the right pan until the beam is
balanced at an angle of about 20o with the horizontal. Refer to Figure 11.2.

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 P2 + masses


S2
S1

Unknown mass +
P1

Figure 11.2

3. Using another meter stick, measure the moment arms L 1 and L2.
4. Weigh the unknown mass and determine the total weights of the pans.
5. Sketch the set-up, showing the positions and measurements observed.

DATA AND RESULTS:

By Direct
Unknown Weight By Torque Equation Percentage Error
Measurement
W1
W2

Table 11.1

Sketch 1:

Sketch 2:

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 Weight of Position of Position of Center of Weight of Beam System Percentage
Pan Pan Fulcrum Gravity Torque Direct Error
Equation Measurement

Table 11.2

Sketch:

Weight of Weight of Weight of s1 s2 Weight of Unknown Mass Percentage

Pan 1 Pan 2 Beam Torque Direct Error
Equation Measurement

Table 11.3

Sketch:

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

B.

1. Using the weights, W1 and W2 of the pans as unknown, write the equation of torque about
the fulcrum as the axis. Call this equation A.
2. From the data in Step 2, write another torque equation and call this equation B, then solve
for W1 and W2 from the resulting two simultaneous equations (equation A and equation B).
3. Compare these values with those obtained by weighing the pans by computing the
percentage error. Use the direct measurement of weight as the one giving the true values.

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C.

1. Compute the total weight of the pan by adding to its weight the weight of the added
masses.
2. Using the fulcrum as the axis, and using the obtained data in Procedure C1, write the
torque equation and solve for the unknown weight of the beam.
3. Compare the obtained value with that obtained by direct weighing. Use the latter as the
true value for the computation of the percentage error.

D.

1. Write the torque Equation using the total weight of the pans and the weight of the beam.
2. Solve for the unknown mass and again compute for the percentage error.

NOTE: Use the blank page for your computations.

CONCLUSION:

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- 49 -
 Laboratory Activity No. 12

Static Equilibrium: Simple Crane

OBJECTIVE: To verify by experiment the conditions for equilibrium.

MATERIALS: simple crane pulley

protractor (small)
Weight hanger set of slotted masses
meter stick 2pcs spring balance

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the simple crane as shown in Figure 12.1. Ensure that no two sides of the triangle
AOB are equal and no angle is a right angle when slotted masses are added on the weight
hanger. Make point B to be as low possible from point A.

Spring balance

A
O

Figure 12.1

2. Place a load of appropriate amount on the weight hanger. Using the meter stick, measure
lengths AB, BO, and AO.
3. Get the reading in the spring balance, S 1. The value you get is actually the tension in the
tie cord.
4. Attach the spring balance S2 at point O, and pull it in a direction along the boom until the
boom slacks at hinge B. The pin at point B must be loose to notice the slack. Record the
reading in S2. This value is the compression force in the boom. Enter the obtained values
of S1 and S2 along the Experimental row of Table 12.1.

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DATA AND RESULTS:

Length, L
Method F T
(m)
AB = Experimental
BO = Torque Equation
AO = Vector Diagram
Force Equation

Table 12.1

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

A. USING TORQUE EQUATION:

1. By choosing a scale that will give a large drawing, draw a diagram of triangle AOB of the
set-up, using the measured lengths AB, BO, and AO. Indicate by means of arrows the load
W, the tension in the cord T, and the compression force F.
2. Taking point A as one axis and point B as the other axis and on the same diagram, indicate
the moment arms (lever arms) of each of these forces. Measure the lengths of the
moment arms. (Do not forget to convert these lengths back to their original dimensions
using the scale used.)
3. Write the equation of torques about A and equation of torques about B (taking A and B as
the axis respectively). Use W as the known force. Using these two equations, solve for the
value of the tension T and compression force F and enter obtained values in Table 12.1.

B. USING VECTOR DIAGRAM:

1. By tip to tail method, draw the vector diagram of the forces in the system (i.e., W, T, and
F).
2. Label each vector and indicate the magnitude of W, and the angle formed by the vectors.
Solve for the values of F and T using trigonometry and enter obtained values in Table
12.1.

C. USING FORCE EQUATION:

1. Using the first diagram, or the diagram used in A above, determine the value of F and T
using the conditions:

Fv = 0 and Fh = 0

2. Enter obtained values of F and T in Table 12.1.

NOTE: Use the blank page for your computations.

CONCLUSION:

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NAME: _____________________________ COURSE/YR: ______________ DATE: ________

1. A person exerts a force of 45 N on the end of a door 84 cm wide. What is the magnitude
of the torque if the force is exerted (a) perpendicular to the door,a nd (b) at a 60 o angle to
the face of the door?

2. The bolts on the cylinder head of an engine require tightening to a torque of 80 m-N. If a
wrench is 30 cm long, what force perpendicular to the wrench must the mechanic exert at
its end?

3. Three boys are trying to balance on a seesaw, which consists of a fulcrum rock, acting as a
pivot at the center, and a very light board 3.6 m long. Two boys are already on either end.
One has a mass of 50 kg, and the other a mass of 35 kg. Where should the third boy,
whose mass is 25 kg place himself so as to balance the seesaw?

4. A 170-cm-tall person lies on a light (massless) board which is supported by two scales, one
under the feet and one beneath the top of the head. The two scales read, respectively,
31.6 and 35.6 kg. Where is the center of gravity of this person?

5. A meter stick with a mass of 230 g is supported horizontally by two vertical strings, one at
the 0-cm mark and the other at the 90-cm mark. (a) What is the tension in the string at 0
cm? (b) What is the tension in the string at 90 cm?

6. Two guy wires run from the top of a pole 2.6 m tall that supports volleyball net. The two
wires are anchored to the ground 2.0 m apart and each is 2.0 m from the pole. The
tension in each wire is 95 N. What is the tension in the net, assumed horizontal and
attached at the top of the pole?

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 MOMENTUM

Linear momentum is a vector quantity and it is defined as the product of the mass of the
moving body and its velocity.

Linear Momentum (p) = Mass (m) x Velocity (v)

The principle of the conservation of linear momentum states that the total linear momentum of the
colliding bodies just before the collision is equal to the total linear momentum of the colliding
bodies just after the collision. This principle is inherent in all types of collisions, either elastic or
inelastic.

In this experiment, a ballistic pendulum is used to verify this principle. This instrument is
also used for measuring the velocity of the metal ball. The metal ball is projected horizontally by a
spring gun. From the measured horizontal distance or range and the vertical height of fall of the
metal ball, one can determine its initial velocity by using the equation:

(13-1)

where: x = range
g = gravitational acceleration
y = vertical height of fall

If the metal ball is now projected horizontally toward the pendulum initially at rest, the two
colliding bodies stick together and travel with the same final velocity V f thru a certain angular
displacement where their center of gravity is raised through a measurable, h. Considering that the
total kinetic energy of the pendulum and the metal ball just after the collision is fully converted
into potential energy, one obtains the value of Vf using the equation:

½ (m + M) Vf2 = (m + M) gy (13-2)
or
(13-3)

where y is the vertical distance between the position of the center of gravity of the pendulum and
the metal ball at its average point on the rack and the position of the center of gravity of the
pendulum at its lowest point. After obtaining the value of V f, one can now show that,

mVo = (m +M) Vf (13-4)

Thus, the principle of conservation of linear momentum holds, but the total kinetic energy of the
system is not conserved.

Laboratory Activity No. 13

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 Conservation of Linear Momentum

OBJECTIVE: To verify by experiment the conservation of linear momentum.

MATERIALS: ballistic pendulum apparatus and accessories

carbon paper
meter stick
plumb bobs
platform balance
PROCEDURE:

1. Clamp the ballistic pendulum to the edge of the table with the base fairly horizontal. Fire
the gun and observe the spot where the ball hits the floor. Place a sheet of carbon paper
on this spot facing downward to define the exact point on the floor. Place some weights on
top of the carbon paper to hold it down. Fire the gun three times, leaving three marks on
the floor. See Figure 13.1 below.

SY

SX

Figure 13.1

2. Locate by means of a plumb bob the point on the floor vertically below the point of release
of the ball from the gun. Measure this vertical distance. From this point on the floor,
measure the distance to the three spots on the floor.
3. Release the pendulum from the rack and allow it to be at rest in its lowest position. Fire
the ball into the pendulum and note the tooth number on the rack at which it comes to
rest. Make three trials.
4. Compute the mean position of on the rack and place the pendulum at the tooth closest to
this mean position. Measure the height of the center of gravity of the ball and pendulum
combined above the surface of the base of the apparatus. Measure also the height of the
center of gravity with the pendulum at its lowest position.
5. Remove the pendulum from its support and measure its mass on the platform balance.
Measure also the mass of the ball. Care should be observed in handling the spring gun.
Never compress the spring unless one is ready to fire. AVOID STAYING IN FRONT OF THE
GUN.

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 Figure 13.2The Spring-gun Ballistic Pendulum

DATA AND RESULTS:

Height of fall (m)

Mean range (m)
Initial velocity of the ball just before collision (m/s)
Vertical height if the center of gravity is raised (m)
Mass of the ball, m (gm)
Mass of the pendulum, M (gm)
Momentum of the system just before collision (kg-m/s)
Momentum of the system just after collision (kg-m/s)
Kinetic energy of the system just before collision (kg-m2/s2)
Kinetic energy of the system just after collision (kg-m2/s2)
Difference in kinetic energy

Table 13.1

COMPUTATIONS AND ANALYSIS:

1. From the measurements of the horizontal ranges in Step 2, compute the mean range of
the ball. Using this mean range, the height of fall and the acceleration due to gravity,
calculate the initial velocity of the ball before the collision using Equation (12-1).

2. From the measurement of the heights of the center of gravity in Step 4, compute the
height through which the center of gravity is raised when the ball is fired into the
pendulum. Compute the velocity of the ball and pendulum combined just after the inelastic
collision. Consider the kinetic energy of the system just after collision as fully converted
into potential energy at the maximum height reached.

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 3. Compute the momentum of the system just before and just after the inelastic collision.
Compare these two quantities and try to account for the difference, if there is any.

4. Compute the kinetic energy of the system just before and just after the collision. Explain
why the kinetic energy just after is much smaller than that just before.

CONCLUSION:

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NAME: ________________________________ COURSE/YR: _______________ DATE: ________

1. A 0.50-kg ball makes an elastic head-on collision with a second ball initially at rest. The
ball moves off with a velocity half that of the first ball. (a) What is the mass of the second
ball? (b) Determine the fraction of kinetic energy transferred to the second ball.

2. Two objects of equal masses move with the same speed towards each other. After an
inelastic collision, they move off together with a speed 1/3 that of their original speed.
What was the angle between their initial directions?

3. A bullet of mass 30 g is fired from a gun into a 0.5 kg-block which is suspended by thin
threads from fixed points. The bullet remains embedded in the block and then they swing
together to a height of 2 cm. above their original level. Determine the muzzle velocity of
the bullet.

4. A particle of mass m1 has a head-on collision with a particle of mass m 2 at rest. If the
coefficient of restitution is e, calculate the energy loss in this collision.

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