PHYSICS

BASIC LAWS AND

CONCEPTS

PHYSICS

- major science, dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the
forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces.
Sometimes in modern physics a more sophisticated approach is taken that
incorporates elements of the three areas listed above; it relates to the laws of
symmetry and conservation, such as those pertaining to energy, momentum,
charge, and parity.

VECTORS AND SCALARS

Vectors and Net Force
Often, an object will have many forces acting
on it simultaneously. Calculating the effect of
each of the forces separately can be
extremely complex and difficult. However,
forces are vectors, and as such, any number
of forces can be combined into a single net
force vector (R) from which the object’s
behavior can be determined.

Scalar – a measure with magnitude but no direction.

(e.g., distance, mass, speed)

Vectors – a measure with both magnitude and

direction.
(e.g., force, acceleration, velocity)

Mechanics

Mechanics, branch of physics concerning the motions of objects and their response
to forces. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a careful definition of
such quantities as displacement (distance moved), time, velocity, acceleration,
mass, and force. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a
very different point of view. For example, following the ideas of Greek philosopher
and scientist Aristotle, scientists reasoned that a cannonball falls down because its
natural position is in the earth; the sun, the moon, and the stars travel in circles
around the earth because it is the nature of heavenly objects to travel in perfect
circles.

The Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo brought together the ideas of other
great thinkers of his time and began to analyze motion in terms of distance traveled
from some starting position and the time that it took. He showed that the speed of
falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall. This acceleration is the
same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction (air resistance) is
discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton improved this
analysis by defining force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects
traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by
Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s
laws were superseded by quantum theory. For everyday phenomena, however,
Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the
study of what causes motion.

Kinetics

Falling objects accelerate in

response to the force
exerted on them by Earth’s
gravity. Different objects
accelerate at the same
rate, regardless of their
mass. This illustration
shows the speed at which a
ball and a cat would be
moving and the distance
each would have fallen at
intervals of a tenth of a
second during a short fall.

Kinetics is the description of motion without regard to what causes the motion.
Velocity (the time rate of change of position) is defined as the distance traveled
divided by the time interval. Velocity may be measured in such units as kilometers
per hour, miles per hour, or meters per second. Acceleration is defined as the time
rate of change of velocity: the change of velocity divided by the time interval during
the change. Acceleration may be measured in such units as meters per second per
second or feet per second per second. Regarding the size or weight of the moving
object, no mathematical problems are presented if the object is very small compared
with the distances involved. If the object is large, it contains one point, called the
center of mass, the motion of which can be described as characteristic of the whole
object. If the object is rotating, it is frequently convenient to describe its rotation
about an axis that goes through the center of mass.

To fully describe the motion of an object, the direction of the displacement must be
given. Velocity, for example, has both magnitude (a scalar quantity measured, for
example, in meters per second) and direction (measured, for example, in degrees
of arc from a reference point). The magnitude of velocity is called speed.

Several special types of motion are easily described. First, velocity may be constant.
In the simplest case, the velocity might be zero; position would not change during
the time interval. With constant velocity, the average velocity is equal to the velocity
at any particular time. If time, t, is measured with a clock starting at t = 0, then the
distance, d, traveled at constant velocity, v, is equal to the product of velocity and
time.

d = vt

In the second special type of motion, acceleration is constant. Because the velocity
is changing, instantaneous velocity, or the velocity at a given instant, must be
defined. For constant acceleration, a, starting with zero velocity ( v = 0) at t = 0,
the instantaneous velocity at time, t, is

v = at
The distance traveled during this time is

d = at2

An important feature revealed in this equation is the dependence of distance on the

square of the time (t2, or “t squared,” is the short way of notating t × t). A heavy
object falling freely (uninfluenced by air friction) near the surface of the earth
undergoes constant acceleration. In this case the acceleration is
9.8 m/sec/sec (32 ft/sec/sec). At the end of the first second, a ball would have
fallen 4.9 m (16 ft) and would have a speed of 9.8 m/sec (32 ft/sec). At the end
of the second second, the ball would have
fallen 19.6 m (64 ft) and would have a speed of 19.6 m/sec (64 ft/sec).

Circular motion is another simple type of motion. If an object has constant speed but
an acceleration always at right angles to its velocity, it will travel in a circle. The
required acceleration is directed toward the center of the circle and is called
centripetal acceleration (see Centripetal Force). For an object traveling at speed, v,
in a circle of radius, r, the centripetal acceleration is

Another simple type of motion that is frequently observed occurs when a ball is
thrown at an angle into the air. Because of gravitation, the ball undergoes a
constant downward acceleration that first slows its original upward speed and then
increases its downward speed as it falls back to earth. Meanwhile the horizontal
component of the original velocity remains constant (ignoring air resistance),
making the ball travel at a constant speed in the horizontal direction until it hits the
earth. The vertical and horizontal components of the motion are independent, and
they can be analyzed separately. The resulting path of the ball is in the shape of a
parabola.

DYNAMICS

To understand why and how objects accelerate, force and mass must be defined. At
the intuitive level, a force is just a push or a pull. It can be measured in terms of
either of two effects. A force can either distort something, such as a spring, or
accelerate an object. The first effect can be used in the calibration of a spring scale,
which can in turn be used to measure the amplitude of a force: the greater the force,
 F, the greater the stretch, x. For many springs, over a limited range, the stretch is
proportional to the force

F = kx
where k is a constant that depends on the nature of the spring material and its dimensions.

Components of Velocity
Neglecting air resistance, a ball thrown into the
air at an angle will travel in a parabolic path. The
velocity of the ball (V) has independent vertical
(V) and horizontal (H) components; the horizontal
component stays the same the entire time the
ball is in the air, while the vertical component, the
only component affected by gravity, changes
continuously while the ball is aloft.

TORQUE

For equilibrium, all the horizontal components of the force must cancel one another,
and all the vertical components must cancel one another as well. This condition is
necessary for equilibrium, but not sufficient. For example, if a person stands a book
up on a table and pushes on the book equally hard with one hand in one direction
and with the other hand in the other direction, the book will remain motionless if the
person’s hands are opposite each other. (The net result is that the book is being
squeezed). If, however, one hand is near the top of the book and the other hand
near the bottom, a torque is produced, and the book will fall on its side. For
equilibrium to exist it is also necessary that the sum of the torques about any axis
be zero.

A torque is the product of a force and the perpendicular distance to a turning axis.
When a force is applied to a heavy door to open it, the force is exerted
perpendicularly to the door and at the greatest distance from the hinges. Thus, a
maximum torque is created. If the door were shoved with the same force at a point
halfway between the handle and hinge, the torque would be only half of its previous
magnitude. If the force were applied parallel to the door (that is, edge-on), the
torque would be zero. For an object to be in equilibrium, the clockwise torques about
any axis must be canceled by the counterclockwise torques about that axis.
Therefore, one could prove that if the torques cancel for any particular axis, they
cancel for all axes.

NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION

Acceleration and Newton's Laws

Newton’s second law states that the net force on
an object is proportional to the acceleration that
object undergoes. If there is no net force, then
 according to Newton’s first law, there can be no
acceleration. A book on a table experiences a
downward force due to gravity, and an upward
force due to the table pushing on the book (called
the normal force). The two forces cancel each
other out exactly; there is no net force, so the
book does not accelerate off the table.

Newton’s first law of motion states that if the vector sum of the forces acting on
an object is zero, then the object will remain at rest or remain moving at constant
velocity. If the force exerted on an object is zero, the object does not necessarily
have zero velocity. Without any forces acting on it, including friction, an object in
motion will continue to travel at constant velocity.

The Second Law

Newton’s second law relates net force and acceleration. A net force on an object will
accelerate it—that is, change its velocity. The acceleration will be proportional to the
magnitude of the force and in the same direction as the force. The proportionality
constant is the mass, m, of the object.

F = ma

In the International System of Units (also known as SI, after the initials of Système
International), acceleration, a, is measured in meters per second per second. Mass
is measured in kilograms; force, F, in newtons. A newton is defined as the force
necessary to impart to a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/sec/sec; this is
equivalent to about 0.2248 lb.

A massive object will require a greater force for a given acceleration than a small,
light object. What is remarkable is that mass, which is a measure of the inertia of an
object (inertia is its reluctance to change velocity), is also a measure of the
gravitational attraction that the object exerts on other objects. It is surprising and
profound that the inertial property and the gravitational property are determined by
the same thing. The implication of this phenomenon is that it is impossible to
distinguish at a point whether the point is in a gravitational field or in an accelerated
frame of reference. Einstein made this one of the cornerstones of his general theory
of relativity, which is the currently accepted theory of gravitation.

Friction
Microscopic bumps on surfaces cause
friction. When two surfaces contact
each other, tiny bumps on each of
the surfaces tend to run into each
other, preventing the surfaces from
 moving past each other smoothly. An
effective lubricant forms a layer
between two surfaces that prevents
the bumps on the surfaces from
contacting each other; as a result
the surfaces move past each other
easily.

Friction acts like a force applied in the direction opposite to an object’s velocity. For
dry sliding friction, where no lubrication is present, the friction force is almost
independent of velocity. Also, the friction force does not depend on the apparent
area of contact between an object and the surface upon which it slides. The actual
contact area—that is, the area where the microscopic bumps on the object and
sliding surface are actually touching each other—is relatively small. As the object
moves across the sliding surface, the tiny bumps on the object and sliding surface
collide, and force is required to move the bumps past each other. The actual contact
area depends on the perpendicular force between the object and sliding surface.
Frequently this force is just the weight of the sliding object. If the object is pushed
at an angle to the horizontal, however, the downward vertical component of the
force will, in effect, add to the weight of the object. The friction force is proportional
to the total perpendicular force.

Where friction is present, Newton’s second law is expanded to

The left side of the equation is simply the net effective force. (Acceleration will be
constant in the direction of the effective force). When an object moves through a
liquid, however, the magnitude of the friction depends on the velocity. For most
human-size objects moving in water or air (at subsonic speeds), the resulting
friction is proportional to the square of the speed. Newton’s second law then
becomes

The proportionality constant, k, is characteristic of the two materials that are sliding
past each other, and depends on the area of contact between the two surfaces and
the degree of streamlining of the moving object.

The Third Law

Newton’s third law of motion states that an object experiences a force because it is
interacting with some other object. The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 must
be of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction as the force that object 2
exerts on object 1. If, for example, a large adult gently shoves away a child on a
skating rink, in addition to the force the adult imparts on the child, the child imparts
an equal but oppositely directed force on the adult. Because the mass of the adult is
larger, however, the acceleration of the adult will be smaller.
Newton’s third law also requires the conservation of momentum, or the product of
mass and velocity. For an isolated system, with no external forces acting on it, the
momentum must remain constant. In the example of the adult and child on the
skating rink, their initial velocities are zero, and thus the initial momentum of the
system is zero. During the interaction, internal forces are at work between adult and
child, but net external forces equal zero. Therefore, the momentum of the system
must remain zero.
After the adult pushes the child away, the product of the large mass and small
velocity of the adult must equal the product of the small mass and large velocity of
the child. The momenta are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, thus adding
to zero.

Another conserved quantity of great importance is angular (rotational) momentum.

The angular momentum of a rotating object depends on its speed of rotation, its
mass, and the distance of the mass from the axis. When a skater standing on a
friction-free point spins faster and faster, angular momentum is conserved despite
the increasing speed. At the start of the spin, the skater’s arms are outstretched.
Part of the mass is therefore at a large radius. As the skater’s arms are lowered,
thus decreasing their distance from the axis of rotation, the rotational speed must
increase in order to maintain constant angular momentum.

ENERGY

Energy of a
Pendulum
A moving pendulum
changes potential
energy into kinetic
energy and back again.
When the bob (weight
on the end of string) is
first released, it has
potential energy due to
its height, but no
kinetic energy since it
is not yet moving. As
the bob accelerates
downward, potential
energy is traded for
kinetic. At the bottom
of its swing, the bob
has no potential
energy since it cannot
fall any further. The
bob is moving quickly
at this point since all of
 its former potential
energy has been
transformed into
kinetic energy.

The quantity called energy ties together all branches of physics. In the field of
mechanics, energy must be provided to do work; work is defined as the product of
force and the distance an object moves in the direction of the force. When a force is
exerted on an object but the force does not cause the object to move, no work is
done. Energy and work are both measured in the same units—ergs, joules, or foot-
pounds, for example.

If work is done lifting an object to a greater height, energy has been stored in the
form of gravitational potential energy. Many other forms of energy exist: electric
and magnetic potential energy; kinetic energy; energy stored in stretched springs,
compressed gases, or molecular bonds; thermal energy; and mass itself. In all
transformations from one kind of energy to another, the total energy is conserved.
For instance, if work is done on a rubber ball to raise it, its gravitational potential
energy is increased. If the ball is then dropped, the gravitational potential energy is
transformed to kinetic energy. When the ball hits the ground, it becomes distorted
and thereby creates friction between the molecules of the ball material. This friction
is transformed into heat, or thermal energy.

Electricity

Electricity, one of the basic forms of energy. Electricity is associated with electric
charge, a property of certain elementary particles such as electrons and protons,
two of the basic particles that make up the atoms of all ordinary matter. Electric
charges can be stationary, as in static electricity, or moving, as in an electric
current.

Projectile, in military terminology, a missile discharged from small arms or from

artillery weapons or a self-propelled weapon such as a rocket or a torpedo, or
guided missiles. The terms projectile, shell, and missile are loosely interchangeable,
but in modern military usage projectile is preferable as a more precise term. In
physics and ballistics, a projectile is any body projected through space.

ELECTRIC CHARGE

Electricity consists of charges carried by electrons, protons, and other particles.

Electric charge comes in two forms: positive and negative. Electrons and protons
both carry exactly the same amount of electric charge, but the positive charge of the
proton is exactly opposite the negative charge of the electron. If an object has more
protons than electrons, it is said to be positively charged; if it has more electrons
than protons, it is said to be negatively charged. If an object contains as many
protons as electrons, the charges will cancel each other and the object is said to be
uncharged, or electrically neutral.
Electricity occurs in two forms: static electricity and electric current. Static electricity
consists of electric charges that stay in one place. An electric current is a flow of
electric charges between objects or locations.

Static electricity can be produced by rubbing together two objects made of

different materials. Electrons move from the surface of one object to the surface of
the other if the second material holds onto its electrons more strongly than the first
does. The object that gains electrons becomes negatively charged, since it now has
more electrons than protons. The object that gives up electrons becomes positively
charged. For example, if a nylon comb is run through clean, dry hair, some of the
electrons on the hair are transferred to the comb. The comb becomes negatively
charged and the hair becomes positively charged. The following materials are named
in decreasing order of their ability to hold electrons: rubber, silk, glass, flannel, and
fur (or hair). If any two of these materials are rubbed together, the material earlier
in the list becomes negative, and the material later in the list becomes positive. The
materials should be clean and dry.

Coulomb’s Law

Objects with opposite charges attract each other, and objects with similar charges
repel each other. Coulomb’s law, formulated by French physicist Charles Augustin de
Coulomb during the late 18th century, quantifies the strength of the attraction or
repulsion. This law states that the force between two charged objects is directly
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. The greater the charges on the objects, the larger the
force between them; the greater the distance between the objects, the lesser the
force between them. The unit of electric charge, also named after Coulomb, is equal
to the combined charges of 6.24 × 1018 protons (or electrons).

Electric current - is a movement of charge. When two objects with different

charges touch and redistribute their charges, an electric current flows from one
object to the other until the charge is distributed according to the capacitances of
the objects. If two objects are connected by a material that lets charge flow easily,
such as a copper wire, then an electric current flows from one object to the other
through the wire. Electric current can be demonstrated by connecting a small light
bulb to an electric battery by two copper wires. When the connections are properly
made, current flows through the wires and the bulb, causing the bulb to glow.
Electric current is measured in units called amperes (amp). If 1 coulomb of charge
flows past each point of a wire every second, the wire is carrying a current of 1 amp.

Conductors are materials that allow an electric current to flow through them easily.
Most metals are good conductors.

Insulators Substances that do not allow electric current to flow through them are.
Rubber, glass, and air are common insulators. Electricians wear rubber gloves so
that electric current will not pass from electrical equipment to their bodies.

Voltage, or Potential Difference

When the two terminals of a battery are connected by a conductor, an electric

current flows through the conductor. One terminal continuously sends electrons into
the conductor, while the other continuously receives electrons from it. The current
flow is caused by the voltage, or potential difference, between the terminals. The
more willing the terminals are to give up and receive electrons, the higher the
voltage. Voltage is measured in units called volts. Another name for a voltage
produced by a source of electric current is electromotive force.

Resistance

A conductor allows an electric current to flow through it, but it does not permit the
current to flow with perfect freedom. Collisions between the electrons and the atoms
of the conductor interfere with the flow of electrons. This phenomenon is known as
resistance. Resistance is measured in units called ohms. The symbol for ohms is the
Greek letter omega, Ω.

Ohm’s Law

The relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is given by Ohm’s law.
This law states that the amount of current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage across the conductor and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the conductor. Ohm’s law can be expressed as an equation, V = IR,
where V is the difference in volts between two locations (called the potential
difference), I is the amount of current in amperes that is flowing between these two
points, and R is the resistance in ohms of the conductor between the two locations of
interest. V = IR can also be written R
= V/I and I = V/R. If any two of the quantities are known, the third can be
calculated. For example, if a potential difference of 110 volts sends a 10-amp current
through a conductor, then the resistance of the conductor is R = V/I = 110/10 = 11
ohms. If V = 110 and R = 11, then I = V/R = 110/11 = 10 amp.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit is an arrangement of electric current sources and conducting paths

through which a current can continuously flow. There are two basic ways in which
the parts of a circuit are arranged. One arrangement is called a series circuit, and
the other is called a parallel circuit.

Series Circuits

If various objects are arranged to form a single conducting path between the
terminals of a source of electric current, the objects are said to be connected in
series. The electron current first passes from the negative terminal of the source into
the first object, then flows through the other objects one after another, and finally
returns to the positive terminal of the source. The current is the same throughout
the circuit. In the example of the light bulb, the wires, bulb, switch, and fuse are
connected in series.

Parallel Circuits

If various objects are connected to form separate paths between the terminals of a
source of electric current, they are said to be connected in parallel. Each separate
path is called a branch of the circuit. Current from the source splits up and enters
 the various branches. After flowing through the separate branches, the current
merges again before reentering the current source.

MAGNETISM

Magnetism, an aspect of electromagnetism, one of the fundamental forces of

nature. Magnetic forces are produced by the motion of charged particles such as
electrons, indicating the close relationship between electricity and magnetism. The
unifying frame for these two forces is called electromagnetic theory (see
Electromagnetic Radiation). The most familiar evidence of magnetism is the
attractive or repulsive force observed to act between magnetic materials such as
iron. More subtle effects of magnetism, however, are found in all matter. In recent
times these effects have provided important clues to the atomic structure of matter.

LIGHT

Light, form of energy visible to the human eye that is radiated by moving charged
particles. Light from the Sun provides the energy needed for plant growth. Plants
convert the energy in sunlight into storable chemical form through a process called
photosynthesis.

Light Absorption and Emission When a photon, or packet of light energy, is absorbed by an
atom, the atom gains the energy of the photon, and one of the atom’s electrons may jump to
a higher energy level. The atom is then said to be excited. When an electron of an excited
atom falls to a lower energy level, the atom may emit the electron’s excess energy in the form
of a photon. The energy levels, or
orbitals, of the atoms shown here have been greatly simplified to illustrate
these absorption and emission processes. For a more accurate depiction of
electron orbitals, see the Atom article.

WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY, AND AMPLITUDE

The wavelength of a monochromatic wave is the distance between two consecutive

wave peaks. Wavelengths of visible light can be measured in meters or in
nanometers (nm), which are one-billionth of a meter (or about 0.4 ten-millionths of
an inch). Frequency corresponds to the number of wavelengths that pass by a
certain point in space in a given amount of time. This value is usually measured in
cycles per second, or hertz (Hz). All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed,
so in one second, more short waves will pass by a point in space than will long
waves. This means that shorter waves have a higher frequency than longer waves.
The relationship between wavelength, speed, and frequency is expressed by the
equation: wave speed equals wavelength times frequency, or

c = lf

Where c is the speed of a light wave in m/sec (3x108 m/sec in a vacuum), l is the
wavelength in meters, and f is the wave’s frequency in Hz.

The amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is the height of the wave, measured from
a point midway between a peak and a trough to the peak of the wave. This height
corresponds to the maximum strength of the electric and magnetic fields and to the
number of photons in the light.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light,
visible light, ultraviolet light, x rays, and gamma rays. Visible light, which makes up
only a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, is the only electromagnetic
radiation that humans can perceive with their eyes.

BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT

Light behavior can be divided into two categories: how light interacts with matter
and how light travels, or propagates through space or through transparent
materials. The propagation of light has much in common with the propagation of
other kinds of waves, including sound waves and water waves.
 Interaction with Material

Separation of White Light into Colored

Light
Light from many sources, such as the sun,
appears white. When white light passes
through a prism, however, it separates
into a spectrum of different colors. The
prism bends, or refracts, light of different
colors at different angles. Red light bends
the least and violet light bends the most.

When light strikes a material, it interacts

with the atoms in the material, and the
corresponding effects depend on

the frequency of the light and the atomic structure of the material. In transparent
materials, the electrons in the material oscillate, or vibrate, while the light is present.
This oscillation momentarily takes energy away from the light and then puts it back
again. The result is to slow down the light wave without leaving energy behind.

Refract ion of Light Refract ion is the bendin g of a light ray as it passes from one substa nce
to anotherr. The light ray bends at an angle that depen ds on the difference between the
speed of light in one substance and the next. Sunlight reflecting off a fish in water, for
instance, changes to a higher speed and bends when it enters air. The light appears to
originate from a place in the water above the fish’s actual position.

Refraction

Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one kind of material into
another. Because light travels at a different speed in different materials, it must
change speeds at the boundary between two materials.

Reflection

Reflection also occurs when light hits the boundary between two materials. Some of
the light hitting the boundary will be reflected into the first material. If light strikes
the boundary at an angle, the light is reflected at the same angle, similar to the way
balls bounce when they hit the floor.
Scattering

Scattering occurs when the atoms of a transparent material are not smoothly
distributed over distances greater than the length of a light wave, but are bunched
up into lumps of molecules or particles. The sky is bright because molecules and
particles in the air scatter sunlight.

The Speed of Light

Scientists have defined the speed of light in a vacuum to be exactly 299,792,458

meters per second (about 186,000 miles per second).
SOUND

Sound, physical phenomenon that stimulates the sense of hearing. In humans,

hearing takes place whenever vibrations of frequencies from 15 hertz to about
20,000 hertz reach the inner ear. The hertz (Hz) is a unit of frequency equaling one
vibration or cycle per second. Such vibrations reach the inner ear when they are
transmitted through air. The speed of sound varies, but at sea level it travels
through cool, dry air at about 1,190 km/h (740 mph). The term sound is sometimes
restricted to such airborne vibrational waves. Modern physicists, however, usually
extend the term to include similar vibrations in other gaseous, liquid, or solid media.
Physicists also include vibrations of any frequency in any media, not just those that
would be audible to humans. Sounds of frequencies above the range of normal
human hearing, higher than about 20,000 Hz, are called ultrasonic.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Frequency

Frequency
We perceive frequency as “higher” or “lower” sounds. The frequency of a sound is
the number of cycles, or oscillations, a sound wave completes in a given time.
Frequency is measured in hertz, or cycles per second. In these examples, the
frequency of each higher wave is double that of the one below, producing the same
note at different frequencies, from 110.00 Hz to 880.00 Hz. Waves propagate at
both higher and lower frequencies, but humans are unable to hear them outside of a
relatively narrow range.

Amplitude
Amplitude and Volume Amplitude is the characterist ic of sound waves that we
perceive as volume. The maximum distance a wave travels from the normal, or
zero, position is the amplitude; this distance corresponds to the degree of motion in
the air molecules of a wave. As the degree of motion in the molecules is increased,
they strike the ear drum with progressively greater force. This causes the ear to
perceive a louder sound. A comparison of samples at low, medium, and high
amplitudes demonstrates the change in sound caused by altering amplitude. These
three waves have the same frequency, and so should sound the same except for a
perceptible volume difference.
Intensity

Sound Intensities
Sound intensities are measured in decibels (dB). For example, the intensity at the
threshold of hearing is 0 dB, the intensity of whispering is typically about 10 dB, and
the intensity of rustling leaves reaches almost 20 dB. Sound intensities are arranged
on a logarithmic scale, which means that an increase of 10 dB corresponds to an
increase in intensity by a factor of 10. Thus, rustling leaves are about 10 times
louder than whispering.

Quality

Quality is the characteristic of sound that allows the ear to distinguish between
tones created by different instruments, even when the sound waves are identical in
amplitude and frequency. Overtones are additional components in the wave that
vibrate in simple multiples of the base frequency, causing the differences in quality,
or timbre. The ear perceives distinctly different qualities in the same note when it is
produced by a tuning fork, a violin, and a piano.

Speed of Sound

The speed of sound in dry, sea level air at a temperature of 0°C (32°F) is 332 m/sec
(1,088 ft/sec). The speed of sound in air varies under different conditions. If the
temperature is increased, for example, the speed of sound increases; thus, at 20°C
(68°F), the speed of sound is 344 m/sec (1,129 ft/sec). The speed of sound is
different in other gases of greater or lesser density than air. The molecules of some
gases, such as carbon dioxide, are heavier and move less readily than molecules of
air. Sound progresses through such gases more slowly.

Decibel Scale
The decibel scale is used primarily to compare sound intensities although it can be
used to compare voltages.
Decibels Typical
sound
0 threshold of hearing
10 rustle of leaves in gentle
breeze
10 quiet whisper
20 average whisper
20-50 quiet conversation
40-45 hotel; theater (between
performances)
50-65 loud conversation
65-70 traffic on busy street
65-90 Train
75-80 factory (light/medium work)
90 heavy traffic
90- Thunder
100
110-140 jet aircraft at takeoff
130 threshold of pain
140-190 space rocket at takeoff

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Nuclear Fusion

The release of nuclear energy can occur at the low end of the binding energy curve
(see accompanying chart) through the fusion of two light nuclei into a heavier one.
The energy radiated by stars, including the Sun, arises from such fusion reactions
deep in their interiors. At the enormous pressure and at temperatures above 15
million ° C (27 million ° F) existing there, hydrogen nuclei combine according to
equation (1) and give rise to most of the energy released by the Sun.
Fission and Fusion
Nuclear energy can be released in two different ways: fission, the splitting of a large
nucleus, and fusion, the combining of two small nuclei. In both cases energy—
measured in millions of electron volts (MeV)—is released because the products are
more stable (have a higher binding energy) than the reactants. Fusion reactions are
difficult to maintain because the nuclei repel each other, but fusion creates much
less radioactive waste than does fission.