FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

PROGRAM:B.ED SP AND FET TEACHING: NATURAL SCIENCES

PRACTICAL GUIDE

NATURAL SCIENCE SENIOR PHASE

(SP) 1
2022

COMPILED BY

Mrs L. Mogotsi

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 INDEX

BASIC APPARATUS 4

BASIC TERMS 13

CELLS AND TISSUES 17

CELLULAR METABOLISM 20

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 21

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 23

URINARY SYSTEM 24

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 25

ECOLOGY 26

PLANT TISSUES 27

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 28

BIBLIOGRAPHY 29

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SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

1. Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all

times in the laboratory.

2. Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. 

If you do not understand a direction or part of a
procedure, ASK YOUR INSTRUCTOR BEFORE
PROCEEDING WITH THE ACTIVITY.

3. Never work alone in the laboratory.  No student

may work in the science room without the presence of
the teacher.

4. When first entering a science room, do not touch

any equipment, chemicals, or other materials in the
laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.

5. Perform only those experiments authorized by your

instructor.  Carefully follow all instructions, both
written and oral.  Unauthorized experiments are not
allowed.

6. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in

the laboratory.  Do not use laboratory glassware as
containers for food or beverages.
7. Be prepared for your work in the laboratory.  Read
all procedures thoroughly before entering the
laboratory.  Never fool around in the laboratory. 
Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks are dangerous
and prohibited. 

8. Always work in a well-ventilated area. 

9. Observe good housekeeping practices.  Work

areas should be kept clean and tidy at all times. 

10. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in

the laboratory.  Notify the teacher immediately of any
unsafe conditions you observe.

11. Dispose of all chemical waste properly.  Never

mix chemicals in sink drains.  Sinks are to be used
only for water. Check with your teacher for disposal of
chemicals and solutions. 

12. Labels and equipment instructions must be read

carefully before use.  Set up and use the equipment
as directed by your teacher.

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 13. Keep hands away from face, eyes, mouth, and
body while using chemicals or lab equipment.  Wash
your hands with soap and water after performing all
experiments. 

14. Experiments must be personally monitored at all

times.  Do not wander around the room, distract other
students, startle other students or interfere with the
laboratory experiments of others.

15. Know the locations and operating procedures of

all safety equipment including: first aid kit(s), and fire
extinguisher.  Know where the fire alarm and the exits
are located.

16. Know what to do if there is a fire drill during a

laboratory period; containers must be closed, and any
electrical equipment turned off.
CLOTHING 17. Any time chemicals, heat, or glassware are used,
students will wear safety goggles. NO EXCEPTIONS
TO THIS RULE!

18. Contact lenses may be not be worn in the

laboratory.

19. Dress properly during a laboratory activity.  Long

hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy clothing
are a hazard in the laboratory.  Long hair must be tied
back, and dangling jewelry and baggy clothing must
be secured.  Shoes must completely cover the foot. 
No sandals allowed on lab days.

20. A lab coat or smock should be worn during

laboratory experiments.

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES 21.   Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or
injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the teacher immediately, no
matter how trivial it seems.  Do not panic. 

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 22. If you or your lab partner is hurt, immediately (and
loudly) yell out the instructor's name to get his/ her
attention.  Do not panic. 

23. If a chemical should splash in your eye(s) or on

your skin, immediately flush with running water for at
least 20 minutes.  Immediately (and loudly) yell out
the instructor's name to get his/ her attention. 

 
24. All chemicals in the laboratory are to be
HANDLING CHEMICALS considered dangerous. Avoid handling chemicals with
fingers. Always use a tweezer. When making an
observation, keep at least 1 foot away from the
specimen. Do not taste, or smell any chemicals. 

25. Check the label on all chemical bottles twice

before removing any of the contents.  Take only as
much chemical as you need.

26. Never return unused chemicals to their original

container.

27. Never remove chemicals or other materials from

the laboratory area.

28. Never handle broken glass with your bare hands. 

HANDLING GLASSWARE AND Use a brush and dustpan to clean up broken glass. 
EQUIPMENT Place broken glass in the designated glass disposal
container.

29. Examine glassware before each use.  Never use

chipped, cracked, or dirty glassware.

30. If you do not understand how to use a piece of

equipment, ASK YOUR INSTRUCTOR FOR HELP!

31. Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water.  The

glassware may shatter.

HEATING SUBSTANCES 32. Do not operate a hot plate by yourself.  Take care
that hair, clothing, and hands are a safe distance from
the hot plate at all times.  Use of hot plate is only
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 allowed in the presence of the instructor.

33. Heated glassware remain very hot for a long

time.  They should be set aside in a designated place
to cool, and picked up with caution.  Use tongs or
heat protective gloves if necessary.

34. Never look into a container that is being heated.

35. Do not place hot apparatus directly on the

laboratory desk.  Always use an insulated pad.  Allow
plenty of time for hot apparatus to cool before
touching it.

HOW TO WORK IN A BIOLOGY LABORATORY

The laboratory is a classroom with a difference. You will find that in science
classes you will receive lessons where you will work at your place on your
bench. You will also find yourself doing practical work in the laboratory. In
practical work we will be carrying out observations or doing experiments to
test your ideas.

Practical work is interesting and you will learn to use the methods and
equipment that a scientist uses.

Some of the experiments that you will do are very precise and delicate. Some of
the chemicals and equipment that you will use could be dangerous if you do not use
them properly. If you are careful, however, there will be no risk and the results of
your investigations will be accurate.

During practical work you will carry out experiments and make observations.

So that your work in the laboratory is safe and interesting we have a number
of rules in the laboratory. You will see they are not rules to stop you from
enjoying science, they are rules which make sense.

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Basic equipment

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 SCIENTIFIC METHODS

INTRODUCTION:

In this lab you will learn to form a hypothesis, conduct experiments

around that hypothesis, and collect and analyze data.
One of the most important characteristics of modern science is its
quantitative approach to solving problems. One of the first scientists to
use quantitative methods was William Harvey, who discovered that
blood circulated through the body. At the time Harvey began his work,
anatomists believed that the liver produced blood from the food that the
body consumed. The blood was then carried by veins to the heart,
purified in the lungs, and then pumped to the various organs of the
body, where it was consumed. Harvey measured that the left ventricle
of the heart held roughly 100 ml of blood. He also measured that the
heart beats an average of 64 times per minute.
QUESTION 1: From the information above, and assuming that 1 ml of
blood weighs 1 g, how much blood would the body need to produce
per hour (in g/hr.) to replace the blood consumed by the organs?
________ g/hr.

Harvey hypothesized that the same blood must circulate continuously

throughout the body.

MATERIALS:

Watch with second hand, or clock

PROCEDURE:

1. While sitting quietly at your desk, find the pulse in your wrist and
count the beats for one minute. You and your lab partner can do
this on yourselves, or each other. Record the names of both subjects
and their beats per minute heart rate on DATA TABLE 1 as sample 1.

2. Repeat step 1 two more times for each subject. Record the data in
the appropriate place on DATA TABLE 1.

3. Calculate the average pulse rate for each subject and record the
results on DATA TABLE 1.

How do you think standing or holding your breath will affect your
pulse rate?

QUESTION 2: Choose one of these activities and formulate a

hypothesis about its effect on pulse rate. What is the independent
variable? What is the dependent variable?

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________________________________________________________
__________
________________________________________________________
__________
________________________________________________________
__________
________________________________________________________
__________

4. Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 for each subject, this time with the subjects
standing or holding their breath. Record your data and calculations in
the appropriate DATA TABLE.

DATA TABLE 1: Resting heart rate:

AVERAGE NUMBER
NUMBER OF BEATS PER
OF
MINUTE
BEATS PER MINUTE
SUBJECT sample 1 sample 2 sample 3

DATA TABLE 2: Heart rate standing:

AVERAGE NUMBER
NUMBER OF BEATS PER
OF
MINUTE
BEATS PER MINUTE
SUBJECT sample 1 sample 2 sample 3

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 DATA TABLE 3: Heart rate holding breath:
AVERAGE NUMBER
NUMBER OF BEATS PER
OF
MINUTE
BEATS PER MINUTE
SUBJECT sample 1 sample 2 sample 3

CONCLUSIONS:

5. Compare your data from step 4 with your data from step 3.

QUESTION 3: How do your results in step 4 compare with the

hypothesis you made?
________________________________________________________
__________
________________________________________________________
__________

QUESTION 4: What measurement did you use as a control in this

investigation?
________________________________________________________
__________

QUESTION 5: What are some possible sources of error in this

experiment?
________________________________________________________
__________
________________________________________________________
__________
________________________________________________________
__________
________________________________________________________
_________

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN SHEET

Name ______________________________ Date ___________

Your experiment should include the following sections:

 Title – What are you trying to find out?

 Background Research – Collect information about your topic. Is

there
anything you need to know about your organism or study subject?

 Hypothesis – Based on your background research, what do you

think will happen when you conduct your experiment? What is your
prediction?

 Determine your independent and dependent variables.

An example hypothesis might be the following:
When water is heated to its boiling point, it will evaporate faster than
water that is at room temperature.

 Materials – List the materials that you will use during your
experiment.

 Experimental Design (Methods or Procedure) – How will you test

yourhypothesis? How often will you make observations? Be sure to
describe all of the steps that you will use during your experiment. For
example:

 Place one cup of water in a beaker and heat until it boils.

 Place one cup of water in a beaker at room temperature.
 Etc.

 Results – Record your data in chart form. Graph your results on

graph
paper or using a spreadsheet program. Include any statistics that
pertain to your experiment.

 Discussion – Write a paragraph describing or explaining your

results. Did your hypothesis prove correct or incorrect? Were there any
experimental errors? Were your results valid?

 Conclusion – Briefly summarize your findings. What would you do

differently if you were going to repeat the experiment? Discuss any
ideas for future experiments related to this topic. How could your
findings be applied to current problems or issues?

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 THE CELL AND TISSUES

During these practical sessions, we are mainly going to prepare slides and
observe different types of tissue under a microscope. This will enable us to
differentiate between different tissues. The microscopes that we use are
unfortunately not strong enough to distinguish between the organelles inside
the cells.

Microscopes

Structure, Use and Care of Microscopes

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OBSERVING VERY SMALL SPECIMENS

Some specimens that you observe in biology will be so small that you cannot
see them with the naked eye. In these cases you will need a much more
powerful microscope, called the compound microscope. This microscope can
magnify between X40 and X400. To magnify as much we need bigger lenses
and more light.

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

Scanning Transmission
Electron Electron
Compound Dissection
Microscope Microscope
(SEM) (TEM)
A dissection SEM use
microscope is electron
Compound
light illumination. The
microscopes are
illuminated. image is seen in
light illuminated.
The image 3-D. It has high TEM is electron
The image seen
that appears magnification illuminated. This
with this type of
is three and high gives a 2-D view.
microscope is two
dimensional. resolution. The Thin slices of
dimensional. This
It is used for specimen is specimen are
microscope is the
dissection to coated in gold obtained. The
most commonly
get a better and the electron beams
used. You can
look at the electrons pass through this.
view individual
larger bounce off to It has high
cells, even living
specimen. give you and magnification and
ones. It has high
You cannot exterior view of high resolution.
magnification.
see individual the specimen.
However, it has a
cells because The pictures are
low resolution.
it has a low in black and
magnification. white.

THE COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

How it works:

Below is a diagram showing how light travels through the microscope

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Compound Light Microscope:

The microscope pictured above is referred to as a compound light

microscope. The term light refers to the method by which light transmits the
image to your eye. Compound deals with the microscope having more than
one lens. Microscope is the combination of two words; "micro" meaning small
and "scope" meaning view.

Early microscopes, like Leeuwenhoek's, were called simple because they only
had one lens. Simple scopes work like magnifying glasses that you have seen
and/or used. These early microscopes had limitations to the amount of
magnification no matter how they were constructed.

The creation of the compound microscope by the Janssens helped to

advance the field of microbiology light years ahead of where it had been only
just a few years earlier. The Janssens added a second lens to magnify the
image of the primary (or first) lens.

Simple light microscopes of the past could magnify an object to 266X as in the
case of Leeuwenhoek's microscope. Modern compound light microscopes,
under optimal conditions, can magnify an object from 1000X to 2000X (times)
the specimens original diameter.

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Using the Microscope

Follow these directions when using the microscope.

1. To carry the microscope grasp the microscopes

arm with one hand. Place your other hand under the
base.

2. Place the microscope on a table with the arm

toward you.

3. Turn the coarse adjustment knob to raise the body

tube.

4. Revolve the nosepiece until the low-power

objective lens clicks into place.

5. Adjust the diaphragm. While looking through the

eyepiece, also adjust the mirror until you see a bright
white circle of light.

6. Place a slide on the stage. Center the specimen

over the opening on the stage. Use the stage clips to
hold the slide in place.

7. Look at the stage from the side. Carefully turn the

coarse adjustment knob to lower the body tube until
the low power objective almost touches the slide.

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 8. Looking through the eyepiece, VERY SLOWLY the
coarse adjustment knob until the specimen comes
into focus.

9. To switch to the high power objective lens, look at

the microscope from the side. CAREFULLY revolve
the nosepiece until the high-power objective lens
clicks into place. Make sure the lens does not hit the
slide.

10. Looking through the eyepiece, turn the fine

adjustment knob until the specimen comes into focus.

Using the compound microscope

Some microscopes may have a mirror instead of a lamp underneath. To get

light into the microscope a bench lamp is reflected into the mirror.

Observing in Biology

Many of the interesting things in biology are very small and delicate. Our eyes
need help to be able to see them properly. Our fingers are too big so we need
tools to handle them carefully.

Picking up small specimens

If they are solid use forceps, do not use your fingers.

If they are in water use a dropping pipette.

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Observing Small Specimens

First of all make sure that you have enough light. Use a bench lamp.

Using a hand lens

This magnifies about ten times; we write X 10.

Keep the lens close to your eye (about 8 cm). Bring the specimen that you are
observing up to the lens or bend down to look at the specimen.

Using a binocular microscope

The binocular microscope usually magnifies by x20. We use both eyes which gives us
a clear three-dimensional view.

To use the binocular microscope follow the instructions

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First choose the background that you want to use. A dark specimen is more easily
observed against a white background and a pale specimen is more easily observed
against a black background.

Put your specimen under the microscope and illuminate it with a bench lamp.
Raise the microscope until you can see the specimen approximately in focus.
Now lock the microscope in place. Finally focus precisely, using the focusing
knob.

You may also find that the eye-pieces of your binocular microscope are too far
apart or too close together. These can be moved to suit your eyes.

Looking at the slide using the microscope

 

Follow these instructions every time that you use a microscope and you will
not have any problems in using it. It takes a bit of practice, however, so do not
give up; call for help if you have difficulty.

Take the microscope from its cupboard. Be careful; it is heavy. Use bout
hands to carry it to your place. Keep it upright all the time.

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Put the microscope gently on the bench and plug in the lamp on the bottom.
Now turn the microscope and lamp so that the objective lenses are facing
away from you.

Make sure that the low power objective lens is clicked into place on the
rotating nose piece.

Put the slide and object on the stage of the microscope and hold the slide in place
using the spring clips.

Lower the microscope using the coarse focusing knob as low as it can go
without touching the slide. You must look from the side of the microscope
when you do this.

Now look down the eye-piece lens. Adjust the light using the diaphragm. The
diaphragm opens and closes a hole which lets more or less light into the
microscope. On low power you will need less light. Close the diaphragm until
you see things more clearly. If you leave it right open you will soon get a
headache!

Focus the microscope by turning the coarse focusing knob, slowly, as you are
looking down the eye-piece. When you look down the eyepiece you will see
the object in a circle of light. This is called the field of view and the specimen
that you are looking at should be right in the middle of it. The specimen that
you are looking at will become clear but it may not be right in the centre; you
will have to move the slide.

Now you will find something strange. When you move the slide to the left the
specimen appears to move to the right in the eye-piece. When you move the
slide to the right the specimen appears to move to the left. Now try moving the
slide towards you and away from you. You will get used to this but it is
confusing at first.

You can now turn the rotating nose-piece to the medium power objective lens.
Make sure that the lens clicks into place.

You will need to refocus a bit using the coarse focusing knob and you will
have to increase the light by opening the diaphragm. You will also find that the
object is bigger but not in the centre of the field of view. Move the slide to
centre the object.

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For really small specimens you will need to turn to the high power objective
lens. This needs some practice. Everything will be magnified 400 times or
more, so when you move the slide a fraction of a millimetre it is magnified 400
times!

Before you turn to the high power lens make sure that the specimen is right in
the centre of your field of view. Turn the rotating nose-piece again so that the
high power lens clicks into place. Be careful; the lens will be very close to the
slide this time. Refocus again using the fine focusing knob. You will need
more light so open the diaphragm some more.

Reflected light

Most of the microscopic objects that you will look at are transparent because
they are so thin. To see transparent objects under the microscope we shine
light through them. This is called transmitted light.

Sometimes you may want to observe a specimen which is opaque. Light will
not pass through it. The method to use is to shine the light down on top of the
stage from a bench lamp. The light will be reflected off the specimen. You are
observing the specimen using reflected light.

Taking care of your microscope

It is very easy to get finger marks on the eyepiece lens and water on the high
power objective lens. The lenses of the microscope need to be kept clean so
that you can see clearly. Do not use a paper towel or a handkerchief. Use the
special lens cleaning tissue which is soft and will not damage the lenses.

Sometimes water spills onto the stage where the slide is held. You should
wipe this dry. You can use paper towel for this.

Putting the microscope away

1. First switch off the lamp. It will be hot so leave it to cool down before
removing it.
2. Turn the rotating nose piece to low power.
3. Take the slide off the stage and dry the stage if necessary.
4. Lower the body of the microscope by turning the coarse focusing knob.
5. Now unplug the lamp and put it away.

QUESTION ON THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE

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1. How do you put the coverslip on a slide without getting bubbles trapped
under it?

2. Why do we put the slide under the spring clips on the stage of the
microscope?

3. How do you adjust the amount of light coming into the microscope?

4. Using high power, would you need more or less light than when you use
low power?

5. What is the difference between illumination by reflected light and by

transmitted light?

6. How would you use a mirror instead of a lamp under the microscope?

7. When you are focusing on an object in which order should the three
objective lenses be used?

8. When focusing on an object, why do we always start with the objective lens
near the specimen?

9. How should you clean a microscope lens?

10. Calculate the total magnification of the following lenses

(a) using a X10 eye-piece with a X40 objective lens,

(b) using a X15 eye-piece with a X63 objective lens,

(c) using a X15 eye-piece with a X4 objective lens,

(d) which is more powerful: a X5 eye-piece and a X20 objective or a X7 eye-

piece and a X40 objective?

11. How should a microscope be put away?

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ACTIVITY 1:

Names and Functions of Parts of the Microscope

What you need:

 Light microscope
 Fully labeled diagram of a microscope (as in this manual)
 Unlabeled diagram of microscope
 List of names and functions

What you should do:

 Look at the microscope carefully and find all the parts shown in the
labeled diagram.
 Label the unlabeled diagram as provided.
 Refer to the table of the functions of the parts and see if you can work
out how each part functions.
 Add the functions to the diagram that you have labeled. Any diagram
with “notes” added is referred to as an “annotated” diagram. These
notes may be functions, adaptations or any other relevant points of
interest.
 Test each other by asking the names and functions of each part.

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37
MICROSCOPICWORK

Making a slide with a coverslip

Usually we put the specimen in a few drops of water so that it does not dry out whilst
we are looking at it. The water also helps the light to pass through the specimen more
evenly.

To observe a specimen under a compound microscope you need to support it

on a glass microscope slide so that light can pass through the specimen that
you are looking at. The light comes up from the lamp or the mirror underneath
the microscope.

To protect the specimen in the water drops on the slide, you must cover it with
a very thin piece of glass called a covershp. This keeps everything flat and it
also stops the specimen from drying out.

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When you put the coverslip on the slide you must make sure that you do not
trap any air bubbles under it. Air bubbles get in the way of our view and cause
confusion.

So that there are no air bubbles trapped under the coverslip, use a mounted needle or a
pair of forceps to lower the coverslip slowly onto the drops of water with the object.

When you have lowered the coverslip onto the slide you may find that there is
too much water around it. Take a piece of paper towel or filter paper and soak
up the excess water.

If you find that there is not enough water under the coverslip add a drop of
water by the side of it. You will see that the water is drawn under 

COMPARING PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

INTRODUCTION:
Cells are the basic functional units of all living organisms. They may
exist singly or in aggregates. When cells join together to take to take on
a specialized function within a larger organism, they form a tissue.
There are two major divisions into which all cells fall: prokaryotic
(organized nucleus absent) and eukaryotic (organized nucleus
present). Bacteria make up the former division while the cells of plants,
animals, fungi, protozoa, and algae compose the latter.
Animal and plant cells share characteristics, which you will observe in
this lab. They also differ in several important ways. Both animal and
plant cells may occur unicellularly or within multicellular organisms.
Because they often take on special functions within tissues, animal
cells are frequently more specialized than plant cells. Epithelial (EP-
uh-THEE-lee-ul) cells and blood cells are examples of different tissues.
In this lab, you will look at epithelial cells in both plants and animals.
Epithelial cells form the skin of the body surfaces and the linings of the
inner surfaces. These cells are specialized for transportation of
substances and protection. The individual cells of these layers may be
shaped like cubes, columns, or be flat, depending on their location and
function.

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MATERIALS:

Compound microscope
Microscope slides
Cover slips
Forceps (tweezers)
Single-edged razor blade
Flat-edged toothpicks
Paper towel
Iodine solution
*Methyl-green stain
Onion
Sprigs of Elodea
Pictures of typical plant and animal cells from a textbook for reference

*You can get a good substitute stain at the pet store. Either the green
or the blue tropical fish medicine works great as a stain.

PRE-LAB PREPARATION:

Place a beaker of water with the Elodea in it, under a strong light
source about 30 minutes before the lab.

PROCEDURE:

Part 1: Plant Cells

Onion bulbs are organized tissue that, under the appropriate

conditions, will give rise to an entire plant. The curved pieces that flake
away from a slice of onion are called scales. On the underside of each
scale is a thin membrane called the epidermis.

1. Obtain a piece of onion and remove one of the scales from it. Use
forceps to pull away the epidermis from the inner surface. Be careful
not to wrinkle the membrane. Place a drop of water on the center of a
microscope slide, cut a piece of membrane about 0.5 cm square with a
single-edged razor blade. CAUTION: Handle the razor blade with
care. Using a toothpick to straighten out any wrinkles, place the
membrane sample in the drop of water. Take a cover slip, and carefully
place it over the sample, lowering it at an angle to the slide. This helps
keep air from being trapped under the cover slip. You have just made a
wet mount.

2. Examine the epidermis first with the medium power objective of your
microscope. Unstained specimens are often seen better with less light.
Try reducing the illumination by adjusting the diaphragm of the
microscope. Then examine it under high power.

Question 1. How many layers thick is the epidermis?

Question 2. What is the general shape of a typical cell?

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3. To stain your specimen, remove your slide from the microscope
stage. Place a drop of iodine on the side of the cover slip, touching its
edge. CAUTION: iodine is toxic. Draw the water from underneath the
cover slip with a scrap of paper towel placed edge to the opposite side
of the cover slip from the iodine drop. The stain will be drawn under the
cover slip to replace the water that the paper towel scrap absorbs.

4. Place the slide back on the microscope stage and observe as

before. The iodine will stain the nucleus so it can be seen more clearly.

Question 3. What does the nucleus look like under medium and high
power?
Question 4. Within an individual cell, where are the cytoplasm and the
nucleus found? What general characteristic of plant cells can be
inferred from observations of the cytoplasm and nucleus?
Question 5. Make a diagram of several cells as observed under high
power. Label the following structures in one cell: nucleus, cell wall,
central vacuole, cytoplasm.

5. Obtain a single leaf of Elodea (from the young leaves at the tip) and
prepare a wet mount as you did before. You may want to use only a
small portion of the leaf tip, so it will lay flat on the slide.

Question 6. What does Elodea look like under middle power?

6. Examine the chloroplasts under high power.

Question 7. What does a single chloroplast look like?

Question 8. Are the chloroplasts moving or stationary? Make an
inference to explain this.
Question 9. In what ways are the cells of onion epidermas and Elodea
similar? Different?
Question 10. What observable characteristics can be used as
evidence for classifying a specimen as a plant? Use information from
your textbook to help you with this question.

Part 2: Animal Cells

7. Prepare a slide of epithelial cells from your oral cavity, by the

following procedure. Take a flat toothpick (a NEW one) and using the
large end, scrape the inside of your cheek 3 or 4 times. Gently make a
smear in the center of a clean slide, about the size of a dime. Carefully
place 1 drop of methyl-green stain on the center of the smear. Place a
cover slip over the drop of stain.

8. Examine the cells, first under middle power, then under high power.
At first, the field of view will be light blue and the cells will be a slightly
darker blue. After a few minutes, the field will lighten and the cells will
become slightly purple.

Question 11 Inside the mouth, these cells are joined together in a

sheet. Why are they scattered here?
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 Question 12. How are these animal cells different from the plant cells
you observed?
Question 13. Draw a few cells and label the cell membrane, nucleus,
and cytoplasm.

LABORATORY INVESTIGATION ON CELLS

LOOKING AT CELLS FROM MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISMS

ASSIGNMENT 1:

Take a cotton bud and gently rub it on the inside of your cheek. Smear the
cotton bud onto a microscope slide to cover an area of about 1cm 3. Now add
one drop of methylene blue onto the smear. This will help you to see the cells
more clearly. Carefully place a cover slip on top of the blue dye.

Look at the cells under the microscope with the objective lens x10. Compare
what you see to the drawing below. Can you observe the same parts?

Labels for the drawing: the cell membrane surrounds the cell, the cytoplasm
contains food and all other substances to allow the cell to function and the
nucleus contains all the hereditary information.

ASSIGNMENT 2:

42
Clean your fingertip with a little cotton wool soaked in alcohol. Use the point of
a sterilized needle or lancet to make a small wound in your fingertip. A drop of
blood must be produced. Touch the blood with a clean, dry glass slide and
cover the droplet that remains on the slide with a cover slip. Make use of a
dissecting needle to lower the cover slip slowly to ensure that you exclude air
bubbles. Study the slide under the microscope.

ASSIGNMENT 3:

Cut a strip of muscle from the thigh of a calf or small mammal (obtained from
a butcher) and place it in a hydrochloric acid solution for about 12 hours.
Tease it with two dissecting needles until you can observe the muscle bundles
of a cross striated muscle. Prepare a slide and observe under the microscope.

ASSIGNMENT 4:

Peel the outer epidermal layer from an onion. Place it on a slide and drop a
few drops of iodine on it to stain it. Lower the coverslip onto it slowly to
prevent the formation of air bubbles. Observe the different plant cells and their
structures.

ACTIVITY 1:

Make detailed and labeled drawings of the different tissues you have
observed. Do some research and include sketches of the following:

 White blood cells

 Bone tissue
 Squamous epithelium

ASSIGNMENT 5: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Place an onion bulb in a beaker of water in such a way that the stem plate of
the bulb is in the water. Push three sticks into the upper part of the bulb to
achieve this effect. The apparatus should be kept in the dark for a few days
until the roots have grown two to three centimeters from the stem plate.
Cut off the root tips (about 5 mm from the tip) and place the pieces on a watch
glass. Cover the root tips with about nine drops of aceto-orcein solution and a
drop of much diluted hydrochloric acid. The watch glass should now be
carefully warmed on a small Bunsen burner flame for about five minutes, and
should not be allowed to boil.
Place one of the root tips on a clean slide and cover it with a drop of aceto-
orcein. Carefully cut of the front part, about 1 mm from the tip. Dispose of the
rest. Carefully place a clean cover slip on the root tip. Hold a pencil vertically
near the upper surface of the cover slip, and allow it to slide gently through
your fingers until it taps the cover slip. This step should be repeated a few
times until the soft root tip has spread out to form a rose-coloured layer.
Place a piece of filter paper gently on the cover slip to remove excess fluid.
Look at the slide under a low and then high magnification.
Try to identify as many stages of mitosis as possible.
43
ACTIVITY 2:

Make line sketches of what you observe and compare them with the
sketches in your study guide. Draw the sketches on your study guide
next to your findings.

ASSIGNMENT 5: TO DEMONSTRATE OSMOSIS THROUGH PLANT

CELLS

Requirements:

Two potatoes, retort stands, glass tubes with holed stoppers, concentrated
sugar solution, cork borers, two glass beakers marked A and B.

Cut of the ends of the potatoes and hollow them out using a cork borer. Be
careful not to make a hole through to the other side.
Fill one of the potatoes with the pure water and the other with the sugar
concentration. Push the glass tubes through the rubber stoppers and insert
them into the hollows in the potatoes. Make use of Vaseline if necessary.
Place the preparations in beaker A (sugar water) and beaker B (pure water).
Place pure water in both beakers so that only 5 mm of the potato stands clear
of the water. Clamp the glass tubes to retort stands and allow the apparatus
to stand for at least 30 minutes. Record your observations.

44
45
 CELLULAR METABOLISM

PRACTICAL WORK: Investigating the organic content of some foods

Certain chemicals bring about specific colour changes in known organic

compounds. In example, iodine causes starch containing substances to turn
blue-black. If the substance does not contain starch, it will take on the colour
of iodine. We say that a substance tests positive for starch if it turns blue-
black and negative if it becomes brown.

The positive and negative results obtained for starch, glucose, proteins and
fats in the presence of their chemical reagents is given in the table below.

Test for… Reagents Positive result Negative result

Starch Iodine solution Turns blue-black Turns brown

Glucose Benedict’s Turns from deep Remains deep

solution (+ heat) blue to green, blue
yellow, then
orange

Protein Millon’s reagent Turns brick red Remains

(+ heat) colourless

Fats and Oils Ethanol and filter A greasy stain is No greasy

paper left behind on the substance is left
filter paper when behind
the substance
dissolved in
ethanol is poured
onto filter paper

ACTIVITY 1:

What you need:

 A powdered mixture of at least any three of the above organic foods

(this should be mixed by the lecturer, and you should not know what it
contains).
 Four Petri dishes
 Four test tubes
 A spatula
 Filter paper
 The following chemical reagents:
o Iodine solution
o Benedict’s solution
o Millon’s reagent
o Ethanol
46
What you should do:

Divide the powdered mixture into four separate portions. Place the separate
portions in test tubes labeled sample A, B, C and D.

Apply the following tests:

 Sample A: Starch test

 Sample B: Glucose test
 Sample C: Protein test
 Sample D: Fats and Oils test

Results:
Copy the following table and record your results and conclusions in it.

Test for… Reagents Result Conclusion

Starch Iodine solution The sample
contains/does not
contain starch

Glucose Benedict’s The sample

solution (+ heat) contains/does not
contain starch

Protein Millon’s reagent The sample

(+ heat) contains/does not
contain starch

Fats and Oils Ethanol and filter The sample

paper contains/does not
contain starch

ACTIVITY 2

Carry out similar test on different foodstuffs such as bread, fruit, meat, etc.

Tabulate the different solutions that you tested in each of the different tests.
Indicate your hypotheses for each in a separate column, as well as indicate
what the results were. Also, draw a sketch of each of the experiments. Include
the relevant labels.

ACTIVITY 3

WHAT WILL YOU EAT?

STUDENT PROJECT SHEET
Name ____________________________________ Date ___________

It is often very challenging to eat properly at a fast-food restaurant. A

hamburger
47
and large fries may sound good, but how will it stack up in your food pyramid?
Can you meet your daily nutritional requirements while eating out at every
meal?
For this project, you will design a menu containing meals for five days. You
and
your friends are going on a road-trip and will be eating out for every meal.
Road
trips aren’t any fun when you don’t feel well, so you want everyone to eat
properly! You have been given the task of planning all of the meals during
your
road trip. Pick your favorite restaurants and get started!
1. Obtain a copy of the Food Pyramid. If you are a vegetarian, you
may choose to use the Vegetarian Food Pyramid.
2. Collect menus and nutrition information from various restaurants.
3. Use the menus and the food pyramid to plan your meals for five days. Try
to meet the requirements of the food pyramid as you plan each day.
4. Write a paragraph describing any difficulties that you faced in planning
your meals. Which restaurants offer the healthiest choices? Is it more
expensive to eat properly?
5. Make a poster of your menu. Present your project to the class.

TESTING PLANT STORAGE ORGANS FOR STARCH AND SUGAR

Information : Plant Storage Organs

Plant Storage Formed from

Organ

Potatoes are
tubers. They are
formed by the
swelling of
sections of
underground
stems.

Carrots are
formed by
swollen tap
(main) roots.

Bulbs are formed

from the swollen
bases of leaves.

48
 crocus corm A corm is a short,
condensed,
swollen stem.

Method

1. Cut a quarter of a small potato into small pieces.

2. Place the pieces of potato into a mortar and cover them with distilled water.

3. Use a pestle to mash the potato into a pulp.

4. Place about 1cm in height of the potato pulp into two test tubes. Use one of
these tubes for each of the two tests detailed below:

Test for Starch

1. Add a few drops of iodine solution and mix the contents of the
tube.

2. Record your results.

Test for Sugar

1. Add 1cm in height of Fehling's solution to the potato pulp and mix
the contents of the tube.

2. Label this test tube with your name and place the label near the
mouth of the tube. Place the test tube in a water bath at 90°C for 3
minutes.

3. After 3 minutes record the results.

Repeat the method with each of the other three storage organs in turn.

Results

Complete the following table:

Plant Storage Organ Starch Test with Sugar test with

iodine solution Fehling's solution

Potato    

Tap Root    

49
 Bulb    

Corm    

Conclusion

Iodine solution turns blue/black in the presence of starch.

Fehling's solution (which is blue) will change colour when heated in the
presence of sugar. Green indicates a small amount of sugar (+), yellow
means that more sugar is present (++) and orange indicates a lot of sugar (++
+).

Complete the following table:

Food Storage Organ Starch Sugar

(+ = present, ( - = absent, + = trace,
- = absent) ++ = some, +++ = a
lot)

Potato    

Tap Root    

Bulb    

Corm    

Study the diagrams below and answer the questions which follow them:

The potato The old potato The leaves As autumn

tuber uses its shrinks. The continue to approaches the
stored energy food made by make food. The parts of the
to produce the leaves is new potatoes plant above
roots and stored in new increase in ground wither

50
 leaves potato tubers. size. and die. The
new potatoes
will be able to
develop new
plants in the
spring.

A. Which types of food are stored in the potato tuber?

B. Which parts of the potato plant make these high energy foods?

C. What is the stored food used for?

Complete the following table:

Summary of the conditions needed for the growth of a potato plant

Factors needed Factors needed Ways of surviving

above ground below ground winter

     

     

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANGES

INTRODUCTION

This experiment provides hands-on experience with chemical and physical

changes. Safety goggles must be worn!

MATERIALS

 Water
 Vinegar
 Hydrogen Peroxide (3% solution)
 Epsom salt
 Baking soda
 Alka-Seltzer® tablets
 Potato
 Powdered laundry detergent
 Empty film containers
 Ice
51
  Boiling water
 Beakers or clear plastic cups

WHAT TO DO

Chemical Changes

1. Put on safety goggles!

2. Pour baking soda into a clear plastic cup so that the bottom of the cup
is just covered. Slowly add vinegar to the cup to fill it about halfway and
observe the formation of carbon dioxide gas, an indication that a
chemical change has taken place.
3. Place a piece (about the size of large eraser) of raw potato in a clear
plastic cup. Add enough hydrogen peroxide to cover the piece of potato
and observe the formation of oxygen gas as the enzymes from the food
break the peroxide into water and oxygen gas. The gas formation is an
indication that a chemical reaction is taking place. The kids can also
feel the outside of the container – it will be cold to touch. This is
another indication of a chemical reaction.
4. Place an Alka-Seltzer® tablet in a cup of water and observe the
release of carbon dioxide gas. Then, combine half of a tablet with some
water in a film container, cap it tightly, step back at least 5 feet, and
wait for the lid to pop off. The carbon dioxide being formed builds up
pressure inside the sealed film container until the lid can no longer hold
it. It will make a loud noise and the lid will pop off, shooting into the air.
Avoid setting the canister directly below light fixtures, because the lid
may be able to break light bulbs. Please be careful!
5. Combine half of a cup of warm water with about a teaspoon of
powdered laundry detergent and stir to dissolve. Make small amount of
Epsom salt solution by dissolving 1 part magnesium sulfate in two parts
water. Add a drop of food coloring to the Epsom salt solution, and then
use an eyedropper to add a few drops of the colored solution to the
laundry detergent solution. As a clear indication of a chemical reaction,
a solid will immediately form and settle to the bottom of the cup. These
solutions may already be prepared and labeled for use. If so, fill the
cup about one fourth of the way with the detergent solution and pour in
a few milliliters of the Epsom salt solution to observe the formation of
the solid.

Physical Changes

1. Dissolve Epsom salt in water until no more will dissolve to make a

saturated solution. Paint a few drops of this solution on a piece of dark
paper to watch the salt crystals reappear as the water evaporates. The
change in form, from solid to part of a liquid solution, back to solid, is
purely physical.
2. Observe ice melting and water boiling to learn about phase changes as
physical changes.

QUESTIONS

1. Why is it important to wear safety goggles?

52
 2. What is a chemical change? What is a physical change?
3. How can the two types of changes be distinguished? What are the
signs of a chemical change? What are the signs of a physical change?
4. What are some examples of chemical changes?
5. What are some examples of physical changes?

ANSWERS

Chemical changes are chemical reactions; they transform substances

into different substances. Chemical changes are indicated by a number
of signs, including, but not limited to, the formation of gas, the formation
of solid, a change in temperature, and evolution of light. Physical
changes do not form new substances and do not change the chemical
nature of the substances involved. Physical changes are those that
change only the physical properties of a substance without changing
the chemical properties.

Student Worksheet

Learning Objectives
This experiment will illustrate:
 The use of solvent extraction to recover and and quantify the amount of fat
in foods
 Fat from different sources can be different in appearance

Materials (per group / food)

100 mL glass beaker (1)
100 mm glass Petri dish (1)
10 mL Measuring cylinder (1)
Glass rod (1)
Chocolate (homogenised using blender or grated) (5 g)
Sunflower seeds (homogenised using blender) (5 g)
Cream cheese (5 g)
Acetone (20 mL)
Balance or scale
Safety glasses (1 per student)
Latex or rubber gloves (1 pair per student)

Method
1. Label the beaker you are using with the name of the food that has been
assigned to your group.
2. Label the Petri dish with the name of the food assigned to your group.
3. Wear safety glasses and gloves throughout the experiment.

Group 1: Extraction of Fat from Chocolate

1. Weigh 5 g of homogenised chocolate and place in a 100 mL glass beaker.
2. Record the weight of the beaker with the chocolate in it (Table 1).
3. Add 10 mL of acetone to the chocolate in the beaker.

53
4. Stir with a glass rod until well mixed (for approximately 1 minute) (in a
fume hood or well ventilated area). Then allow to settle for 1 minute.
5. Carefully decant the acetone into the Petri dish, making sure the chocolate
remains in the beaker.
6. Add another 10 mL of acetone to the chocolate and repeat steps 4 and 5.
7. Place the Petri dish with acetone and the beaker with chocolate in a fume
hood (or well ventilated area)
8. Allow the acetone in the Petri dish to dry overnight in a fume hood (or a
well ventilated area) so you can see the lipid that was extracted.
9. Allow the beaker with the chocolate to dry overnight. Weigh the beaker
with the chocolate (record in Table 1). Calculate the weight difference
(Initial weight of beaker with chocolate – weight of beaker with chocolate
after extraction) and record in Table 1. The weight difference is the
amount of lipid that was extracted from the sample.

Group 2: Extraction of Fat from Cream Cheese

1. Weigh 5 g of cream cheese and place in a 100 mL glass beaker.
2. Record the weight of the beaker with the cream cheese in it (Table 1).
3. Add 10 mL of acetone to the cream cheese in the beaker.
4. Stir with a glass rod until well mixed (for approximately 1 minute) (in a
fume hood or well ventilated area). Then allow to settle for 1 minute.
5. Carefully decant the acetone into the Petri dish, making sure the cream
cheese remains in the beaker.
6. Add another 10 mL of acetone to the cream cheese and repeat steps 4
and 5.
7. Place the Petri dish with acetone and the beaker with cream cheese in a
fume hood (or well ventilated area)
8. Allow the acetone in the Petri dish to dry overnight in a fume hood (or a
well ventilated area) so you can see the lipid that was extracted.
9. Allow the beaker with the cream cheese to dry overnight. Weigh the
beaker with the cream cheese (record in Table 1). Calculate the weight
difference (Initial weight of beaker with cream cheese – weight of beaker
with cream cheese after extraction) and record in Table 1. The weight
difference is the amount of lipid that was extracted from the sample.

Group 3: Extraction of fat from sunflower seeds

1. Weigh 5 g of homogenised sunflower seeds and place in a 100 mL glass
beaker.
2. Record the weight of the beaker with the sunflower seeds in it (Table 1).
3. Add 10 mL of acetone to the sunflower seeds in the beaker.
4. Stir with a glass rod until well mixed (for approximately 1 minute) (in a
fume hood or well ventilated area). Then allow to settle for 1 minute.
5. Carefully decant the acetone into the Petri dish, making sure the sunflower
seeds remain in the beaker.
6. Add another 10 mL of acetone to the sunflower seeds and repeat steps 4
and 5.
7. Place the Petri dish with acetone and the beaker with sunflower seeds in a
fume hood (or well ventilated area)
8. Allow the acetone in the Petri dish to dry overnight in a fume hood (or a
well ventilated area) so you can see the lipid that was extracted.
54
9. Allow the beaker with the sunflower seeds to dry overnight. Weigh the
beaker with the sunflower seeds (record in Table 1). Calculate the weight
difference (Initial weight of beaker with sunflower seeds – weight of beaker
with sunflower seeds after extraction) and record in Table 1. The weight
difference is the amount of lipid that was extracted from the sample.

All groups:
Once the acetone has been dried off from the Petri dishes, observe the
extracted lipids from the 3 different food samples (chocolate, cream cheese,
sunflower seeds) and record your observations in Table 2. Note: observe
characteristics such as colour, whether the lipid is liquid or solid at room
temperature, and overall appearance (e.g. waxy, oily, shiny, dull etc)

BIOLOGY (EDUCATION) I
Name : Student number:
Table 1: Amount of fat extracted from the different food samples

Weight of Weight of Amount of lipid extracted

Food Type beaker with beaker with from food
food (step 2) food (step 9) Total (g) g/100g
Chocolate

Cream cheese

Sunflower

seeds

Table 2: Description of extracted fat from different food samples

Food type Description of extracted fat
Chocolate

Cream cheese

Sunflower seeds

55
1. Why are lipids from some foods liquid at room temperature while lipids
from other foods are solid at room temperature?

2. Compare the amount of lipid extracted from the foods (Table 1) to the
value given for fat content on the packaging of the foods. Why might your
results differ from the stated fat content on the packaging?

ENZYME ACTION ON STARCH [Amylase]

INTRODUCTION:

In this experiment you will observe the action of the enzyme amylase
on starch. Amylase changes starch into a simpler form: the sugar
maltose, which is soluble in water. Amylase is present in our saliva,
and begins to act on the starch in our food while still in the mouth.
Exposure to heat or extreme pH (acid or base) will denature proteins.
Enzymes, including amylase, are proteins. If denatured, an enzyme
can no longer act as a catalyst for the reaction.
Benedict's solution is a test reagent that reacts positively with simple
reducing sugars like maltose, but will not react with starch. A positive
test is observed as the formation of a brownish-red cuprous oxide
precipitate. A weaker positive test will be yellow to orange.

MATERIALS:

Cornstarch
Distilled water
Saliva
Vinegar
Benedict's qualitative solution
3 graduated cylinders (10mL)
250-ml beaker
Stirring rod
3 test tubes (16 x 125mm)
Test tube rack
Wax pencil
Hot plate

PRE-LAB:

Add 1g of cornstarch to a beaker containing 100ml of cold distilled

water. While stirring frequently, heat the mixture just until it begins to
boil. Allow to cool.
56
PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the 250-mL beaker about 3/4 full of water and place on the hot
plate for a boiling water bath. Keep the water JUST AT BOILING.

2. Mark 3 test tubes A, B and C. "Spit" between 1 and 2 mL of saliva

into each test tube.

3. Into tube A, add 2 mL of vinegar. Into tubes B and C, add 2 mL of

distilled water. Thump the tubes to mix.

4. Place tube B into the boiling water bath for 5 minutes. After the five
minutes, remove from the bath, and place back into the test tube rack.

5. Add 5 mL of the starch solution to each tube and thump to mix.

Allow the tubes to sit for 10 minutes, occasionally thumping the tubes
to mix.

6. Add 5 mL of Benedict's solution to each tube and thump to mix.

Place the tubes in the hot water bath. The reaction takes several
minutes to begin.

OBSERVATIONS:

Tube A: Starch + saliva treated with vinegar (acid)

Was the test positive or negative? _______________________

What does this indicate?

________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
_________________

___________________________________________________
_________________

Tube B: Starch + saliva and water, treated in a boiling water bath

Was the test positive or negative? _______________________

What does this indicate?

________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
_________________

___________________________________________________
_________________

Tube C: Starch + saliva

57
 Was the test positive or negative? _______________________

What does this indicate?

________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
________________

CATALASE
Observing an enzyme

INTRODUCTION:

What would happen to your cells if they made a poisonous chemical?

You might think that they would die. In fact, your cells are always
making poisonous chemicals. They do not die because your cells use
enzymes to break down these poisonous chemicals into harmless
substances. Enzymes are proteins that speed up the rate of reactions
that would otherwise happen more slowly. The enzyme is not altered
by the reaction. You have hundreds of different enzymes in each of
your cells. Each of these enzymes is responsible for one particular
reaction that occurs in the cell.
In this lab, you will study an enzyme that is found in the cells of many
living tissues. The name of the enzyme is catalase (KAT-uh-LAYSS); it
speeds up a reaction which breaks down hydrogen peroxide, a toxic
chemical, into 2 harmless substances--water and oxygen. The reaction
is as follows:
2H2O2 ----> 2H2O + O2

This reaction is important to cells because hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

is produced as a byproduct of many normal cellular reactions. If the
cells did not break down the hydrogen peroxide, they would be
poisoned and die.

In this lab, you will study the catalase found in liver cells. You will be
using chicken or beef liver. It might seem strange to use dead cells to
study the function of enzymes. This is possible because when a cell
dies, the enzymes remain intact and active for several weeks, as long
as the tissue is kept refrigerated.

PRELAB REVIEW:

Before you begin this lab, review pH. Recall that pH is the measure of
the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. An acidic solution has many
hydrogen ions (H+) and a pH below 7. An alkaline, or basic, solution
has very few hydrogen ions and a pH above 7. A neutral solution has a
pH of 7.

58
Recall that the substrate is the molecule that the enzyme acts on, and
the products are the molecules produced by the reaction. Review why
enzymes are reusable.

Under certain conditions enzymes are denatured. An enzyme is

denatured when the protein molecule loses its proper shape and
cannot function. Some things that can denature an enzyme are high
temperatures, extremes of pH, heavy metals, and alcohol.

PRE-LAB PREP:

You should be able to buy 1 molar concentration solutions of both

hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. If not, for the HCl, mix 2.2 ml
of concentrated acid with enough distilled water to make a total volume
of 25 ml. (REMEMBER: NEVER ADD WATER TO ACID, ALWAYS
ADD ACID TO WATER). For the sodium hydroxide, add 1.0 g of NaOH
to enough distilled water to make a total volume of 25 ml.
3% Hydrogen peroxide is what you buy in the grocery store.

MATERIALS:

1molar HCl solution (in dropper bottle)

1molar NaOH solution (in dropper bottle)
6 Test tubes and rack
Test tube holder
10-ml Graduated cylinder
40 ml 3% Hydrogen preoxide solution
Straight-edged razor blade
3 beakers for water baths
Scissors and Forceps (tweezers)
Thermometer
Stirring rod
pH paper
Fresh liver, chicken meat, Apple, and Potato

PROCEDURE:

Part I
Normal Catalase Activity
NOTE: Be sure to clean your stirring rod (and test tubes) between
steps.

59
1. Place 2 ml of the 3% hydrogen peroxide solution into a clean test
tube.

2. Using forceps and scissors, cut a small piece of liver and add it to
the test tube. Push it into the hydrogen peroxide with a stirring rod.

Observe the bubbles; what gas is being released?

Throughout this investigation you will estimate the rate of the reaction
(how rapidly the solution bubbles) on a scale of 0-5 (0=no reaction,
1=slow,...., 5= very fast). Assume that the reaction in step 2 proceeded
at a rate of "4" and record the speed in DATA TABLE 1, and DATA
TABLE 2 as the rate at room temperature.

3. Recall that a reaction that absorbs heat is endothermic; a reaction

that gives off heat is exothermic. Now, feel the temperature of the test
tube with your hand.

Has it gotten warmer or colder? Is the reaction endothermic or

exothermic?

Is Catalase Reusable?

4. Place 2 ml of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution into a clean test tube

and add a small piece of liver.

What is happening in your test tube?

5. Pour off the liquid into a second test tube.

Assuming the reaction is complete. What is this liquid composed of?

What do you think would happen if you added more liver to this liquid?
Why?

6. Add another 2 ml of hydrogen peroxide to the liver remaining in the

first test tube.

Can you observe a reaction? What do you think would happen if you
poured off this liquid and added more hydrogen peroxide to the
remaining liver?
Are enzymes reusable?

Occurrence of Catalase

Catalase is present in many kinds of living tissues. You will now test for
the presence of catalase in tissues other than liver.

7. Place 2 ml of hydrogen peroxide in each of 3 clean test tubes. To

the first tube, add a small piece of potato. To the second tube, add a
small piece of chicken. To the last tube, add a small piece of apple. As
you add each test substance, record the reaction rate (0-5) for each
tube in TABLE 1.
60
Which tissues contained catalase?

Part II

Effect of Temperature on Catalase Activity

8. Put a piece of liver into the bottom of a clean test tube and cover it
with a small amount of distilled water. Place this test tube in a boiling
water bath for 5 minutes.

What will boiling do to an enzyme?

9. Remove the test tube from the hot water bath, allow it to air cool,
then pour out the water. Add 2 ml of hydrogen peroxide. CAUTION:
Use a test-tube holder when handling the hot test tubes.

What is happening in the test tube?

Record the reaction rate (0-5) in DATA TABLE 2.

10. Put equal quantities of liver into 2 clean test tubes and 1 ml H2O2
into 2 other test tubes. Put one test tube of liver and one of H2O2 into
each of the following water baths: Ice bath (0 deg.C) and Warm water
bath (37 deg.C)

11. After 3 minutes, pour each tube of H2O2 into the coresponding
tube of liver and observe the reaction. Record the reaction rates (0-5)
in DATA TABLE 2. You recorded the reaction rate for room
temperature earlier.

What is the "optimum" temperature for catalase? (This is the

temperature at which the reaction proceeds fastest.)
Why did the reaction proceed slowly at 0 deg.C?
Why did the reaction not proceed at all at 100 deg.C?

Effect of pH on Catalase Activity

12. Add 2 ml hydrogen peroxide to each of 3 clean test tubes. Treat

each tube as follows:

Tube 1--add a drop of 1molar HCl (acid) at a time until pH 3.

Tube 2--add a drop of 1molar NaOH (base) at a time until pH 10.
Tube 3--adjust the pH to 7 by adding single drops of either 1molar HCl
or 1molar NaOH as needed.

CAUTION: Do not let acids or bases contact your skin or clothing. Swirl
each test tube after adding each drop and measure the pH of each
solution with pH paper. To do this, remove a drop or two of solution
from a test tube using a clean glass stirring rod. Rinse your stirring rod
and wipe dry before you dip it into each test tube. Place the drop on pH
paper. Record the pH of each solution in DATA TABLE 3.

61
 13. Next, add a small piece of liver to each test tube. Estimate the
reaction rates (0-5) and record in DATA TABLE 3.

Does there appear to be a pH "optimum"? At what pH?

What is the effect of low or high pH on enzyme activity?

DATA TABLES:

TABLE 1: Occurrence of Catalase

Sample_____Rate of Enzyme Activity

liver_______________________________

potato______________________________

chicken_____________________________

apple_______________________________

TABLE 2: Temperature / Catalase Activity

Temperature_____Rate of Enzyme Activity

0 deg.C________________________________

Room Temp.____________________________

37 deg.C_______________________________

100 deg.C______________________________

TABLE 3: pH effect on Catalase Activity

pH/Sample_____Rate of Enzyme Activity (0-5)

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

ENZYME ACTION IN GERMINATING SEEDS

(Amylase)

INTRODUCTION:

62
The seed is a remarkable structure that enables seed plants to survive
unfavorable conditions. Each seed contains an embryo that can grow
into a mature plant. In addition, the seeds of flowering plants have
structures called cotyledons. The cotyledons store food for use by the
embryo in the form of starch. Starch is long chains of glucose
molecules. The embryo needs to break these chains, forming sugars it
can use for energy. It does this by releasing the enzymes alpha-
amylase and beta-amylase.
Alpha-amylase works by dividing the long starches across the middle of
their chains. It keeps dividing the chains until they are one, two, or
three glucose molecules long. Glucose being the smallest molecule,
Maltose is a chain of two glucose molecules, and Maltriose is a chain of
three glucose molecules.
Beta-amylase works by nibbling at the ends of the starch chains to
make them into chains of one, two, or three glucose molecules.
In this lab, you will investigate this enzyme action, by first testing a dry
bean seed for the presence of glucose, then testing a been seed that
has germinated.

MATERIALS:

*Bean seeds (or other kinds of seeds)

Zip-lock bag
Mortar and pestle
2 test tubes
Test tube rack
Test tube holder
10-mL graduated cylinder
400-ml beaker
Hot plate
Distilled water
**Benedict's solution

*Use beans intended for growing in garden or for sprouts, not

dry beans from the grocery store.
My students used Kitchen Crop seeds for sprouting, produced
by NK Lawn & Garden Co.: Mung bean, Lentil, and Alfalfa. Both
the beans did well, but alfalfa gives a very strong positive for
both un-germinated and germinated.

This lab is very sensitive to concentrations, so follow the

instructions carefully.

**You can obtain Benedict's solution from a science supply

company.

PROCEDURE:

1. Place some beans in a zip-lock bag and cover them with water (don't
use to much water). Place the bag, standing up, in a dark warm place.
The next day, empty out any extra water, and rinse the seeds with
fresh water. Pour off the excess water and laying the bag on its side,
63
return the seeds to the dark warm place being used for germination.
Rinse the seeds once or twice a day, pouring off the excess. Leave the
seeds there for approximately 3 days to germinate.

After the seeds in step 1 have germinated:

2. Fill a 400-ml beaker to about 300 ml with water and heat on the hot
plate.

3. Take a dry (un-germinated) bean and crush it in the mortar. If using

smaller beans like mung, use two. If using a very small seed, use a
small pinch. Place the crushed bean in an appropriately marked test
tube.

4. After cleaning the mortar and pestle, crush the same size sample of
the germinated beans. Place the crushed, germinated bean, in an
appropriately marked test tube.

5. Add 5.0 ml of distilled water and 10 drops of Benedict's solution to

each test tube. Mix with a stirring rod, or holding the tube between the
thumb and index finger of one hand, thump it with the middle finger of
the other hand to mix.

REMEMBER: If you use a stirring rod, wash it after every use, so you
won't contaminate one solution with another.

6. When the water boils, place the test tubes in the water bath. Leave
the test tubes in the water bath for 10 minutes.

REMEMBER: Do not let the water bath boil hard. Control the boiling by
turning the hot plate on and off as needed.

7. Remove the test tubes with tongs and place the tubes in a test tube
rack. Unplug the hot plate to cool. When the tubes cool, an orange or
red precipitate will form if large amounts of glucose are present. Small
amounts of glucose will form a yellow or green precipitate. The
intermediate between these will appear brown.

8. Record the color of each sample

Color of dry bean sample = _________________

Color of germinated bean sample = _________________

Question: What can you infer about germination and amylase

production, based on your test results?
64
________________________________________________________
_____________

______________________________________

65
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND PLANT
PRACTICALS

ENERGY TRANSFER IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

CHLOROPHYLL FLUORESCENCE

INTRODUCTION

When a pigment absorbs light, electrons of certain atoms in the

pigment molecules are boosted to a higher energy level. The energy of
an absorbed photon is converted to the potential energy of the electron
that has been raised to an excited state. In most pigments, the excited
electron drops back to its ground-state, or normal orbit, and releases
the excess energy as heat. Some pigments, including chlorophyll, emit
light as well as heat after absorbing photons.
In the chloroplast, these excited electrons jump from the chlorophyll
molecule to a protein molecule in the thylakoid membrane, and are
replaced by electrons from the splitting of water. The energy thus
transferred, is used in carbohydrate production.
This release of light is called fluorescence. Chlorophyll will fluoresce in
the red part of the spectrum, and also give off heat. In this lab, you will
observe this fluorescence by seperating the chlorophyll from the
thylakoid membrane.

MATERIALS

Spinach leaves Flashlight or small lab light

Mortar and pestle Test tube
Acetone Filter paper
25-mL graduated cylinder Funnel
Ring stand or funnel rack Safety goggles

PROCEDURE

1. Grind the spinach leaves using a mortar and pestle.

2. Add acetone to the ground leaves, using enough acetone and

spinach leaves to get between 10 and 15 mL of extract.

3. Set up your filtering apparatus, and using proper filtering technique,

filter the extract to a test tube. NOTE: Use a small amount of acetone
to wet the filter paper, to hold it into place, instead of water.

4. Shine a flashlight, or other similar light source, through the test tube
and extract.

5. Observe the fluorescence of the chlorophyll at a 90 degree angle to

the flashlight.

66
 CHROMATOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION:

Chlorophyll often hides the other pigments present in leaves. In Autumn,

chlorophyll breaks down, allowing xanthophyll and carotene, and newly made
anthocyanin, to show their colors.
The mix of pigments in a leaf may be separated into bands of color by the
technique of paper chromatography. Chromatography involves the
separation of mixtures into individual components. Chromatography means
"color writing." With this technique the components of a mixture in a liquid
medium are separated. The separation takes place by absorption and
capillarity. The paper holds the substances by absorption; capillarity pulls the
substances up the paper at different rates. Pigments are separated on the
paper and show up as colored streaks. The pattern of separated components
on the paper is called a chromatogram.

PRELAB PREPARATION:

Gather leaves from several different plants. CAUTION: Avoid poisonous

plants. Autumn leaves from deciduous trees are especially interesting. Sort
the leaves by kind (maple, etc.) and color. Review a diagram of a plant cell .
Find the grana and the chloroplasts of the cell.

MATERIALS:

Safety goggles
Chromatography solvent (92 parts Petroleum ether to 8
parts acetone)
Chromatography paper (or filter paper) about 1 cm x 15
cm
Ethyl alcohol
Fresh spinach
Test tube
Test tube rack
Scissors and Ruler
Fresh leaves of plants
Glass stirring rod
Paper clip
Cork (to fit test tube)
Mortar and pestle
Sand (optional)
10-ml Graduated cylinder

PROCEDURE:

Leaves should be grouped by kind (maple, etc.) and color. Work with a
spinach leaf and with one or more other types. CAUTION: Chromatography
solvents are flammable and toxic. Have no open flames; maintain good
ventilation; avoid inhaling fumes.

67
1. Cut a strip of filter paper or chromatography paper so that it just fits inside a
15-cm (or larger) test tube. Cut a point at one end. Draw a faint pencil line as
shown in figure 1. Bend a paper clip and attach it to a cork stopper. Attach the
paper strip so that it hangs inside the tube, as shown. The sides of the strip
should not touch the glass.

2. Tear a spinach leaf into pieces about the size of a postagestamp. Put them
into a mortar along with a pinch or two of sand to help with grinding. Add
about 5 ml ethyl alcohol to the leaf pieces. Crush leaves with the pestle, using
a circular motion, until the mixture is finely ground. The liquid in which the leaf
pigments are now for paper chromatography dissolved is called the pigment
extract.

3. Use a glass rod to touch a drop of the pigment extract to the center of the
pencil line on the paper strip. Let it dry. Repeat as many as 20 times, to build
up the pigment spot. NOTE: You must let the dot dry after each drop is
added. The drying keeps the pigment dot from spreading out too much.

4. Pour 5 ml chromatography solvent into the test tube. Fit the paper and cork
assembly inside. Adjust it so that the paper point just touches the solvent (but
not the sides of the tube). The pigment dot must be above the level of the
solvent. Watch the solvent rise up the paper, carrying and separating the
pigments as it goes. At the instant the solvent reaches the top, remove the
paper and let it dry. Observe the bands of pigment. The order, from the top,
should be carotenes (orange), xanthophylls (yellow), chlorophyll a (yellow-
green), chlorophyll b (blue-green), and anthocyanin (red). Identify and label
the pigment bands on the dry strip. Write the species of leaf on the strip as
well.
Record the species, external color, and chromatogram pigments in the DATA
TABLE of your report sheet.

5. Each pigment has an Rf value, the speed at which it moves over the paper
compared with the speed of the solvent.

Rf = Distance moved by the pigment / Distance moved by the solvent

Measure the distance in cm from the starting point (pencil line) to the
center of each pigment band. Then measure the entire distance
traveled by the solvent. Remember, the starting point for the solvent is
also the pencil line and the ending point for the solvent is the top edge
of the paper. Do the required divisions and record your Rf values in the
DATA TABLE of your report sheet.

6. Wash the mortar and pestle thoroughly, using a little alcohol to

remove any remaining pigment.

7. Repeat steps 1 through 6 for each species.

DATA TABLE:

68
.

OBSERVING WATER TRANSPORT IN A CELERY STALK

INTRODUCTION:
As water evaporates from the leaves of a plant, more water is drawn up
by osmosis from the tissues below to replace it. The replacement of
water lost through transpiration is possible because water molecules
have polar covalent bonds. This causes one end of the molecule to
have a slightly positive charge and the other end to have a negative
charge. Because of this, the water molecules act like "small magnets".
The positive end of one water molecule sticks to the negative end of
another in a long chain that is pulled upward against the force of
gravity.
When enclosed in a narrow tube, such as the transport vessels of a
plant, water molecules can withstand a large force without being pulled
apart.

MATERIALS NEEDED:

Celery stalk with leaves intact Metric ruler

400-mL beaker Distilled water
Glass bowl Red food coloring
Razor blade Stirring rod

PROCEDURE:

1. Fill the beaker with 100 mL of distilled water. Add drops of red food
coloring, stirring with the stirring rod, until the water is a dark red color.
Set this aside.

2. Put some distilled water in the glass bowl. While holding the bottom
end of the celery stalk under water, cut off the bottom two centimeters
of the celery stalk.

3. Quickly place the freshly cut celery stalk upright in the beaker of
colored water. Record the beginning time on your DATA TABLE

4. Allow the celery to remain in the food coloring until the color is visible
in the upper stem and leaves. Record the ending time on your DATA
TABLE, and remove from the beaker of food coloring.

69
 5. Measure the length the red color traveled up the celery stalk in
centimeters. Record on your DATA TABLE

DATA TABLE:

Beginning time: ___________

Ending time: ___________

Length food color traveled up stalk. ______ cm

CALCULATIONS:

6. Calculate the number of minutes it took for the coloring to reach the
top.

Time for color to reach the top of stalk. = _________ minutes

7. Calculate the rate of travel of the food coloring up the celery stalk in
centimeters per minute.

length of celery stalk (cm)

rate of travel =
time for color to reach top of stalk (min)

Rate of travel = _________ cm / min

ENERGY RELEASE AND CELLULAR METABOLISM

INTRODUCTION:

Living things need energy to carry on most of their processes. The cells
of germinating seeds oxidize carbohydrates, in the process known as
cellular respiration, to provide energy for growth. The balanced
equation for cellular respiration (oxidation of glucose) is as follows:

C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2 ---> energy + 6

CO2 + 12 H2O

In this lab, you will observe the release

of heat energy and the formation of
carbon dioxide by germinating seeds.

MATERIALS:

Gas collecting bottle

Three-holed rubber stopper (to fit bottle)
70
 Thermometer
Thistle tube
Bent glass tube
Silicone grease or Vaseline
Rubber tubing
Pinch clamp
Can to hold bottle
Sawdust
Water (room temperature)
Pea seeds for sprouting
80-mL beaker
Limewater

LIMEWATER

INTRODUCTION:
The purpose of this lab is to prepare a test solution for carbon dioxide.

MATERIALS NEEDED:

Lime (used in making pickles)

Tablespoon
2 glass quart jars with lids

PROCEDURE:

Fill one jar with water.

Add 1 tablespoon of lime and stir.

Secure the lid; allow the solution to stand overnight.

Decant (pour off) the clear liquid into the second jar. Be careful not to
pour any of the lime that has settled on the bottom of the jar.

Keep the jar closed. This limewater will be used in other experiments
to test for the presence of carbon dioxide.

Label the jar, Limewater.

RESULTS:

The liquid is milky white and opaque at first. Large particles of lime start
to precipitate. Precipitate means to fall downward. After standing
overnight the liquid is very clear.
The undissolved particles of lime are temporarily suspended in the
water, making it appear milky. It takes time for all the tiny particles to
settle. The clear liquid is a saturated solution of limewater. It must be
covered to prevent carbon dioxide in the air from dissolving in it.

71
PROCEDURE:

Setting-up the apparatus for observing heat energy of germinating

seeds (see Figure 1 above).

1. Put some sawdust in the bottom of the can and place the bottle,
centered in the can, on the sawdust. Add sawdust around the bottle
and pack it down, adding more sawdust as necessary. The sawdust is
your insolation for the apparatus, which is more accurately called a
calorimeter.

2. Add the pea seeds to the bottle so that they fill about 1/4 to 1/3 of
the bottle. Add room-temperature water to just cover the seeds.

3. Securely stopper the bottle and insert the Thermometer, Thistle tube,
and glass tube as shown. Be careful not to break them. Using a small
amount of silicone grease or Vaseline to lubricate them will help. The
thistle tube must be inserted to just above the bottom so the water will
seal out the outside air. The thermometer tip needs to be in the center
of the seeds. It must seal with the hole in the stopper, but be able to be
removed and replaced to check the temperature.

4. Attach the rubber tubbing and secure the pinch clamp at the end to
seal the air inside. The tubing needs to be long enough to go into the
80-mL beaker with limewater later on in the experiment.

Observations.

5. Pull the thermometer up and read the temperature. Remember,

always put your finger over the hole if you completely remove the
thermometer, to keep the air inside the container from mixing with the
outside air. Record your temperature.

Temperature at start of observation. ________ deg. C

6. Check the temperature as before at the end of the day. Record the
temperature and the number of hours from the start.

Temperature ____ hours after start. ________ deg. C

7. After 24 hours, check and record the temperature as before.

Temperature after 24 hours. ________ deg. C

8. After 48 hours, check and record the temperature as before.

Temperature after 48 hours. ________ deg. C

72
Checking for carbon dioxide.

At the beginning of the lab, there was only

a trace of carbon dioxide in the air trapped
in your apparatus. As the cells of the seeds
"burned" glucose to produce energy, they
used-up the oxygen in the container, and
gave off carbon dioxide as a byproduct.
Limewater will react with carbon dioxide
and turn milky.

9. Add some limewater to the 80-mL

beaker and place it next to the can.
Remove the pinch clamp from the rubber
tubing and stick the tubing into the
limewater as shown in figure 2.

10. Force the gas in the jar through the limewater by slowly pouring
water into the thistle tube until the jar is filled. If the limewater turns
milky, carbon dioxide is present.

What did you observe as the gas from the jar bubbled through the
limewater?

________________________________________________________
________________

________________________________________________________
________________

________________________________________________________
________________

From the data collected in your observations, what evidence was there
that germinating peas are releasing energy?

________________________________________________________
________________

________________________________________________________
________________

What gas was produced during the reaction? _________________

What are the products of the oxidation of carbohydrates?

73
 ________________________________________________________
________________

Why was the jar packed in sawdust?

________________________________________________________
________________

THE EXAMINATION AND OBSERVATION OF A MAMMALIAN HEART

In order to obtain a heart with as little damage possible, the pluck of a sheep
(lungs, heart, liver and trachea) should be obtained from butchery.
Firstly, the external structure of the heart should be studied with the aid of a
sketch. Remove the outer layer of the pericardium, noting on its smoothness
due to the small amount of liquid between the layers. The vertical and
horizontal grooves that you will se indicates the partition wall between the
chambers. Also observe the adipose tissue as well as the blood vessels.
Identify the different veins and arteries.

Place a glass tube of approximately 30 cm long and 1 cm in diameter into the

pulmonary artery. Place another into the aorta and tie them into position. The
inferior vena cava and all but one pulmonary vein should be tied down as well.
Connect the open pulmonary vein and the superior vena cava to a filter
funnel, then clamp the tubes and funnels to a retort stand. Slowly pour some
water into the two funnels, and note the swelling of the ventricles. Squeeze
the ventricles slightly and observe the rise of water in the aorta tube as well as
the pulmonary artery, but not in the funnels. Stop squeezing the ventricles,
and observe the sinking of the water in the two tubes before coming to rest.
Fill the funnels completely with water and squeeze the ventricles rhythmically,
observing the spurting of the water in and out of the tubes as the pressure
changes.

Remove the funnels as well as the tubes, and using a sharp pair of scissors,
cut the superior vena cava of next to the right atrium. Cut the right atrium
open, starting from the hole you had left. Pour a little water through the atrio-
ventricular opening and squeeze the right ventricle, Note the valves of the
tricuspid valve closing the opening between the atrium and ventricle.

74
ACTIVITY 1:

Sketch your observations and give a short explanation of the

phenomena you observed, comparing it with the normal working of the
heart.

75
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

ASSIGNMENT 1:
THE OBSERVATION AND EXAMINATION OF THE MAMMALIAN
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Obtain the head of a sheep with part of the neck still attached from a butcher.
Have him cut it length wise down the middle.

Identify as many of the major parts of the brain. Identify the spinal cord, and
note the arrangement of the white and grey matter in the spinal cord,
cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla.

Gently shake out one half of the brain, keeping in mind that the brain has a
soft consistency, and note the convolutions of both the cerebrum and
cerebellum.

Try to locate the meninges as well as the central canal of the spinal cord.

ACTIVITY 1:

Make labeled sketches of every part of the CNS you observed, and
include a short explanation of the functions of each.

76
 URINARY SYSTEM

ASSIGNMENT 1:

INVESTIGATION OF THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF

THE KIDNEYS.

A few pig or sheep kidneys should be obtained from a butcher.

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE:

The general shape, size and colour should be noted before dissecting the
kidney. Start at the convex side and remove any fat that may be present.
Distinguish between the renal artery, renal vein as well as the ureter at the
hilum. Push the point of a scalpel in diagonally at the convex side and lift,
making the thin renal capsule visible which can be pulled off.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE:

The kidney should be cut into equal halves along the covex side to the hilum.
Separate the halves and observe the interior. The difference in colour
between the medulla and cortex should be noted. A blunt glass rod should be
pushed into the ureter to find the position of the pelvis. Establish where the
pyramids open into the calyces. Make use of a dissecting needle to identify
the tubules in the pyramids. Use a hand lens and try to find the Malpighian
bodies in the cortex.

ASSIGNMENT 1:

Make a labeled schematic representation of your observations and

compare it to the sketch in your study guide.

77
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

ASSIGNMENT 1:
AN EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THE FUNCTIONING OF THE
DIAPHRAGM DURING BREATHING

Study the sketch and recreate the experiment, making use of a bell jar, y-
tube, two balloons and a rubber disc.

ACTIVITY 1:

Shortly explain the experiment, indicating which part of the respiration

system is represented by which part of the experiment. Give your
hypotheses, outcome, explanation as well as your conclusion.

78
 ECOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT 1: THE ECOSYSTEM

Look for examples of the following at home or on the campus:

A population, community and an ecosystem.

Record the following:

 The particular habitat of each population

 The organisms that occur in the population and in the community
 The physical factors that influence the population and community
 The activities of the organisms and populations
 The factors that might limit or increase the size of the population.
Discuss the possible reason, referring to limiting factors, for the
variation in population size from time to time.
 The biotic and abiotic components in the ecosystem

Soil

79
SOIL TEXTURE ANALYSIS

A simple method to estimate the percent sand silt and clay in a soil and
determine it texture.

1. Get a quart jar from the supermarket with a lid or use any jar with a large
mouth.

2. Fill the jar half full of soil

3. Wet the soil to a mud consistency and tap the

jar to settle the soil.

4. Mark the level of soil on the jar with a marking

pen or whiteout

5. If you have some calgon put a teaspoon full in

the jar

6. Add water to the top of the jar and shake the

soil water mix till the soil is all mixed up in the
water.

7. Put the jar on a table and let the soil settle

out for 40 seconds, mark the level of soil on
the jar. This is sand portion in the soil.

8. Wait 6 hours and mark the level of the soil

in the jar. The difference between the bottom
mark, which is the sand,  and the  second
mark up is the silt portion of the soil. The total
sand plus silt is the distance from the bottom
of the jar to the second mark.

9. Calculate the percent sand, silt and clay by

measuring the depth of the soil by measuring
the distance from the bottom to the first mark
up in inches which is the sand fraction, the
distance from the first mark up to the second
mark up which is the silt fraction and the
distance from the bottom to the third mark up
from the bottom which is the sand plus silt
plus clay fraction. . Sometimes, when all the sand silt and clay has settled, the
height of the soil is higher than when you marked the jar  after making a mud
solution. This can only be determined by letting the jar sit for several days. If
80
you have the time to do this , then a more accurate calculation of % sand silt
and clay can be determined based on this new measured total height. Also,
the percent sand, silt, and clay is a volume percentage. The soil triangle  and
table below for soil classification is in percent by weight.  You need to correct
this problem by converting from percent volume to percent weight by
multiplying the percentage of sand by 1.19, the percentage of silt by 0.87 and
the percentage of clay by 0.94. These numbers are the weight ratio's of bulk
density compared to average bulk density of the material.

10. The percent sand is the depth of the sand divided by the depth of the total
soil

11. The percent silt is the depth of the silt divided by the depth of the total soil

12. The percent clay is 100 minus the percent sand plus silt.

13 To determine the soil texture knowing percent sand silt and clay using the table
below

Soil classification Clay Soil Loam soil sandy soil

percent clay 40-100% 7-27% 1-10%
percent silt 0-40% 28-50% 1-15%
percent sand 0-45% 23-52% 85-100%

14. A more precise determine of soil texture can be determine from percent
sand silt and clay using the soil triangle.

This simple approach to determining texture will not work if the soil contains a
lot of gypsum. Soil containing a lot of gypsum normally are pinkish white in
color.

81
 PLANT TISSUES

ASSIGNMENT 1:
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE YOUNG STEM OF A
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT

Make your own temporary preparation by making use of a maize stem. Stain
the stem with toluene blue to stain the section you want to observe. Make use
of a low and then high magnification.

Examine the epidermis first – state whether a cuticle is present. Note the
scattered vascular bundles around the ground tissue. Can a cortex, medulla
or pericycle be distinguished?

Study the cells under the epidermis – why do they have thickened walls? Note
whether there are intercellular spaces. Now study a large vascular bundle – it
is surrounded by a sheath of fibres. Note the cell walls and state the function
thereof in relation to the vascular bundle.

Examine the phloem and state the different cells you can distinguish between.
Also study the xylem.

ACTIVITY 1:

Draw your observations. Find as many as possible differences between

this stem and the monocotyledonous stem in your textbook.

82
 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT 1:
TO SHOW THAT PLANTS TRANSPIRE MAINLY THROUGH THEIR
LEAVES

To do this experiment, you will need two actively growing, well-watered pot
plants, bell jars, cobalt chloride paper, plastic sheeting, petroleum jelly and
two glass panes.

Seal the surface of the soil in the pot with the plastic sheeting, and seal off the
edges with petroleum jelly. Place one plant on a glass pane and cover with a
bell jar. Place a piece of dry cobalt chloride paper on the inside of the bell jar
and seal the surface between the jar and pane with petroleum jelly.

Repeat the above with the other plant, but strip off it leaves as a control.
Leave the experiment to stand overnight. If the cobalt chloride paper turned
pink, water is present.

ACTIVITY 1:

Discuss the conclusions. What happened to the different strips of cobalt

chloride paper? What conclusion can we draw from this?

83