MODULE 1 – LESSON 1: THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY particularly the propounding of theories

AND ETHICS concerning its origin, nature, structure, and

evolution.
4) Anthropology - the study of man and his
Philosophy destiny. It reflects upon man in order to
understand him in his entirety, grasping the
- taken from two Greek words, philos and sophia fundamental principles of his existence in the
which literally mean love of wisdom. world and his behavior.
- It seeks to find out the true meaning of life and 5) Aesthetics - a philosophical inquiry about
the importance of it, the desire to understand beauty in all of its forms. It also deals with the
the existence of everything. question of whether such qualities are
*Philosophical methods may be used in the study of any objectively present in the things they appear to
subject or the pursuit of any vocation. qualify, or exist only in the mind of the
individual.
*Philosophical training enhances one’s problem-solving 6) Theodicy – deals with the study of Supreme
capacities, one’s abilities to understand and express Being, defined as both omnipotent and good in
ideas, and one’s persuasive powers. the light of evil in the world.

MAIN DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY Rational Philosophy - primarily concern with the

1) Speculative Philosophy - the division of principles of living things, especially that of man,
Philosophy that is primarily good for focusing mainly on the relevance of the soul and self-
contemplative understanding. It provides knowledge which arises from common sense and
knowledge of a subject or area for the sake of natural reason.
knowledge. Social Philosophy - deals with the study of the nature of
2) Practical Philosophy - the division of philosophy society, relation between the individual, and social
that is good for real life application. It provides interaction that takes place in the given community.
knowledge to be used or applied in concrete
actions or situations. Political Philosophy - deals with the study of the
ultimate foundation of the state, the nature of
legitimate authority, the form of government, and the
BRANCHES OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY perfect form of society.

1) Epistemology - deals with the theory of

knowledge – its sources, kinds, and reliability. It BRANCHES OF PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY
is concerned with the definition, sources kinds,
and criteria of knowledge possible, and the 1) Logic - the formal and systematic study of the
degree to which each is certain. principles of valid inference and correct
2) Metaphysics - deals with the nature of reasoning. It is commonly known as the art and
existence. It is customarily divided into science of correct thinking.
Ontology and Metaphysics proper. 2) Ethics – deals with the concepts and principles
or morality.
Ontology - deals with the question of how many - a normative science of the conduct of human
fundamentally distinct sorts of entities compose the being living in societies; a science which judges
universe the conduct to be right or wrong, to be good or
Metaphysics Proper - describes the most general traits bad.
of reality.

3) Cosmology - the scientific study of the universe DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND MORALITY
on the largest scales of space and time,
 Etymologically, there is no difference between presupposes correct thinking and reasoning. Doing
ethics and morality, because both Ethics and Morality follows thinking.
comes from the Latin word mos or moris, which means
2) Ethics and Psychology
custom. However, there is a slight difference between
ethics and morality. Ethics provides man with - Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and
theoretical knowledge of the morality of human act cognitive mental process. Both involve the study of
while morality actualizes the theory. Morality is nothing man, human nature, and human behavior.
else but doing of ethics.
3) Ethics and Sociology

- Sociology is the scientific study of society and culture

DIVISION OF ETHICS while Ethics is concerned with the moral order, which
also includes social order.
1) General Ethics
- Society exists because of the observance of moral laws
- presents truths about human acts, and from these
that makes sociology dependent on ethics. Both are
truths deduce the general principles of morality.
complimentary, norms and cultures of the people which
General ethics is applied to individual in relation to
are the basis of ethical standards of a particular society.
himself, to God and to his fellow man.
4) Ethics and Economics
2) Special Ethics
- Economics is the proper allocation and efficient use of
- This one is applied ethics. It applies to the principles of
available resources for the maximum satisfaction of
general ethics in different departments of human
human needs.
activity, individual and social. It includes man’s relation
to the family, to the state and to the world. - His means of livelihood therefore must be morally
acceptable. He must observe justice and fairness with
his fellow being.
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
5) Ethics and Education
 Ethics means living in proper way and it is in the
- Education liberates men from ignorance not only from
development of a good moral character and
ethical standards but also from laws that are
virtues that man finds perfection and
implemented by the society. Education is concerned
understands his purpose of existence.
with the total human development.
 The Greek triumvirate, the Christian teachings
and majority of Oriental Philosophers affirmed 6) Ethics and Law
that the ultimate purpose of human existences
- Laws imposed by the society must be fair, just, and
is not acquisition of material possession, power
humane. It must be for the welfare of the majority of
and prestige but in the development of moral
the people and not offensive to morality. There is a
qualities that make men unique and supreme
difference between what is moral and what is legal.
from all creation.
 Confucius laid great emphasis on the cultivation - The legal covers only the external acts of man; the
of character, the purity of heart and conduct. moral governs even the internal acts of man, such as
He extorted to the people a good character the volitional and intentional activities of the will and
first, which is a priceless jewel and which is the mind.
best of all virtues.
7) Ethics and Art

RELATIONSHIP OF ETHICS TO OTHER SCIENCES - Man’s artistic creation must have a noble purpose,
which should not be offensive to morality. A piece of art
1) Ethics and Logic should reflect beauty and must inspire every person
who sees it.
- Logic is the science and art of correct reasoning. Ethics
is the science of good and proper living. But good living
 3) Moral Courage - a result of morally developed
will. It is the capacity to initiate and sustain
your resolve whenever you are certain of doing
the good.
4) Gawa and Gawi
8) Ethics and Political Science
Gawa - refers to the free action that is oriented towards
- Political Science is the study of state and government. a particular end. For example, a worker uses his/her
Politics covers the administration and management of free imagination and will to bring about services and
our government. products that contribute to the well-being of society.
- Politics is also concerned with the material needs of - As governed by free decisions making, the creative
man while ethics is primarily concern with the spiritual workers embrace all the information he/she can gather
needs of man, these two are inseparable. to effectively realize his/her purpose.
- Politics is not bad at all, if it used properly; the Gawi -refers to the free kind of work. However, instead
politicians must set aside their personal interest and of focusing on a particular end like a product or
rather promote the general welfare of the citizens. fulfillment.

- refers to the kind of acts that human beings are used

to accomplishing. It does not only refer to particular
acts of a person. A person’s habitual action or kagawian
MODULE 1 – LESSON 2: INTRODUCTION OF BASIC reveals truth about himself/herself.
CONCEPTS AND KEY ELEMENTS OF ETHICS
5) Reason - sets the course for making ethical and
impartial decions especially in moral situations
Looking closely, human actions ought to be although it is not the sole determining factor in
understood clearly in a very strict sense because it has coming up with such decision.
something to do with human movements that are ruled 6) Feelings - provides the individual with an initial
by one’s freedom. Freedom figures closely into action reckoning of a situation, but they should not be
and inclination. Freedom here, means not only the the sole basis for one’s motives and actions.
ability to act free from outside influences or 7) Freedom - the willful act and decision that
independence from the impediments to one’s wishes. It gives form and shape to the actions and
is the willful act and decision that gives form and shape inclinations of the individuals.
to the actions and inclinations of the human person. - Freedom is oriented towards the wherefore, the what
The human person himself/herself is significant only in for, and the whom for, of the doings of the individuals.
considering the result in matters of to poiein or gawa.
8) Good Acts and Evil Acts

Good Acts - A morally good act requires the goodness of

THE KEY ELEMENTS OF ETHICS the object, of the intention of the agent, and of the
1) Character - an evaluation of an individual's circumstances together.
stable moral qualities. The concept of character Evil Acts - an act that corrupts the action even if the
can imply a variety of attributes including the object is good in itself.
existence or lack of virtues.
2) Moral Character - refers to the assemblage of
qualities that distinguish one individual from APPROACHES TO NORMATIVE ETHICS
another.
1) Consequentialism - At the heart of
- Although on a cultural level, the set of moral behaviors consequentialist theories is the idea that the
to which a social group adheres can be said to unite and moral action is the one that produces the best
define it culturally as distinct from others. consequences.
 2) Deontology - According to deontological neither of which is acceptable. As we can see, the key
theories, morality is primarily a function of here is that the person has choices to make that will all
duties or obligations, regardless of the have results she does not want.
consequences of acting in accordance with
Ethical Dilemma - a decision-making problem between
those duties.
two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is
3) Virtue Ethics - It gives primacy of importance
unambiguously acceptable or preferable.
not to rules, but to particular habits of character
such as the virtue of courage and other types of In ethical dilemma, the complexity arises out of the
virtue that the person is personally inclined to situational conflict in which obeying would result in
perform. transgressing another.

- There are three identified conditions that must be

present for situations to be considered moral dilemmas:
Moral Standards - refers to the norms which we have
about the types of actions which we believe to be 1. First, the person or the agent of a moral action
morally acceptable and morally unacceptable. is obliged to make a decision about which
Specifically, it involves sets of recognized and course of action is best. Here, the moral agent
permanently acceptable character or norms commonly must choose the best option and act
used as primary measure of quality, value, and extent. accordingly.
2. Second, there must be different courses of
Non-moral Standards - refer to rules that we have
action to choose from. Hence, as already
about the types of actions that are unrelated to moral
pointed out above, there must be two or more
or ethical considerations. These refers to the people
conflicting options to choose from for moral
customary, and habitual ways of doing things. These
dilemmas to occur.
customary ways are accumulated and become
3. Third, no matter what course of action is taken,
repetitive patterns of expected behavior, which tend to
some moral principles are always compromised.
become permanent traditions.

TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMA

DERIVATION OF MORAL STANDARDS
1) Epistemic Dilemmas: Self-imposed and world-
 The foundations of evolving moral systems rest
imposed dilemmas
on a complex cybernetic process that sustains
and preserves the human species. Epistemic Dilemma - involve situations wherein two or
 This is a dynamic process that drives the more moral requirements conflicted with each other
creation of moral and ethical standards, and that the moral agent hardly knows which of the
namely: emotion, and rules. conflicting moral requirements takes precedence over
 Every human action inspires a corresponding the other. In other words, under the epistemic dilemma,
reaction whether subtle in nature or violent. the moral agent in this situation does not know which
Some people are more emotionally reactive option is morally right or wrong.
than others.
Self-imposed Dilemma - caused by the moral agent’s
 Emotions can get out of control if not regulated
wrong doings.
by laws, customs, moral codes, professional
codes and even the rules of etiquette. 2) Obligation Dilemmas and Prohibition
 Rules are considered as an essential stabilizing Dilemmas
force that enhance the survivability of
individuals, families and nations. Obligation Dilemma - pertains to a particular situations
in which there are more than one feasible actions is
obligatory.
Dilemma - a situation where a person is forced to 3) Single Agent and Multi-person Dilemmas
choose between two or more conflicting options,
Single Agent Dilemma - The moral agent is compelled cannot develop these inborn talents without
to act on two or more equally the same moral options the help of other people.
but he/she cannot choose both.  It is an indelible manifestation of human
existence that shows how far a human being
has gone in the course of time and how much
he/she has learned.
 The growth of culture anywhere at any given
SOURCES OF MORALITY
time is a result of an individual’s reaction to the
1) The Object - the aim or goal of a certain action several stimuli that motivates his/her way of
acquired. To make an act morally good, it’s thinking and challenge his/her mode of living.
object or aim must conform to the law of God Without him/her culture will be at a standstill.
or the conscience of the doer of the action must
attest it.
2) The Intention of the Agent - refers to the ORIGIN OF CULTURE
means of attaining the object.
 Anthropologists believe that culture is a product
3) The Circumstances - pertains to the types of
of human evolution. Humans devised a
environment, situation, or condition prevailing
common way of classifying experiences and
when the action is done.
transmitting them symbolically.
 Since these experiences were learned and
transmitted, the developed distinctly,
independent from biological evolutions. Hence,
MODULE 2 – LESSON 1: CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR a person may transmit beliefs, values, norms or
way of life to another person even if they are
not related by blood.
The beginning of human civilization is a proper  This view of culture argues that people from
reference point in treating the interesting subject of different places develop distinct cultures.
culture. A human beings adaptation to their society, However, elements of a culture can be
conformity to the culture of their time, and their transmitted from one society to another.
education have work alongside each other putting their  Being dynamic, culture can be taught and
present status. learned, making it potentially rapid form of
adaptation to changes in the human
environment.
Culture

 derived from the Latin word cultura or cultus ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

which means care or cultivation. Culture is
analogous to caring for an infant. Because an 1) Material Culture - includes the physical objects
infant has prolonged dependency, he/she has to a society produces. These are tools, pieces of
be taken care by people around him/her. furniture, clothing, automobiles, and computer
 has been defined as all modes of thought, systems, to name a few. Awareness of these
behavior, and production that are handed down kinds of objects created and how people use
from one generation to the next by means of them brings about greater understanding of
communicative interaction rather than by culture of society.
genetic transmission. 2) Non-material Culture - consist of elements
 Culture as cultivation implies that every human termed norms, values, belief, and language
being is a potential member of his/her own shared by the members of a society. Non-
social group. He/She is endowed with certain material culture is considered as the carriers of
innately useful qualities. However, he/she culture.
ELEMENTS OF NON-MATERIAL CULTURE 2) Folkways - are norms that simply the
customary, normal and habitual ways a group
1) Language - most defining characteristics of the
does things. These customary ways are
human being is the ability to develop and use
accumulated and become repetitive patterns of
highly complex systems of symbols like
behavior, which tends to become permanent
language.
traditions.
- A symbol, as sociologist says, is the very foundation of 3) Laws - are often referred to as formal norms.
culture. The essence of culture is the sharing of They are rules that are enforced and sanctioned
meanings among members of the society. Unless one by the authority of the government.
shares the language of culture, one cannot participate
in it. Languages influences people’s way of perceiving,
behaving and feeling, thus, tends to define and shape CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
the world around them. It is through language that
 Culture is learned
ideas, values, beliefs and knowledge are transmitted,
 Culture is shared
expressed and shared.
 Culture is cumulative
2) Beliefs - are ideas that people hold about any  Culture is dynamic
part of the total reality surrounding them. It  Culture is diverse
shows how people see reality. The subject of
human beliefs may be infinite and may include
ideas concerning the individual, other people, FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE
and any aspects of the biological, physical, The importance of culture cannot be
social, and supernatural world, be it primitive or overemphasized. Although human beings possess
scientific. instinct, they generally rely on their culture in order to
3) Values - are the shared ideas about desirable survive. Next to this, are some functions of culture.
goals. These are person’s ideas about worth and
desirability or an abstract of what is important  Culture helps people adapt to the demand of
and worthwhile. Values make up human the surrounding physical environment.
judgments of what is moral and immoral, good  Culture compensates for many human physical
and bad, right or wrong, beautiful and ugly, and limitations.
so on.  Culture provides ways and means to regulate
4) Norms - are shared rules of conduct that specify human collective existence.
how people should ought to think and act.  Culture prescribes behavioral patter insides
Norms is simply defined as specific rules of ways and means to regulate human.
behavior.

Culture Relativism - the notion that each culture should

TYPES OF NORMS be evaluated according to its own merits and standards
rather than from the standpoint or bases of a different
1) Mores - are norms associated with strong ideas culture. In other words, norms, values, and beliefs
of right and wrong. Mores are standard of should be judged only from the viewpoint of the culture
conduct that are highly respected and valued by where they belong. The goal is to promote
the group and their fulfillment is felt to be understanding of cultural practices that are not typically
necessary and vital to group welfare. They are part of one’s own culture. Using this perspective, it
considered essential to group’s existence and leads to the view that no particular culture is superior
accordingly, the group demands that they be than another culture when compared to systems of
followed without question. They represent morality, law, politics, and so on. It is a concept that
obligatory behavior because their infractions cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a
result in punishments, formal or informal. specific social context.
MODES OF ACQUIRING CULTURE Personality or character is an approach or a way
of reckoning the different situations that one faces in
1) Imitation - human action by which one tends to
his/her life - a way of navigating one’s way towards
duplicate more or less exactly the behavior of
his/her flourishing as a human persons.
others.
2) Indoctrination - takes the form of formal Character is not merely a theoretical construct
teaching or training which may happen but a product of action in the world – a constant doing
anywhere. The formal teaching takes into or way of being that is made apparent by the possession
account the cultural components of society and actualization of particular virtues or vices.
where the learning individuals lives.
Moral Character - an evaluation of an individual's stable
3) Conditioning - Through norms prevailing in
moral qualities. The concept of character can imply a
one’s social and cultural milieu and through the
variety of attributes. A moral character includes the
process of conditioning, the individual acquires
existence or lack of virtues such as empathy, courage,
certain patterns of beliefs, values, and
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty, or of good behaviors or
behaviors.
habits. It primarily refers to the assemblage of qualities
4) Acculturation - a process by which societies
that distinguish one individual from another. Although
with different cultures are modified through
on a cultural level, the set of moral behaviors to which a
fairly close and long continued contact
social group adheres can be said to unite and define it
5) Amalgamation- the intermarriage of persons
culturally as distinct from others.
coming from different cultural groups resulting
in some kind of biological fusion. - Psychologist Lawrence Pervin defines moral character
as a disposition to express behavior in consistent
patterns of functions across a range of situations.

Normative ethics involve moral standards that

MODULE 2 – LESSON 2: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT exhibit right and wrong conduct. It is a test of proper
behavior and determining what is right and wrong.

Ethics is a matter of living well through the

habitual practice of virtue which essentially translates Plato believed that the soul is divided into three parts
into having a virtuous or excellent character. of desire, namely:

A virtuous character is the result of proper  Rational

combination of practical wisdom (phronesis), and  Appetitive
habituation in the pursuit of the mean (mesotes).  Spirited
Being ethical is all about being excellent in
human being, which is being excellent in fulfilling one’s In order to have moral character, we must
essence as a rational being that has cultivated an understand what contributes to our overall good and
excellent character and capable of making the most have our spirited and appetitive desires educated
prudent decisions in all circumstances. properly, so that they can agree with the guidance
provided by the rational part of the soul.
Through the constant interaction of thought
and action as prompted by various situations that calls Aristotle tells us that there are good people in the
for one’s decision, a person comes to know world. These are those who exhibit excellences –
himself/herself as a certain type of character or excellences of thought and excellences of character.
personality. Excellence of character, then, is a state concerned with
choice, lying in a mean relative to us, this being
Being a certain way or having a particular
determined by reason and in the way in which the man
personality or character implies a certain understanding
of practical wisdom would determine it.
of the good.
 We have been informed that Ethics is a branch of 6) Friendliness - Filipino quality of being friendly
Philosophy concerned about actions, the action either and can easily get together with others in a
human act or act of man. Ethics and values have a sincere, loyal, and kind ways.
common role; they even interplay with each other. 7) Politeness - Filipino quality of being courteous
Ethics without values is hollow and shallow and to anybody, most especially to the elders, and it
therefore weak. While values without ethics is is usually associated with the used of Po and
paralytics. Opo.

Filipino Values and Non-Filipino Culture

Values - are beliefs or ideals shared by the member of a While it is true that Filipinos have their own sense
culture about what is good or desirable and what is not. of values and valuing system, it is also an accepted fact
It strongly influences the behavior of an individual and that these distinct values came from the universal
serve as board in all situation. human needs and wants. For instance, everyone in the
world has a want to own a car. However, how serious
Root of Filipino Values - there are three known origins
the Filipinos are on this want may be different from that
of the Filipino values: (1) lifestyles (2) human nature and
of the Americans.
(3) cultural inclination

BIPOLAR FILIPINO VALUES

THE PATTERNS OF FILIPINO VALUES
1) Hiya or Shame - gives the Filipinos a picture of
1) Exogenous Pattern - also identified as legal or
refinement, culture and education. It avoids
formal. The word itself would help us deduce its
harshness or crudeness. This value limits the
root to the time when Filipinos began to form a
Filipinos to desire so much and it gives them
link with cultures.
peace of mind.
2) Indigenous Pattern - considered traditional or
2) Ningas Cogon or Procrastination - Its positive
non-formal pattern of Filipino values.
aspects rely on the fact that a person with such
Indigenous values are acquired in the
a value is definitely simple. It has a negative
subconscious mind.
effect because a man with that value refuses to
take responsibility, and a man who does not
take responsibilities seems to be far from
FILIPINO VALUES improvements.
1) Bayanihan - Filipino community spirit of 3) Bahala Na or Resignation - has a positive effect
cooperation in which a group of individuals because it is a demonstration of dependence to
extends a helping hand without expecting any God. Bahala na is a expression of humility; it is
remuneration. the opposite of arrogance. However, it also has
2) Family Closeness - Filipino trait of prioritizing a negative effect because it legitimizes laziness.
the family above other things and maintaining 4) Mañana Habit - Having positive values allow
the close connections and cooperations among things to move on their pattern. They assure
its members. peace of mind in the person. They are like
3) Hospitality - Filipino trait of being receptive and allowing wound to heal on its own. However,
generous to guests and to anybody that enters they also have a negative part. It keeps
into their homes. problems to a heap until solving them becomes
4) Compassion - Filipino trait of being kind and impossible.
emphatic to others even if the person is a not 5) Utang na loob or Indebtedness - a recognition
known to them or a stranger. of a favor. It is a way of paying back something
5) Regionalism - Filipino trait of giving his province or a way of repayment. It is also negative; the
mates preferential treatment as well as priority success of one is like a debt to someone. This is
over natives of other provinces.
 one weakness of the Filipinos that many times it - expresses the what’s in it for me? position, in which
results to prejudices during elections. right behavior is defined by whatever the individual
believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning
shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to
MODULE 2 – LESSON 3: MORAL DEVELOPMENT the point where it might further the individual’s own
interests.
The notions of morality development have been
developed over centuries, the earliest came from 2) Conventional - where a child’s sense of morality
philosophers like Confucius, Aristotle, and Rousseau, is tied to personal and societal relationships.
who all took a more humanist perspective and focused Children continue to accept the rules of
on the development of the conscience and sense of authority figures, but this is now due to their
virtue. belief that this is necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order.
Moral Development - focuses on the emergence,
change, and understanding of morality from infancy STAGES OF CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORAL
through adulthood. REASONING

Morality develops across a lifetime and is  Stage 1: Good Boy / Good Girl Orientation
influenced by an individual's experiences and their
- In this stage, children want the approval of others and
behavior when faced with moral issues through
act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on
different periods of physical and cognitive development.
good behavior and people being nice to others.
Morality in itself is often a synonym for rightness or
goodness. It refers to a certain code of conduct that is  Stage 2: Law and Order Orientation
derived from one's culture, religion or personal
- In this stage, the child blindly accepts rules and
philosophy that guides one's actions, behaviors and
convention because of their importance in maintaining
thoughts. In the modern day, empirical research has
a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same
explored morality through a moral psychology lens by
for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is
theorists like Sigmund Freud and its relation to cognitive
supposed to do is seen as valuable and important.
development by theorists like Jean Piaget, Lawrence
Kohlberg, and B. F. Skinner. 3) Post-conventional - where a person’s sense of
morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that
LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated.
1) Pre-conventional - where a child’s sense of
morality is externally controlled. Children STAGES OF POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORAL
accept and believe the rules of authority REASONING
figures, such as parents and teachers.
1) Stage 1: Social Contract Orientation
STAGES OF PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF MORAL
- In this stage, the world is viewed as holding different
REASONING
opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should
 Stage 1: Obedience/Punishment Orientation be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts
- focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid
rather than rigid edicts.
being punished. For example, an action is perceived as
morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the 2) Stage 2: Universal Ethical Orientation
worse the punishment for the act is, the more bad the
- In this stage, moral reasoning is based on abstract
act is perceived to be.
reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally,
 Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete
and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect.
Conscience - refers to the inner sense or consciousness
of the moral goodness or blameworthiness of one’s own
conduct, intentions, or character together with a feeling
of obligation to do right or to be good.

Conscience-Based Moral Decision - In this way, the

individual acts because it is morally right to do so and
not because he or she wants to avoid punishment, it is
in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is
previously agreed upon. In this type of decision, laws
are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice,
and a commitment to justice carries with it, and an
obligation to disobey unjust laws.
 suggests that the agent performs an act with
freedom, his will is not affected or influenced by any
constraint either within himself or outside himself. In
simple terms, it means that the one who do the act
is not forced to do or not to do a particular action.
And because of this, a human act is purely and solely
determined by the will.
3) Voluntariness - Of the three constituents of human
acts, this requires the presence of the two other
constituents, namely: knowledge, and freedom. This
means that the voluntary act is synonymous with
human act. It requires the presence of knowledge
and freedom in the agent because for the agent to
will an act, he/she must have knowledge of what the
act is and he/she must also have freedom to perform
or not to perform the act. Thus, a voluntary act is a
willful act.

MODULE 3 – LESSON 1: THE HUMAN ACTS

Human acts - are actions that proceed from the deliberate CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACT
free will of man. In a broader perspective, it refers to any
activity performed by man freely and knowingly. Moral 1) Human Act in relation to the Will
philosophy, however, treats of the term human acts not in its
- actions which are started, performed, and completed by the
broader but in its stricter meaning. Moral philosophy,
will either by the will alone or through other faculties which
therefore, understands human act as actions that are proper
are under the control of the will.
only to man. These actions are those which man does not
share with the brutes, because human acts are rational and 2) Human Act in relation to Reason
willed acts.
- actions that are either in agreement or in disagreement with
Acts of man - are man’s actions which man shares with the reason.
brutes. These are actions that proceed without man’s
deliberate free will such as the beating of the heart,
palpitating, salivating, breathing, winkling of an eye, etc. All KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS IN RELATION TO THE WILL
these activities do not need man’s freedom and will.
1) Elicited Acts - actions which are started in the will,
performed by the will, and are completed by the will
ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS as a sole agent without bodily involvement.

1) Knowledge - A human act is an act done with CLASSIFICATION OF ELICITED ACTS

knowledge. Doing an act with knowledge makes the  Wish - the primordial desire, like, or inclination
act deliberate. This means that the one who of the will to a thing conceived by the will as
performs the act has intellectual knowledge of the good and known by the intellect. Embedded in
act. Further, in performing an act with knowledge, the inclination of the will is its wish to act. This
the one who performs the act has awareness of the where all human acts start the wish to act.
means to employ as he performs an act and the
 Intention - the purposive tendency of the will
agent has also the awareness of the end to achieve
towards a thing regarded as realizable, whether
in his action.
the thing is actually done or not. This means
2) Freedom - A human act is an act done with freedom.
that through intentions, the will is assured that
An act done with freedom means that the agent
the object of its inclination is attainable.
does an act under the control of his will. This
  Consent - a definite decision as to what means only in theory and not in the actual situation. The
should be used. This means that the will and reason is that in the concrete advertence of actions,
intellect are in a process of picking or choosing actions are only either good or bad.
rightly the should-be-used means.
 Election - the active commitment of the agent to
follow what means the intellect has finally opted Morality of the Human Act - refer to the goodness or
as the right pick, so much so that the will shows badness of an act. These are what they call morally good and
acceptance of the choice of the intellect in order morally evil. When an act is done in accordance with the law
to achieve the desired good. of God and human reason, which is attested to by the
 Use - after the mind has selected the means to conscience, the act is morally good.
carry out the intention, this time the mind uses
the means.
 Fruition - the actual attainment of the desired MODULE 3 – LESSON 2: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
good. This means that the will is enjoying
because it possesses satisfaction since it
achieved what it willed.
Reason - the sufficient ground of explanation and logical
defense. It also reflects the power of comprehending,
2) Commanded Acts - those which are begun in the
inferring, or thinking especially in orderly rational ways.
will, performed by the will, but completed through
bodily involvement which is under the control of the Impartiality - a principle of justice holding that decisions
will. should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis
of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person
over another for improper reasons.

The Moral Act - Human beings are complex beings. Unlike

other organism that are simply driven by survival instincts,
human beings experience the world in a variety of ways
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMANDED ACTS through a variety of perceptive capacities. Apart from our
 Internal Act - actions done by man by way of his rational capacity which allows us to reckon reality with
internal mental powers under the command of the imaginative and calculative lenses, our feelings also play a
will. Examples of this could be the act of crucial part in determining the way we navigate through
remembering, the act of nerving oneself to meet an various situations that we experience. Being human, we have
issue, and the act of deliberate use of the the capacity to reflexively examine a situation before
imagination in visualizing a science. proceeding to act with respect to how we feel. In other
 External Act - actions that are affected by bodily words, although feelings provide us with an initial reckoning
powers of man under the command of will. of a situation, they should not be the sole basis for our
Examples of this could be that of deliberate writing, motives and actions. A person who is in a state of rage
walking, eating, spitting. towards a perceived enemy or competitor is likely unable to
 Mixed Act - actions that include the use of bodily process the possible consequences of his/her actions done
and mental powers. Examples of this could be that of impulsively. Feelings seek immediate fulfillment, and it is our
painting, where the artist uses the power of his reason that tempers these compulsions. Feelings without
intellect through imagination and the power of his reasons are blind. Reason sets the course for ethical and
hands in sketching the contents of his imagination. impartial decisions especially in moral situations although it is
not the sole determining factor in coming up with such
decisions. Reason and feelings must constructively
complement each other whenever we are making choices.
KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS IN RELATION TO REASON
When feeling anger and jealousy, and shame are out of
1) Good Acts - actions done by man in harmony with control, reason puts these emotions in their proper places.
the dictates of right reason.
2) Evil Acts - actions done by man in contradiction to
the dictates of right reason. SEVEN STEPS OF MORAL REASONING
3) Indifferent Acts - actions that neither good nor evil.
Indifferent acts bear no positive relation to the 1) Stop and Think
dictates of right reason. For clarity’s sake, it exists
 Before making any decision. It is best to take a moment but the disposition must also be informed by proper
to think about the situation itself, your place in it, and other reasoning about the matter at hand.
surrounding factors which merit consideration such as the
people involved and the potential effects of your decision on
them. Moral Disposition – person’s ability to behave in certain ways
in certain sorts of circumstances in accordance to the
2) Clarify Goals
appropriate virtues.
It is also necessary to clarify your short-term and long-
term aims. One often decides on the basis of what he/she
wants to accomplish. Sometimes, in the heat of the moments,
short-term wants eclipse long-term goals.
MODULE 3 – LESSON 3: BIOETHICS
3) Determine Facts

Make sure you gather enough information before you

make a choice. An intelligent choice is one that is supported At the turn of the 20th century personalists theorist
by verified facts. You must first make sure that that what you emerged as a reaction to perceived depersonalization caused
know is enough to merit action. by the advent of science, technology, and totalistic systems in
philosophy. It posits the value of personhood as a center of
4) Develop Options life, experience, decisions, and actions.
Once you are clear in terms of your goals and facts, try to
come up with alternative options to exhaust all possible
courses of actions. Most of the time, the pressure of a Bioethics - refers to the discipline dealing with the ethical
situation may make you feel you have less options than you implications of biological research and its application in order
think. to preserve the sanctity of life.

5) Consider Consequences Health - refers to the state of the body, which enables it to
perform every function, which can reasonably expected of it,
Filter your choices and separate the ethical from the to accommodate itself to each ordinary tasks.
unethical choices bearing in mind both your motives and the
potential consequences of your action. Think of long-term Personal Health Responsibility - Taking charge of one’s own
consequences and act in accordance with the principles of health is an essential step in disease prevention as well as
justice and fairness. protocols for healing and recovery from disease. It involves
active participation in one’s own health and healing plan
6) Choose through education and lifestyle changes. One needs to be
sensitive about the importance of good health. A simple
Make a decision. If the choice is hard to make, try
everyday exercise, avoiding alcohol and tobacco and illegal
consulting others who may have knowledge or experience of
drugs, proper hygiene, enough rest like 8-hour sleep, eating in
your situation. Find people with virtuous character and
proper time and a balance diet are few things that we can do
compare your reasoning with their moral analysis.
for our body. People should think more on prevention not on
7) Monitor and Modify cure. Diseases may be avoided if everyone is conscious about
what they do, since most diseases are acquired as a product
Monitor what happens after your decision and have
of unhealthy lifestyle. Part of personal responsibility to health
enough humility to modify your actions or behavior as
is to know their family history, this is one way to determine
necessary. Pride may get in the way of admitting that you
hereditary illnesses which can be avoided in the future. In our
might have not thought out a decision will be enough.
country, several measures have been enacted to instill health
awareness and impose personal responsibility towards
health. Like the anti-smoking campaign, discouragement to
Moral Character Traits - those dispositions of character for take medicines without medical prescription, and
which it is appropriate to hold agents morally responsible. A encouragement to seek medical assistance and services from
trait for which the agent is deserving of a positive reactive licensed physician. Abusing one’s body violates God’s
attitude, such as praise or gratitude, is a virtue. They are not commandments. It is a common belief that our body comes
just dispositions to engage in certain outward behaviors; they from God – we are tasked to take care of it and not to destroy
can also be dispositions to have certain emotions or it. It is owned by God and it is for our love one and
affections. In order for a moral character trait to be a virtue, it fellowmen.
must not only be in accord with the relevant moral norms,
 use them to serve God. One’s body and life belong to God,
and we are only entrusted to use it in order to accomplished
CRIMES AGAINST HUMAN LIFE
His will like stewards. It is intrinsically evil to do things that
will harm our health.

1) Suicide - literally derived from Latin word suicide 5) Alcoholism - an act of drinking alcoholic drinks at a level
combining the pronoun for self and a verb for to kill. Thus, that interferes with physical health, mental health, and social,
suicide in essence, is an act of human being intentionally family, or job responsibilities. The Bible does not prohibit the
causing his or her own death. drinking of alcoholic beverages. What it does condemn is
drinking excessively which can be associated with gluttony.
OTHER METHODS OF SUICIDE Alcoholism will always be regarded as immoral if it is a habit.
 Blunt Force Trauma 6) Abortion - refers to the termination of a pregnancy by the
 Exsanguinations removal or expulsion from the uterus or embryo resulting in
 Internal Drowning or causing its death.
 Electrocution
 Immolation TYPES OF ABORTION
 Intentional Starvation 1. Spontaneous Abortion - often the body’s way of
preventing the birth of a defective child, although
sometimes they are due to maternal health
2) Sterilization - refers to the procedure performed to stop problems.
fertility permanently, in either male or female. It is 2. Induced Abortion - results from the planned
considered as the most reliable and most commonly used interruption of a pregnancy. It prevents a conception
type of contraception. Sterilization is done either to the male from becoming a live birth.
or female through operation. Operation on women is 3. Therapeutic Abortion - refers to abortions thought
commonly called tubal ligation as the procedure aims to necessary because of fetal anomalies or to protect
occlude or ligate the fallopian tubes. Male sterilization on the the health of the mother when a birth might be life
other hand, is achieved by the operation of vasectomy; threatening or physically damaging.
cutting or legating, on both sides the vas deferens, which 4. Elective or Voluntary Abortion - refers to the
transport sperm from the testicles to the penis. interruption of a pregnancy before viability at the
woman’s request for reasons other than fetal
3) Euthanasia - usually refers to the act of quickening death anomalies or maternal risks.
for a merciful motive. Euthanasia, however, is different from
5. Legal Abortion and Illegal Abortion
suicide because death is not a certain in suicide; while the
opposite is true for euthanasia. A legal abortion is a procedure performed by a licensed
physician intended to terminate a suspected or known
intrauterine pregnancy. An Illegal abortion is induced by
someone who is not a physician, or self-induced.

TYPES OF EUTHANASIA

1. Passive Euthanasia - refers to the rights of the patients to 7) Selling Organs for Transplants - refers to exchanging
refuse life support, medicines, and medical procedures. It is organs for money or other valuable considerations which
said that it is more widely accepted because there is no law leads to commoditization of the human bodies and
that forces an individual to receive involuntary life support. exploitation of the poor for the benefit of the rich.

2. Active Euthanasia - is more controversial and as such

remains illegal worldwide. It simply pertains to the voluntary
agreement between the physician and the dying patient to
pursue acts that eventually lead to death. MODULE 4 – LESSON 1: ARISTOTLE’S THOUGHTS

4) Drug Addiction - the state of periodic and chronic ARISTOTLE’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY
intoxication detrimental to the individual and to the society,
Aristotle was born in the Greek colony of Stagira in
produced by the repeated consumption of a drug. The Bible
Macedonia. Nicomachus, his father was a student of natural
teaches that Christians should take care of their bodies and
history and an eminent physician, who served under Amytas virtuous character is the result of the proper combination of
II, King of Macedonia, father to Philip the Great. practical wisdom and habituation in the pursuit of the mean.

Aristotle studied in Plato’s Academy and is

unanimously considered to be Plato’s greatest student. He
THE CONCEPT OF SOUL
provided philosophical basis of science which proved
dominant for 18 centuries. For him, the soul is the part of the human being that
emanates the body. It is the life principle in man. It is
In 342 B.C., he returned to Macedon as tutor and
composed of both rational and irrational elements. The
then adviser to King Philip II of Macedon's son Alexander,
rational part of the soul is divided into two parts - the
who became Alexander the Great. Later he became a public
speculative which is responsible for knowledge, and the
teacher in Athens, using a garden he owned where he
practical which is responsible for choice and action. The
founded his own school called the Lyceum.
speculative part is concerned with pure thought and is
His collected lectures cover most of the knowledge of the essentially the base of contemplation, while the practical
time in science, and some other fields such as Logic and intellect is in charge of action and the practical determination
Ethics, and include much of Aristotle's own work in Zoology of the proper means to attain a specific end.
and Anatomy.

Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a

THE CONCEPT OF VIRTUE
matter of knowing the good but actually doing or practicing
the good habitually. The Greek word for virtue is arête which means
excellence. By excellence, the Greeks thought of how a thing
For Aristotle, we can only fully actualize our
fulfills its functions in accordance with its nature.
potential as human beings once we understand what being
human essentially aims to and do the necessary things to
fulfill that in the most excellent way possible.
Virtue - a state or character which makes a person good and
According to Aristotle, Ethics is grounded in the capable of fulfilling his/her end (telos) as a human person. For
formation of one’s character - a way of being and living in Aristotle, virtue is a state of one’s character that is the result
harmony with the human person’s proper end (telos). of choice. This choice is governed by prudence or practical
wisdom (phronesis).

Phronesis - is the human person’s instrument in dealing with

THE CONCEPT OF ETHICS
moral choices. It is a kind of knowledge that deals with
Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or practical matters and not just with ideas or concepts.
theoretical, aims towards some ends or good. acquired. For
- the intellectual virtue responsible for bringing the
Aristotle, Ethics is a matter of living well through the habitual
human person closer to his/her chief good in the
practice of virtue which essentially translates into having a
realm of morality.
virtuous or excellent character. Aristotle is not simply
-
interested in finding out the different ends or purposes for
human life. He wants to find out what our chief end is. He is Aristotle believed that there are two kinds of virtues –
interested in finding out what all our lives essentially and moral and intellectual. Moral virtues has to do with
ultimately aim to. Aristotle names the chief good for the excellence in the performance of decisions relating to moral
human person as happiness or eudaimonia, which is an and practical activity. On the other hand, the intellectual
activity of the soul that purposively attempts to choose the virtues have something to do with one’s capacity to harness
mean between two extremes in the realm of morality. For reason’s contemplative capacity for arriving at knowledge.
Aristotle, happiness is the self-sufficient, final, and attainable Aristotle emphasizes the role of practice and habit in the
goal of human life. It is self-sufficient because to have it formation of moral virtue. No person is born morally virtuous.
makes human life complete. For Aristotle, our chief god is not However, all persons have the latent potentiality to be so, if
something we merely possess but something that we only they habitually do excellent deeds.
continually actualize. According to him, Eudaimonia is an
activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. He postulates
that happiness is an activity of the soul. Aristotle teaches us
that character is the most essential component of Ethics. A
MODULE 4 – LESSON 2: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS’ THOUGHTS discern what is good from what is not. It is based on
first principle, that good is to be done and promoted,
and evil is to be avoided. All other precepts of the
ST THOMAS AQUINAS SHORT BIOGRAPHY natural law are based on this. For Aquinas, the
natural law impinges on the very freedom of the
He was a scholastic philosopher and theologian, born human being who can know his/her options and
in the Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino, Italy. He studied voluntarily will to take actions.
with the Benedictines of Monte Cassino, and at the University 2) Eternal Law - is identical to the mind of God as seen
of Naples. Against the bitter opposition of his family, he by God Himself. It can be called law because God
entered the Dominican Order of mendicant friars. His stands to the universe which He creates as a ruler
brothers kidnapped him and kept him a prisoner in the does to a community which He rules.
paternal castle for over a year; in the end he made his way to 3) Divine Law - derived from eternal law as it appears
Cologne to become a pupil of Albertus Magnus. In 1252 he historically to humans, especially through revelation,
went to Paris, and taught there, until in 1258 he was it appears to human beings as divine commands.
summoned by the pope to teach successively in Anagni, Divine law is divided into the Old Law and the New
Orvieto, Rome, and Viterbo. He died at Fossanuova on his Law. The Old Law and the New Law roughly
way to defend the papal cause at the Council of Lyon, and corresponds to the Old Testaments and the New
was canonized in 1323. His prolific writings display great Testaments of the Bible. When he speaks of the Old
intellectual power, and he came to exercise enormous Law, St. Thomas Aquinas is thinking mainly of the
intellectual authority throughout the Church. In his Ten Commandments. When he speaks of the New
philosophical writings he tried to combine and reconcile Law, the teachings of Jesus Christ. The Old Law
Aristotle's scientific rationalism with Christian doctrines of commands conduct externally and it reaches
faith and revelation. His best-known works are two huge humans through their capacity for fear. This law
encyclopedic syntheses. The Summa contra Gentiles that promised earthly rewards. The New Law commands
deals chiefly with the principles of natural religion. His internal conduct, it reaches humans by the example
Summa Theologiae that contains his mature thought in of divine love. This law promises heavenly rewards.
systematic form, and includes the famous five ways or proofs 4) Human Law - what we commonly call positive law,
of the existence of God. Thomism now represents the general the laws actually enacted and put in force in our
teaching of the Catholic Church. St. Thomas Aquinas begins human communities. Aquinas thinks of human laws
from the standpoint of faith. His perspective presupposes the as laws, devised by human reason, adapted to
existence of a God who is the author (source) and the goal particular geographical, historical, and social
(end) of all eternity. For Aquinas, God reveals His goodwill as circumstances. Human law is directed to the
the eternal law reflected in the order of reality. Relating with common good. The promotion of virtue is necessary
the law as governing all is relating with God himself whose for the common good, and human laws are
will emanates to govern all that is. Human freedom for St instruments in the promotion of virtue.
Thomas Aquinas, is an imprint of the Divine will in the very
being of the human person. This sharing of human reason in
the eternal will or divine will is for him/her the natural law.
Conscience - For Aquinas, the conscience refers to the proper
Aquinas describes law as a certain rule and measure of acts
functioning of reason in moving the human person towards
whereby man is induced to act or is restrained from acting.
an end goal that is fitting of his/her dignity. According to him,
Because the rule and measure of human actions is reason,
there are different kinds of conscience that may lead into
law has an essential relation to reason; in the first place to
wrong doing, namely: the certain, the perplexed, the
divine reason; in the second place to human reason, when it
doubtful, and the erroneous.
acts correctly. Law is directed by its nature to the good, and
especially to the universal or common good. It is addressed  Correct Conscience - It judges what is really good as
not primarily to private persons but to the whole people good and what is really evil as evil
meeting in common. The application of the law to those to  Certain Conscience - It has a subjective assurance of
whom it is applied, and the communication of this law to the lawfulness of unlawfulness of an act. This implies
them -is essential to the nature of the law. that the person is sure of his decision.
 Perplexed Conscience - This type of erroneous
conscience unable to grasped something clearly and
FOUR MAIN KINDS OF LAW fears sin in whatever choice it makes.
 Doubtful Conscience - a state of mind when it
1) Natural Law - the law inscribed by God into the cannot decide with certainty whether an action or
heart and mind of every man which help them
 behavior is good or bad leaving you unsure of what  God is one, without diversification within God's self.
to do or not having any peace of mind after The unity of God is such that God's essence is the
performing a certain action. same as God's existence.
 Erroneous Conscience - It judges incorrectly that is
what is good is evil and what is evil is good. It is a
result of long-time persistence in doing, that the self
is no longer concerned whether what he/she does is
good or not bad. MODULE 4 – LESSON 3: IMMANUEL KANT AND RIGHTS
THEORISTS

THE RELATIONAL AND PERFECTION OF LOVE

IMMANUEL KANT’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY
The human person is not only bound to find full
maximum capacity of one’s own being in a search for self- Kant was born in 1724 in Konigsberg, the capital of
actualization. But by thoroughly relating with other human Prusia at that time, now the city of Kaliningrad in Russia. He
persons and all of creation. St Thomas Aquinas holds that the was the fourth of eleven children. He was baptized
true destiny of man lies in a gratuitous perfection that is Emmanuel, but he changed his name to Immanuel after
beyond the human person yet relates with him/her learning Hebrew. His father, Johann George Kant, was a
thoroughly in freedom, and therefore, in fullness of love. The German harness-maker from Memel while his mother, Regina
highest perfection of man for St Thomas Aquinas is in his/her Dorothea Reuter, was a native of Nuremberg. During his
wanting to be with God. In other words, the ethical man is youth, Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular student. He was
not the perfect man but one who wants to be saved by reared in a pietist household that stressed intense religious
cooperating in freedom with what is attainable for him/her. devotion, personal humility, and a literal interpretation of the
Thomas's ethics are based on the concept of first principles of Bible. Kant received a stern education – strict, punitive, and
action. Thomas defined the four cardinal virtues as prudence, disciplinary – that preferred Latin and religious instruction
temperance, justice, and fortitude. For him, the cardinal over mathematics and science. He was the last influential
virtues are natural and revealed in nature, and they are philosopher of the classic period of the theory of knowledge.
binding on everyone. Thomas also greatly influenced Catholic One of his most prominent works is the Critique of Pure
understandings of mortal and venial sin. Thomas viewed Reason, an investigation into the structure of reason. It
theology, as a science, the raw material data of which suggests that traditional metaphysics can be reformed
consists of written scriptures and the tradition of the Catholic through epistemology, as we can face metaphysical problems
Church. According to him, faith and reason, while distinct but fruitfully by understanding the sources and limits of
related, are the two primary tools for processing the data of knowledge. One of his most influential work is his treatise on
theology. St. Thomas believed both were necessary for one to gravitation, in which he argued that attractive forces could act
obtain true knowledge of God. Thomas believed that the at a distance without the necessity of a transmitting medium.
existence of God is neither obvious nor unprovable. In the He also suggested correctly that the Milky Way was a lens-
Summa Theologica, he considered in great detail five reasons shaped collection of stars and that tidal friction slows Earth's
for the existence of God. These are widely known as the rotation. Less wisely, he was convinced that the planets were
quinque viae, or the Five Ways. Concerning the nature of God, populated, with the most superior intellects on planets most
Thomas felt the best approach, commonly called the via distant from the Sun. Kant introduced the principles of
negativa, is to consider what God is not. This led him to Categorical Imperative into Ethics in order to distinguish the
propose five statements about the divine qualities: overriding objective force of moral injunctions from the
hypothetical imperatives of other prescriptions. He
 God is simple, without composition of parts, such as formulated the principle as act so that you can will the
body and soul, or matter and form. principle of your action to become a universal law or act so
 God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is that you treat humanity as an end, never merely a means.
distinguished from other beings on account of God's According to Immanuel Kant, Man is a rational being. Every
complete actuality. action of man must be in accordance with laws of reason that
 God is infinite. That is, The unity of God is such that makes man a moral agent. It is the duty of man to live a moral
God's essence is the same as God's existence. This life. Kant fully established the independence of his ethics
infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and from religion via the recognition of reason as the foundation,
infinity of number. goodwill as the source, and duty as the motivation of what
 God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels obliges the human person. According to Immanuel Kant, the
of God's essence and character. moral authority is imminent in every man, that is the origin of
ethical obligations for man is his/her own goodwill.
 7) Alienable Rights - are transferrable or
renounceable rights. Positive rights and
THE SUBSTANCE OF RIGHTS
Negative rights fall under this classification of
TWO IDENTIFIED SUBSTANCES OF RIGHTS: rights.
1) Subject - refers to the person endowed with the 8) Inalienable Rights - are powers that cannot be
right to do. While the Object refer to something on transferred or renounced. Example are religious
which the subject has the moral right. rights or rights to life.
2) Object - refers to something on which the subject 9) Perfect Rights - are mandatory or enforceable
has the moral right. by law. As illustration, anyone has the right to
collect payment of debt. The rights of anybody
to help the poor, or victims of calamities.
THE ORIGIN OF RIGHTS 10) Imperfect Rights - are different from the perfect
ones. They are not judicial or not enforceable by
The right originates not from the person holding
law. Example is the right to give a tip to the
it. Man has right because law provides him this. Law
hotel ushers.
provides man the power to do, to express, to act, to
11) Properties of Rights - Rights have three
receive etc. Without law man has no right. Law extends
and limits the right of man. It is always the law that properties, namely; limitation, collision, and
inviolability. Law provides rights; it is also law
matters and not the man who is trusted by law to
that limits rights. Rights are limited to avoid
perform his right so as they say No one is above the law.
violation of other’s right and this limitation
Now, what is this law that gives man the power to do? It
must be properly observed.
can be a natural law and the human law that is Civil and
Ecclesiastical. Civil law, the laws enacted by Congress;
Ecclesiastical, the laws that governs the Church.

TYPES OF RIGHTS

1) Natural Rights - also called basic human rights

that includes; right to life, to freedom, to obtain
properties, to education. Those are the rights
endorsed by man in his/her birth.
2) Acquired Rights - rights obtained by individuals
after fulfilling some requirements as prescribed
by law.
3) Public Rights - refers to the rights given to the
people by the ecclesiastical laws and civil laws.
4) Private Rights - refers to the rights of the
person provided by the law of the firms,
institution or organizations formulated under
the civil law particularly the constitution of the
country.
5) Positive Rights - These are not confined to a
person. As an example anybody has the right to
own or not to own a property.
6) Negative Rights - are power of the persons to
refuse to perform negative acts such as;
stealing, intoxication, drinking, killing, and so
on.
 Anglo-American philosophy of law. Bentham is also a
political radical whose ideas influenced the
development of welfarism. He is best known for his
advocacy of utilitarianism and animal rights, and the
idea of the panopticon. His position included arguments
in favor of individual and economic freedom, usury, the
separation of church and state, freedom of expression,
equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the
decriminalizing of homosexual acts. He argued for the
abolition of slavery and the death penalty and for the
abolition of physical punishment, including that of
children. Although strongly in favor of the extension of
individual legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural
law and natural rights. He was made an honorary citizen
of the French Republic in 1792, and published copiously
on penal and social reform, economics, and politics. He
also founded the University College in London, where
his clothed skeleton is preserved on public view.

JOHN STUART MILL’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY

Mill was born on Rodney Street in the Pentonville area

of London. He is the eldest son of the Scottish
philosopher, historian and economist James Mill, and
Harriet Burrow. He was educated by his father, with the
advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis
Place. He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing,
and was deliberately shielded from association with
children of his own age other than his siblings. Mill was
a British philosopher and civil servant. He is an
influential contributor to social theory, political theory,
and political economy. His conception of liberty justified
the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited
state control. He was a proponent of utilitarianism, an
MODULE 5 – LESSON 1: UTILITARIANISM
ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham, although
his conception of it was very different with that of
JEREMY BENTHAM’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY Jeremy Bentham. Hoping to remedy the problems
found in an inductive approach to science, such as
He was born in Spitalfields, London, into a wealthy confirmation bias, he clearly set forth the premises of
family that supported the stories. He was reportedly a falsification as the key component in the scientific
child prodigy. He was found as a toddler sitting at his method. Mill argues that despotism is an acceptable
father's desk reading a multi-volume history of England, form of government for those societies that are
and he began to study Latin at the age of three. He backward as long as the despot has the best interests of
attended Westminster School. He took his Bachelor's the people at heart, because of the barriers to
and Master's degree and the Queen’s College in Oxford. spontaneous progress. He believed that the struggle
He became deeply frustrated with the complexity of the between liberty and authority is the most conspicuous
English legal code, which he termed the Demon of feature in the portions of history. For him, liberty in
Chicane. He was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal antiquity was a contest between subjects or some
and social reformer. He became a leading theorist in classes of subjects, and the government. Mill defined
social liberty as protection from the tyranny of political generate the most pleasure. The rule utilitarian, on the
rulers. He introduces a number of different tyrannies, other hand, begins by looking at potential rules of
including social tyranny, and also the tyranny of the action. The distinction between act and rule
majority. Social liberty for Mill was to put limits on the utilitarianism is therefore based on a difference about
ruler’s power so that he would not be able to use his the proper object of consequentialist calculation -
power on his own wishes and make every kind of specific to a case or generalized to rules. It has been
decision which could harm society. In other words, argued that rule utilitarianism collapses into act
people should have the right to have a say in the utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case
government’s decisions. He argued that social liberty where breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule
was the nature and limits of the power which can be can be sophisticated by the addition of a sub-rule that
legitimately exercised by society over the individual. It handles cases like the exception. This process holds for
was attempted in two ways: all cases of exceptions, and so the rules have as many
sub-rules as there are exceptional cases, which in the
 By obtaining recognition of certain immunities
end, makes an agent seek out whatever outcome
called political liberties or rights.
produces the maximum utility.
 By establishment of a system of constitutional
checks.

THE CONCEPT OF UTILITARIANISM MODULE 5 – LESSON 2: JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS

Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth

of an action is determined solely by its usefulness in Justice - defined as a maintenance or administration of
maximizing utility and minimizing negative utility as what is just especially by the impartial adjustment of
summed among all sentient beings. It is thus a form of conflicting claims or the assignment of merited rewards
consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an or punishments. it is also an action in compliance with
action is determined by its outcome. It was described by the conditions prescribed by law.
Jeremy Bentham as the greatest happiness or greatest
felicity principle. Utility, the good to be maximized, has
been defined by various thinkers as happiness or
TYPES OF JUSTICE
pleasure, although preference Utilitarian defines it as
the satisfaction of preferences. It may be described as a 1) Commutative Justice - It is a type of justice that
life stance, with happiness or pleasure being of ultimate controls and harmonizes the exercise of rights
importance. Utilitarianism can be characterized as a between men to his fellow man. It covers
quantitative and reductionist approach to ethics. It can private persons as well as juridical persons to
be contrasted with deontological ethics which do not render each other according to the principle of
regard the consequences of an act as a determinant of reciprocity. Commutative justice calls for
its moral worth, and virtue ethics which focuses on fundamental fairness in all agreements and
character. Bentham's utilitarianism is primarily exchanges between individuals or private social
absolutist, even though it is much free than theories groups. It demands respect for the equal human
such as those put forward by Immanuel Kant. This dignity of all persons in economic transactions,
means that all acts require a definite rules and codes as contracts, or promises.
to what the person must do in each situation to benefit 2) Distributive Justice - a type of justice that
the most people. While, Mill's rule utilitarianism is much regulates the exercise of rights between the
more relative in that he encourages people to do acts individual and the community. The objective
that are pleasurable to themselves as long as they are end of this form of justice is the private or
what he calls a higher pleasure. An act utilitarianism particular good of each member of the
states that when faced with a choice, we must first community.
consider the likely consequences of potential actions 3) Legal Justice - a type of justice that regulates
and, from that, choose to do what we believe will the exercise of rights between the community
 and the authority charged with the general Public Choice Theory - applies micro-economic
welfare of the community. The objective methodology to the study of political science in order to
purpose of legal justice is the common good. explain how private interests affect political activities
Legal justice and distributive justice and outcomes.
compliments each other. In the measure in
which the individual devotes his powers and
resources to the common welfare, the JOHN RAWL’S THEORY OF JUSTICE
community must show its concerns for his
particular welfare. He argues for a principled reconciliation of
4) Social Justice - a type of justice that liberty and equality, applied to the basic structure of a
presupposes commutative justice as a well-ordered society, which will specify exactly such
condition. But it goes beyond the requirements general conditions. Rawls claims that the parties in the
of commutative justice. Its objective purpose is original position would adopt two governing principles,
the common good. The model of social justice is which would then regulate the assignment of rights and
the solidly united family where the common duties and regulate the distribution of social and
interest prevails and where it is self-evident that economic advantages across society. The First Principle
the weaker members have just claim on the of Justice states that each person is to have an equal
stronger ones and on the solidarity of all. In right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with
terms of the political stability of a given a similar liberty for others. The Second Principle of
territory, the state has the duty to safeguard Justice provides that social and economic inequalities
every member of the community, life, are to be arranged such that:
sustenance, and the opportunity of work. On  they are to be of the greatest benefit to the
the individual level, social justice imposes the least-advantaged members of society,
obligation to assist those in need so that they consistent with the just savings principle
too are able to live in the manner worthy of  offices and positions must be open to everyone
their dignity as a person. under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.

Common Good - In philosophy economics, and political IN NON-WESTERN MORAL AND POLITICAL THOUGHTS
science, it refers to either what is shared and beneficial
for all members of a given entity. One understanding of The idea of a common good plays a role in
the common good rooted in Aristotle's philosophy Confucian political philosophy, which stresses the
remains in common usage today, referring to what one importance of the subordination of individual interests
contemporary scholar calls the good proper to, and to group or collective interests, or the mutual
attainable only by the community, yet individually dependence between the flourishing of the individual
shared by its members and the state. In contemporary and the flourishing of the group.
economic theory, a common good is any good which is
rivalrous yet non-excludable, while the common good
arises in the subfield of welfare economics refers to the
outcome of a social welfare function. John Rawl defines
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF COMMON GOOD
the common good as certain general conditions that are
given equally to everyone's advantage.  Respect for the person
 The social well-being and development of the
group
Social Choice Theory - It aims to understand processes  Peace and security
by which the common good may or may not be realized
in societies through the study of collective decision
rules. Egalitarian Concept - a trend of thought in political
philosophy. An egalitarian favors equality of some sort:
People should get the same, or be treated the same, or 3) Third Theme - The correctedness of personal
be treated as equals, in some respect. Egalitarian cultivation and social responsibility.
doctrines tend to rest on a background idea that all 4) Fourth Theme - Each of the great Asian traditions,
more or less, outlines a path to enlightenment.
human persons are equal in fundamental worth or
5) Fifth Theme - These traditions give human beings a
moral status. So far as the Western European and
path to awaraness of the true order of all things.
Anglo-American philosophical tradition is concerned, 6) Sixth Theme - These great teachings offer paths of
one significant source of this thought is the Christian harmony with oneself, with others, with nature, and
notion that God loves all human souls equally. In with the Transcendent.
modern democratic societies, the term egalitarian is
often used to refer to a position that favors, for any of a
wide array of reasons, a greater degree of equality of Buddhism - One of the well-known religion of eastern and
income and wealth across persons that currently exists. central Asia growing out of the teaching of Siddharta
Gautama. The basic doctrines of early Buddhism, which
remain common to all Buddhism, include the four noble
truths:

 existence of suffering (dukhka)

MODULE 5 – LESSON 3: THE ORDER OF RELIGION IN ETHICS
 suffering is cause by craving and attachment
(trishna)
 there is a cessation of suffering
Religion - a social-cultural system of designated behaviors
 suffering can be eliminated through the eightfold
and practices that relates humanity to supernatural,
path
transcendental, or spiritual elements. Different religions
contain various elements ranging from the divine, sacred
things, faith, supernatural beings or some sort of ultimacy
and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the THE EIGHTFOLD PATH
rest of life. The study of religion encompasses a wide variety
 Right Understanding (Samma ditthi)
of academic disciplines including theology, comparative
 Right Thought (Samma sankappa)
religion, and social scientific studies. Theories of religion offer
various explanations for the origins and workings of religion,  Right Speech (Samma vaca)
including the ontological foundations of religious being and  Right Action (Samma kammanta)
belief. In most Ethics courses, including this one, there is  Right livelihood (Samma ajiva)
heavy emphasis on the traditions of the West to train  Right effort (Samma vayoma)
students to think about the ethical way of existence.  Right mindfulness (Samma sati)
However, there is another tradition of thinking about the  Right concentration (Samma saamadhi)
good that is worth considering for a fuller understanding of
how people orient their lives to the good. These traditions
come from the great civilizations of the East particularly from
India and China. It would be profitable to study these Experience is analyzed into five aggregates, namely: the
traditions because they are closer to Asian moral sensibilities first, form (rupa), refers to material existence; the
and have shaped them. These Asian traditions share some following four, sensations (vedana), perceptions
general characteristics. (samjna), psychic constructs (samkara), and
consciousness (vijnana).

There are six identified common themes which can be drawn The central Buddhist teaching of non-self (anatman)
from the great Asian spiritual and intellectual traditions. asserts that in the five aggregates no independently
existent, immutable self, or soul, can be found.
1) First Theme - One can immediately notice that
religious thought is intertwined with philosophical Buddhism accepts the pan-Indian presupposition of
and ethical thinking. There is no real separation of samsara, or rebirth provided by one's previous physical
beliefs about the transcendent and the cosmos, and mental actions. The release from this cycle of
including the traditional mythical belief. rebirth and suffering is the total transcendence called
2) Second Theme - The essential elements that binds Nirvana.
the intellectual traditions is love and compassion.
 Confucians, everyday life was the arena of religion. One
side of Confucianism was the affirmation of accepted
Hinduism - the world’s oldest existing religion. It
values and norms of behavior in primary social
embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s
institutions and basic human relationships. All human
sometimes referred to as a way of life or a family of
relationships involved a set of defined roles and mutual
religions, as opposed to a single, organized religion.
obligations. Confucius not only stressed social rituals,
Most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic, which means
but also humaneness (ren). Ren, sometimes translated
they worship a single deity, known as Brahman, but still
love or kindness, is not any one virtue, but the source of
recognize other gods and goddesses. Followers believe
all virtues. Confucius taught that humanity exists in an
there are multiple paths to reaching their god. Hindus
inter-relationship between heaven and earth. Heaven is
believe in the doctrines of samsara- the continuous
seen as the guiding force, giving direction to change and
cycle of life, death, and reincarnation, and karma - the
progress, while earth provides the natural context and
universal law of cause and effect. One of the key
seasonal changes.
thoughts of Hinduism is atman, or the belief in soul. This
philosophy holds that living creatures have a soul, and
they’re all part of the supreme soul. The goal is to
Christianity - a religion that is primarily based on the
achieve moksha, or salvation, which ends the cycle of
birth, life, death, resurrection and teaching of Jesus
rebirths to become part of the absolute soul. One
Christ. The beginning of the Christian religion and the
fundamental principle of the religion is the idea that
Christian church began with Jesus Christ and His
people’s actions and thoughts directly determine their
apostles. Christianity began in the 1st century AD after
current life and future lives. Hindus strive to achieve
Jesus died, as a small group of Jewish people in Judea,
dharma, which is a code of living that emphasizes good
but quickly spread throughout the Roman empire.
conduct and morality. The primary sacred texts, known
Despite early persecution of Christians, it become the
as the Vedas, were composed around 1500 B.C. The
largest of the world’s religions and, geographically, the
Vedas are made up of:
most widely diffused of all faiths. It has a constituency
 The Rig Veda of more than two billion believers. Its largest groups are
 The Samaveda the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox
 Yajurveda Church, and the Protestant Church. At its most basic,
 Atharvaveda Christianity is the faith tradition that focuses on the
figure of Jesus Christ. In this context, faith refers both to
Hindus believe that the Vedas transcend all time and the believers’ act of trust and to the content of their
don’t have a beginning or an end. The Upanishads, the faith. As a tradition, Christianity is more than a system
Bhagavad Gita, Puranas, Ramayana and Mahabharata of religious belief. It also has generated a culture, a set
are also considered important texts in Hinduism. of ideas and ways of life, practices, and artifacts that
have been handed down from generation to generation.

Confucianism - often characterized as a system of social

and ethical philosophy rather than a religion. In fact, it Globalization - the connection of different parts of the
was built on an ancient religious foundation to establish world resulting in the expansion of international
the social values, institutions, and transcendent ideals cultural, economic, and political activities. It is the
of traditional Chinese society. It is was called a civil movement and integration of goods and people among
religion because of its sense of religious identity and different countries. There are three main classifications
common moral understanding at the foundation of a of globalization, political, social, and economic.
society's central institutions. It is also called a diffused
religion because its institutions were not a separate
church, but those of society, family, school, and state;
Political Globalization - the amount of political co-
its priests were not separate liturgical specialists, but
operation that exists between different countries.
parents, teachers, and officials. Confucianism was part
of the Chinese social fabric and way of life; to
Social Globalization - the sharing of ideas and  Principle of Corporate Legitimacy - The corporation
information between and through different countries. should be managed for the benefit of its
stakeholders; its customers, suppliers, owners,
Economic Globalization - the inter-connectedness of employees, and the local communities.
economies through trade and the exchange of  Stakeholder Fiduciary Principle - Management bears
resources. a fiduciary relationship to stakeholders and to the
corporation as an abstract entity. It must act in the
interest of stakeholders as their agent, and it must
act in the interest of the corporation to ensure
survival.
MODULE 6 – LESSON 1: BUSINESS ETHICS

3) The Social Contract Theory - This normative theory

The world of business is oftentimes seen as an amoral world. states that all businesses are ethically obligated to
It is viewed as a world solely driven by profit-motive and enhance the welfare of the society by satisfying
business people are often portrayed as ruthless, self- customer and employee interests without violating
interested individual. One might thus wonder how business any of the general canons of justice. This theory
and ethics can co-exist. One of the principal tasks of ethics is posits an implicit agreement between businesses
to enforce the values of justice and fairness in situations and society that the latter only tolerates the
where there are grave abuses of power and a gross imbalance existence and operation of the former under the
in the allocation of resources between people that are meant supposition that it can benefit from it. This theory is
to share them. formulated in the spirit of the traditional political
social contract theories crafted by Thomas Hobbes,
John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau.

Business Ethics - It negotiates a way of speaking the language

of business, translating the language of normativity into a
language that can be understood and accepted by those in WAYS ON HOW BUSINESSES MAY ENHANCE THE WELFARE
the business community. OF SOCIETY

 Benefit consumer by increasing economic efficiency,

stabilizing levels of output and channels of
BASIC NORMATIVE THEORIES IN BUSINESS ETHICS distribution and increasing liability resources.
 Benefit employees by increasing their income
1) The Stockholder Theory - states that businesses are
potential, diffusing their personal liability, and
merely arrangements by which one group of people,
facilitating their income allocation. resources.
the stockholders, advance capital to another group,
 Minimizing pollution and depletion of natural
the managers, to be used to realize specified ends
resources, the destruction of personal
and for which the stockholders receive an ownership
accountability, the misuse of political power, as well
interest in the venture. In this theory, it is the people
as worker alienation, lack of control over working
who invested money in the company that serve as
conditions, and dehumanization.
the main source of business decisions. The
stockholder theory holds that managers pursue their
bottom line by legal and non-deceptive means.
2) The Stakeholder Theory - holds that the THE STAGES OF ORGANIZATIONAL MORAL DEVELOPMENT
management’s fundamental obligation is not to 1. Stage 1. The Amoral Organization
maximize the firm’s financial success but to ensure
its survival by balancing the conflicting claims of - This type of organization is defined by a winning at any cost
multiple stakeholders. A stakeholder is defined as attitude. Ethics is the least of its concerns. It is an enterprise
any group or completely absorbed in productivity and profitability.
individual that stands to benefit or suffer from
2. Stage 2. The Legalistic Corporation
decisions made by a corporation. This obligation is
based on the principles of stakeholder management. - An organization in this state of moral development exhibits
a respect for laws, codes, and regulations. This firm is
concerned with following rules, placing a premium on the
PRINCIPLES OF STAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT legality of an action over the morality of it
 3. Stage 3. The Responsive Corporation deep because it considers the inner value or usefulness of
something.
- This type of corporation begins to acquire values other than
profitability and legality. These firms have it in their interest Humanist Theories - sets the criteria for moral status and
to do right, but it considers more as an expediency rather ethical worth. This adheres to the ecologic extensions that
than an end in itself. every member of a global has worth and has a moral value.

4. Stage 4. The Emergent Ethical Organization Applied Theology - We are told; everything in the universe is
a creation of God. In the ladder of God’s creation man is on
- This type of organization actively seeks greater balance
top of it. Utilizing the environment for the needs of man
between profit and ethics. It recognizes the existence of a
makes man accountable to God for what they did to their
social contract between business and society.
environment.
5. Stage 5. The Ethical Organization
Anthropocentrism - Human is the center of the universe.
- This type of organization is characterized by an organization- Under the Anthropocentrism all the other entities in the
wide acceptance of a common set of ethical values that global community come to be for the existence of man
permeates the organization’s culture. These core values guide
the everyday behavior of an individual’s actions.
CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

1) Pesticide - When you spray your room for

mosquitoes and bedbugs you contribute enough to
MODULE 6 – LESSON 2: ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS the destruction of the ozone layer. The same
contribution is given by the farmer after he sprayed
his field with herbicide or insecticide.
2) Global Warming - the sudden increase in world
The rise of Environmental Ethics may be traced back to the
temperature caused by increased amount of carbon
1950’ and 1960’s, a time when humanity palpably faced
dioxide around the earth.
nuclear annihilation during the Cold War era.
3) Acid Rain - a harmful acid contaminated rain causing
damage to the environment; so it is called acid rain.
It is usually caused by chemicals from cars or
Environmental Ethics - part of what is traditionally called factories carried by air into the sky.
environmental philosophy. It considers planet as community 4) Water Pollution - When these words come to view,
and its ethical application includes the inanimate or non- the picture forms in our minds are rivers, streams,
human entities of the community. lakes and seas flooded with throw-away materials
particularly plastics. These are wastes seen by a
naked eye; they too kill aquatic life.
CATEGORIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 5) Chemical Spills - One of the most frightening effects
of chemical spills and toxic dumping is health of the
1) Libertarian Extension - generally a part of civil
people. They cause birth defects, cancer, poisoning,
liberty. It commits to include all members of the
and worst death.
community an equal rights from each other. These
6) Euthropication - a result of intensive farming, a
community members include humans and the non-
heavy application of fertilizers with phosphate and
human beings.
nitrogen. Water streams down into the rives and in
2) Ecologic Extension - refers to the way or means in
the rivers growth of algae accelerates consuming the
which plants, animals, and people are related to
oxygen until all other lives are choked to death.
each other and to their environment.
3) Conservation Ethics - refers to the conservation of
human kind and the environment to which they
belong. According to environmental ethics, the end
of man is survival, and environment is the means for VARIOUS APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
that end.
1) Ethical Treatment of Animals - Peter Singer and Tom
Reagan advocates equal treatment for all sentient
Deep Ecology - refers to the intrinsic value of the members of beings, from animals to human beings. According to
global community including those non-humans. It is called them, if one wants to be ethical in one’s treatment
 of animals, one must continually come up with ways
of
lessening their suffering or view them as beings that
have inherent value.
2) Biocentrism - Paul Taylor extends moral
consideration from the sphere of sentience and puts
forward an argument for the moral protection of all
beings that may be considered as teleological
centers of life. For Taylor, a biocentric outlook
protects the rights of all living organism including
plants and microorganism, to seek out their good
and well-being. As a teleological centers of life, an
organisms exist for the sake of furthering its
existence by undergoing changes and processes that
improve its well-being.
3) Land Ethics - Aldo Leopold holds that a thing is right
when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and
beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it
tends otherwise. According to this view, the land
itself, or what Leopold calls the biotic community, is
considered as the locus of intrinsic value.
4) Sustainable Development