Case Study Research Yin (2009)

Yin (2009) describes case study research as: “ an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context”.
1. Features of a case study:
o Qualitative approach.
o Real-life context
o In-depth data collection
o The investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple
bounded systems (cases) over time.

2. Process of a Case study Research:

o Step 1: Plan
 Gain a deep understanding of a phenomenon.
 Your main research questions are “how” or “why “questions.
 Your focus of study is a contemporary phenomenon—a “case”.
o Step 2: Design
 Yin (2009) suggests Four designs for case studies: Single case
study, Multiple case study, Single case study with holistic or
embedded, and Multiple case study with holistic or
embedded.
 3 TYPES of case study research: Exploratory (used to define
questions and hypotheses), Descriptive (used to describe a
particular phenomenon within its context), and Explanatory
(explores cause-effect relationships).
 Having a research question or questions theory development is
an essential part of the design phase. The appropriately
developed theory is also at the level at which generalization of
the case study results will occur.
 All research needs to conform to the following quality criteria:
Construct validity, Internal validity, External validity, and
Reliability.
o Step 3: Prepare
 Gain approval for human subjects’ protection and ethical
considerations.
 Ethical standards
  Avoid bias
 Supervisor Guidance and approval
 Conduct training to all team members for them to understand
the basic concepts, terminology, and methodological issues
relevant to the study.
 Develop a case study protocol: Overview of the case study, data
collection procedures, protocol questions, and write a tentative
outline for the case study report.
 Conduct a pilot case

o Step 4: Collect
 Sources: Documentation, Archival records, Interviews,
observations, physical artifacts.
 Four principles of data collection: (1) use multiple source of
evidence, (2) Create a case study database, (3) maintain a chain
of evidence, and (4) exercise care when using data from social
media sources.

o Step 5: Analyze
 All empirical research studies, including case studies have a
“story” to tell, which have a beginning, a middle and an end.
The needed analytical strategy is your guide to crafting this
story.
 Rely on theoretical propositions
 Working your data from the “ground up”
 Develop a case description
 Examine plausible rival explanations
 Employ both qualitative and quantitative data
 Five Analytical Techniques: (1) Pattern Matching, (2)
Explanation Building, (3) Time-Series Analysis, (4) Logic
models, and (5) Cross-Case Synthesis.

o Step 6: Share
 The final steps include how and when to start composing.
 Case study compositions: Single case study Report, Multiple
case study.
  Structures of Case study compositions: Linear-analytic
structures (scientific research report structure), Comparative
structures (Repeats the same case study material two or more
times, then comparing alternative descriptions or explanations
of the same case), Chronological structures (Facts and events
are logically structured along a time line, so that causality of
events is produced), Theory-building structures (each chapter
or section should reveal a new part of the theoretical argument
being made), Suspense structures (the outcome or conclusion
is presented initially), Unsequenced structures (the sequence
of sections or chapters assumes no particular importance).

o What makes an Exemplary case study?

 The case study must be significant
 The case study must be complete
 The case study must consider alternative perspectives
 The case study must display sufficient evidence
 The case must be composed in an engaging manner
 Experiment Research

1. Experiment is the traditional approach to conducting Quantitative Research.

The purpose is to study the cause-and-effect relationship.
2. Characteristics:
o Random assignment: Researchers use random assignment so that
any bias in the personal characteristics of individuals in the
experiment is distributed equally among the groups.
o “Controlling for a variable”: means measuring extraneous variables
and accounting for them statistically to remove their effects on other
variables.
o Manipulation of the treatment conditions: In experimental
treatment, the researcher physically intervenes to alter the conditions
experienced by the experimental unit.
o Outcome measures: In all experimental situations, you assess
whether a treatment condition influences an outcome or dependent
variable.
o Group comparisons: In an experiment, you also compare scores for
different treatments on an outcome.
o Threats to validity: A final idea in experiments is to design them so
that the inferences you draw are true or correct. Threats to drawing
these correct inferences need to be addressed in experimental
research.
3. What are The Types of Experimental Research Design? They are of 3
types: pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, and true experimental
research.
o Pre-experimental: In pre-experimental research design, either a
group or various dependent groups are observed for the effect of the
application of an independent variable which is presumed to cause
 change. It is the simplest form of experimental research design and is
treated with no control group.
o Quasi-experimental: A quasi-experiment is a type of research design
that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. The main
difference with a true experiment is that the groups are not randomly
assigned.
o True Experimental: The true experimental research design relies on
statistical analysis to approve or disprove a hypothesis. It must contain
a control group, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher,
and the distribution must be random.
4. 8 Steps in Conducting Experimental Research:
o Decide if an Experiment Addresses Your Research Problem
o Form Hypotheses to Test Cause-and-Effect Relationships
o Select an Experimental Unit and Identify Study Participants
o Select an Experimental Treatment and Introduce It
o Choose a Type of Experimental Design
o Conduct the Experiment
o Organize and Analyze the Data
o Develop an Experimental Research Report
 Interview
An interview is a common method used for primary data gathering, it is a
purposeful conversation between two or more people. It might be individual or
group interview that are structured or unstructured, usually conducted face to
face, frequently by telephone, mail and the internet. There are six categories of
interviewing are considered varying between structure and unstructured.
1. Structured interviews: It is prepared in advance, and it is Usually consists
of an introduction where the interviewer introduces himself, purpose and
confidentiality is assured. Then, a set of topics in a logical order are
examined.
o Three types of structured interviews:
 Structured but open ended
 Fully structured
 Clinical: interview (method using structured questions with
answers that can be rephrased)

2. Unstructured interviews: The interviewer conducts the interview without

having a set of planned questions, with the objective of bringing preliminary
issues to the surface so the factors that need further investigation are
determined.
o Three types of unstructured interviews:
 Nondirective (the interviewee talks about anything he likes,
without the interference of the interviewer though providing the
interview with reflective support)
 Informal (the interviewer gives directions only to keep the
interviewee on topic)
 Semi structured (keeps procedure informal and does not ask
preset questions in exactly the same order each time)
 Quantitative Content Analysis
Content analysis is the most essential and central to communication research.
Content analysis is a research method used to identify patterns in recorded
communication. To conduct content analysis, you systematically collect data from
a set of texts, which can be written, oral, or visual. Then, you categorize or “code”
words, themes, and concepts within the texts and then analyze the results.
1. How to Conduct a Content Analysis?
 Select the content you will analyze
 Define the units and categories of analysis
 Develop a set of rules for coding
 Code the text according to the rules
 Analyze the results and draw conclusions

2. Five steps summarize the process of measuring content:

 Develop research hypotheses or questions
 Examine existing literature that has used the variable or that discusses
the measurement of the variable
 Use good previous measures
 Create coding instructions
 Create a coding system for recording data that will go into a computer
 Identifying a Research Problem

Researchers begin a study by identifying a research problem that they need to

address. They write about this “problem” in the opening passages of their study
and, in effect, give you as a reader the rationale for why the study is important and
why you need to read their study. Research problems are the issues, controversies,
or concerns that guide the need for conducting a study.
You can research a problem if you have access to participants and research sites as
well as time, resources, and skills needed to study the issue. One important reason
for engaging in research is to add to existing knowledge.
 Study the problem if your study will fill a gap or void in the existing
literature.
 Study the problem if your study replicates a past study but examines
different participants and different research sites.
 Study the problem if your study extends past research or examines the topic
more thoroughly.
 Study the problem if your study gives voice to people silenced, not heard, or
rejected in society.
 Study the problem if your study informs practice.
 Literature Review

According to Creswell (2005), a review of the literature “is a written summary of

journal articles, books and other documents that describes the past and current state
of information, organizes the literature into topics and documents a need for a
proposed study.”
1. When we say literature we say search and read: Literature search is
defined by Sarah Gash (1999) as 'a systematic and thorough search of all
types of published literature in order to identify as many items as possible
that are relevant to a particular topic'. In a literature search we find out what
others have done in the area. But, one should avoid duplicating previous
work and instead should identify areas where research has not yet been
undertaken.
2. Search (Reading) Techniques:
o Keyword Technique
o Snowball Technique
o Social Bookmarking
o Other Reading Techniques (SQ3R Technique, Surveying a text,
Question, Read and make connections, Recall and Review)
3. The purposes of the literature review:
o It provides a historical background for our research.
o It gives an overview of the current context in which our research is
situated by referring to contemporary debates, issues and questions in the
field.
o It includes a discussion of relevant theories and concepts which support
our research.
o It introduces relevant terminology and provides definitions to clarify how
terms are being used in the context of our own work.

4. How Does the Literature Review Differ for Quantitative and Qualitative
Studies? 3 primary differences: (1) the amount of literature cited at the
beginning of the study, (2) the use it serves at the beginning, and (3) it uses
at the end of a study.
o In a quantitative study, researchers discuss the literature extensively at
the beginning of a study. This serves two major purposes: it justifies the
importance of the research problem, and it provides a rationale for the
purpose of the study and research questions or hypotheses. The authors
also incorporate the literature into the end of the study, comparing the
results with prior predictions or expectations made at the beginning of the
study.
o In a qualitative study, the literature serves a slightly different purpose.
Like quantitative research, the authors mention the literature at the
beginning of the study to document or justify the importance of the
research problem. However, authors do not typically discuss the literature
extensively at the beginning of a study. This allows the views of the
participants to emerge without being constrained by the views of others
from the literature. In some qualitative studies, researchers use the
literature to support the findings. Nevertheless, in many qualitative
projects, researchers often cite the literature at the end of the study as a
contrast or comparison with the major findings in the study. In qualitative
inquiry, researchers do not make predictions about findings. They are
more interested in whether the findings of a study support or modify
existing ideas and practices advanced in the literature.
 Sampling

1. Sampling Concepts: A sample is a subset, or some part of a larger

population. The main core of a sample is to be able to generalize that the
study is reliable and relevant for a wider population. We can assist to two
types of generalization:
 Statistical generalization: it is based on Probability theory
 Replication generalization: generalization is tested by repeating the
experiment in different circumstances.

2. 4 Types of Probability Samples: (1) Simple Random Sampling (SRS), (2)

Systematic Sampling, (3) Stratified Sampling, and (4) Cluster Sampling.
 Simple Random Sampling: sample are chosen randomly and purely
by chance.
 Systematic Sampling: After defining the population and the sample
size, you must calculate the Sample Interval, by dividing the
population size by the required sample size. And then select a random
starting point.
 Stratified Sampling: With stratified sampling, the researcher split the
population into separate groups, called strata. Then, a probability
sample (usually a simple random sample) is elaborated from each
group.
 Cluster Sampling: With cluster sampling, the researcher split the
population into different groups, called clusters. Then, a simple
random sample of clusters is selected from the population.

3. Common Types of Non-Probability Samples Non-probability samplings

characterize a set of sampling techniques that support researchers to select
units from a population that they are interested in studying.
 Purpose Sampling
  Quota sampling (the assembled sample has the same proportions of
individuals as the entire population with respect to known
characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.)
 Internet Samples
Observation Method

1. What is Observation? Observation is used in the social sciences as a

method for collecting data about people, processes, and cultures.
Observation involves recording the behavioral pattern of people, objects, and
events in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon
of interest.

2. 3 Kinds of Observation: (1) Descriptive Observation, (2) Focused

Observation, (3) Selective Observation

3. 3 Types of Observation: (1) Structured Observation and Unstructured

observation, (2) Disguised Observation and Undisguised Observation, (3)
Natural observation and contrived observation

4. 5 Observation Methods:
 Personal Observation: In personal observation, a researcher observes
actual behavior as it occurs.
 Mechanical Observation: In mechanical observation, mechanical
devices, rather than human observers, record the phenomenon being
observed.
 Audit: In an audit, the researcher collects data by examining physical
records or performing inventory analysis.
 Content analysis: Content analysis is an appropriate method when
the phenomenon to be observed is communication, rather than
behavior or physical objects.
 Trace analysis: In trace analysis, data collection is based on physical
traces, or evidence, of past behavior. These traces may be left
intentionally or unintentionally by the respondents.

5. How to conduct observation in research?

  Identify Objective
 Establish Recording Method
 Develop Questions and Techniques
 Observe and Take Notes
 Analyze Behaviors and Inferences
Research Layout
Before starting your dissertation or thesis you should start by setting out each
chapter, section and sub-sections. The outline of the report should clearly reflect
the logical details.
1. Layout of a typical dissertation or thesis:
 Cover Page
 Table of Content
 List of Figures and Table
 Acknowledgment
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Literature Review
 Methodology
 Data Analysis and Research Results
 Conclusion and Recommendations
 Bibliography List
 Purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses
Purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses provide critical
information to readers about the direction of a research study. They also raise
questions that the research will answer through the data collection process.
1. The purpose statement: is a statement that advances the overall direction or
focus for the study. It is used both in quantitative and qualitative research
and is typically found in the “statement of the problem” section.
 In quantitative research: identifies the variables, their relationship,
and the participants and site for research.
 In qualitative research: explore a the central phenomenon

2. Research questions: are questions in quantitative or qualitative research

that narrow the purpose statement to specific questions that researchers seek
to answer.
 In quantitative research: serves to restate the purpose in specific
questions that the researcher seeks to answer.
 In qualitative research: The research questions may change based on
the responses of the participants.

3. Hypotheses: are statements in quantitative research in which the

investigator makes a prediction or a conjecture about the outcome of a
relationship among attributes or characteristics. They serve, like research
questions, to narrow the purpose statement to specific predictions.
 In quantitative research: hypotheses advance a prediction about
what the researcher expects to find.
 In qualitative research: statistics are not used in qualitative research,
so hypotheses in qualitative research are not appropriate.
 4. To write Quantitative purpose statements, research questions, and
hypotheses, you need to understand the importance and use of variables:
 Dependent Variable
 Independent Variable
 Control Variables
 Moderating Variable
 Mediating Variable
Research Methodology
The term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts
and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
1. Objectives of Research
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it (exploratory or formulative research studies);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (descriptive research studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a relationship between variables (hypothesis-
testing (explanatory) research studies).

2. Types of Research
 Descriptive research: includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds.
 Analytical research: the researcher has to use facts or information
already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
 Applied research: refers to scientific study and research that seeks to
solve practical problems.
 Fundamental research: is a type of scientific research with the aim
of improving scientific theories for better understanding and
prediction of natural or other phenomena.
 Quantitative research: is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
 Qualitative research: concerned with qualitative phenomenon.
  Conceptual research: is defined as a methodology wherein research
is conducted by observing and analyzing already present information
on a given topic.
 Empirical research: is research that is based on observation and
measurement of phenomena, as directly experienced by the
researcher.

3. Research Methods versus Methodology: Research methods are the

methods used by researchers to collect data to conduct research on a
particular research topic. A Research methodology is systematic approach to
solve the research problem and to reach a new conclusion.

4. The process of research consists of six steps:

 Identifying a research problem.
 Reviewing the literature.
 Specifying a purpose for research.
 Research design, sampling design and data Collections.
 Analyzing and interpreting the data.
 Reporting and evaluating research.
 Mixed Approaches, Focus Group and Delphi Technique
1. Mixed methods' is a research approach whereby researchers collect and
analyze both quantitative and qualitative data within the same study.
o Strategies for mixed approaches: (1) Design, (2) Collect and
Analyze, (3) Draw Meta Inference, (4) Asses The Quality Of Meta
Inference And (5) Discuss Potential Threats And Remedies

2. A Focus group is a facilitated group discussion that is "focused" on a

particular topic.
o Conducting focus group:
 Recording and transcription
 How many groups
 Size of groups
 Level of moderate involvement
 Selecting participants
 Asking questions
 Beginning and Finishing

3. The Delphi technique structures a group communication process by

bringing together a panel of experts to formulate a prediction or set of
priorities.
o How Is the Delphi Method Conducted?
 The group facilitator selects a group of experts based on the
topic being examined and sends them a questionnaire with
instructions to comment on each topic based on their opinion,
experience, or previous research.
 The facilitator groups the comments from the returned
questionnaires and sends copies to each participant, along with
the opportunity to comment further. At the end of this session,
the questionnaires are returned to the facilitator who decides if
another round is necessary or if the results are ready for
publishing.
 This process can be repeated multiple times until a general
sense of consensus is reached.