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DOI: 10.1039/C6TB01828A
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Journal of Materials Chemistry B Accepted Manuscript

ARTICLE

Recovery property of double-network hydrogel containing

mussel-inspired adhesive moiety and nano-silicate†
Published on 14 September 2016. Downloaded by Northern Illinois University on 16/09/2016 09:59:07.

Received 00th January 20xx, Yuan Liua and Bruce P. Lee*a

Accepted 00th January 20xx
Altough double network (DN) hydrogels are extremly tough, they are irreversibly softened during large strain deformation.
DOI: 10.1039/x0xx00000x We incorporated mussel-inspired adhesive moiety, catechol, and a synthetic nano-silicate, Laponite, into DN to examine the
effect of strong, reversible crosslinks on the DN’s ability to recover its mechanical properties during successive loading cycles.
www.rsc.org/ The introduction of catechol and Laponite drastically increased the compressive strength and toughness of DN without
compromising the compliance of the hydrogel. After 2 hours of recovery at room temperature, the nanocomposite DN
hydrogel recovered over 95 and 82 % of its strain energy and hysteresis, respectively, during successive compressive loading
to a strain of 0.5. Both equilibrium swelling and oscillatory rheometry data confirmed that there were minimal changes to
the network crosslinking density and stiffness after large strain compressive deformation, indicating that mechanical loading
did not result in irreversible structural damage. Strong catechol-Laponite interactions can be repeatedly broken and reform
to dissipate fracture energy and enable the recovery of DN hydrogel.

and a large deformation (> 0.2 strain) irreversibly softens DN

Introduction hydrogels.17, 18 The irreversible nature of DN may hinder its
usage in applications where repeated, large strain load-bearing
Hydrogel is a widely used biomaterial due to its excellent
is required.
biocompatibility, diversity of functionality, and tunable material
and physical properties. Hydrogels have been utilized as tissue Recently, recoverable DN hydrogels composed of a physically
engineering scaffolds,1-4 tissue adhesives,5, 6 biosensors,7, 8 and crosslinked first network (i.e., alginate19 and agarose20) have
soft actuators.9-11 For many applications (e.g. repair of soft been reported. However, heating to elevated temperatures for
connective tissue), hydrogels are required to maintain their extensive periods of time (i.e., 80°C for 1 day and 100°C for 30
structural integrity while resisting large and repeated min for alginate and agar, respectively) was needed for
mechanical loading.12, 13 Designing mechanically strong recovery, which is impractical for many applications.
hydrogels with exceptional recovery properties remains a Additionally, only less than 70 % energy recovery was reported.
challenge. Other recoverable DN hydrogels have not been able to replicate
the elevated mechanical properties of DN.21-23
Gong and co-workers14, 15 developed a new type of
interpenetrating network hydrogel, the so-called double Marine mussels secrete adhesive proteins that enable these
network (DN) hydrogel, which exhibited remarkable high organisms to bind to different surfaces in a wet environment.24,
25 These proteins contain a unique amino acid, 3,4-
strength (106-107 Pa) and fracture toughness (102 to 103 J/m2).
Despite having high water contents (65-95 wt%), DN hydrogels dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), with a catechol side chain that
exhibited fracture toughness similar to those of solvent free is capable of binding to both organic and inorganic surfaces
rubbers and connective tissues.15, 16 DN is composed of a stiff, through either covalent crosslinking or strong reversible
densely crosslinked first network, interpenetrated with a soft, bonds.26 Hydrogels constructed by catechol-metal ions
loosely crosslinked second network. While these two networks complexation,27, 28 catechol-boronate complexation,29 and
are not suitable for mechanical loading in and of themselves, catechol-inorganic nanoparticles interfacial binding30 have
their unique combination yields a fracture resistant DN demonstrated self-healing property. Specifically, the reversible
hydrogel that exhibits mechanical properties that are two to bond formed between a catechol and a metal surface averaged
three orders of magnitude higher than those of the two around 800 pN, reaching 40 % that of a covalent bond.31 Our lab
individual networks comprising the DN.14 However, this previously exploited this interaction to create nanocomposite
remarkable mechanical property is achieved at the expense of hydrogels with improved strength and toughness, which was
irreversible bond breakage within the hydrogel architecture, achieved by incorporating network-bound catechol and a nano-
silicate, Laponite.32-34 These nanocomposite hydrogels were
capable of sustaining repeated large strain (0.8) deformation
a. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 1400
and recovery without fracturing.32
Townsend Dr, Houghton, MI, 49931, USA. E-mail: bplee@mtu.edu. In this work, we tested the hypothesis that the incorporation of
† Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) available: Additional mechanical
testing results. See DOI: 10.1039/x0xx00000x catechol and Laponite can be used to construct recoverable DN

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hydrogels. Both network-bound catechol and Laponite were determined by incubating the hydrogels in mildly acidic waterOnline
View Article (pH
introduced into the first network and the influence of catechol- DOI: defined
= 3.5) and vacuum-dried for 2 days. EWC was 10.1039/C6TB01828A
as:
Laponite interaction on the recovery property of the nanocomposite 𝑴𝐬 −𝑴𝐝
𝑬𝑾𝑪 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (1)
𝑴𝐬
DN hydrogel was evaluated.
where 𝑴𝐬 and 𝑴𝐝 are the mass of swollen and dried hydrogels,

Journal of Materials Chemistry B Accepted Manuscript

respectively. The mass ratio between the second network and the
Experimental first network within a DN (𝑹𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 ) was defined as:
𝑴𝐃𝐍 −𝑴𝐅𝐍
Materials 𝑹𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = (2)
𝑴𝐅𝐍

Acrylamide (AAm) and 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1- where 𝑴𝐅𝐍 and 𝑴𝐃𝐍 denote the average dry mass of the first
propanesulfonic acid (AMPS) were purchased from Sigma network and its corresponding DN hydrogel, respectively.
Aldrich (St. Louis, MO). N,N’-Methylene-bisacrylamide (MBAA) Compression testing
Published on 14 September 2016. Downloaded by Northern Illinois University on 16/09/2016 09:59:07.

and 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone (DMPA) were

Unconfined, uniaxial compression testing was performed using
obtained from Acros Organics (Geel, Belgium). Dimethyl
an ElectroForce 3200 Series III Test Instrument (Bose
sulfoxide (DMSO) was purchased from Fisher Scientific Co.
Corporation, Eden Prairie, MN, USA). Hydrogels (n = 3) were
(Pittsburgh, PA). Dopamine methacrylamide (DMA), which
compressed at a rate of 1.8 mm/min until the sample fractured.
contained the adhesive catechol and polymerizable
The dimensions of each hydrogel (diameter ~ 7 mm; thickness ~
methacrylate group, was synthesized as previously described.35
3 mm) were measured using a digital caliper immediately
Laponite XLG was a gift from Southern Clay Products, Inc.
before testing. Stress was determined based on the measured
(Austin, TX).
load divided by the initial surface area of the sample. Strain was
Synthesis of hydrogel determined by dividing the change in the position of the
The double network hydrogels were prepared in two steps. To compressing plate by the initial thickness of the hydrogel.
prepare the first network, Laponite, AAm, and AMPS were Toughness was determined by the integral of the stress-strain
dissolved in deionized water. DMA and MBAA were dissolved in curve. The elastic modulus was taken from the slope of the
an aqueous solution containing 50 % DMSO. DMPA was stress-strain curve between a strain of 0.05 and 0.15.
dissolved in anhydrous ethanol at 10 mg/ml. These three The maximum stress normalized by the mass of second network
solutions were mixed together to give the precursor solution for in DN (𝝈𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 ) was determined by:18
the first network, and the combined monomer 𝝈𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥
𝝈𝐧𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 = (3)
(AAm/AMPS/DMA) concentration was kept at 1 M in the 𝒓𝟐/𝟑

precursor solution. The concentration of AAm and AMPS were where 𝝈𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 is the experimentally determined maximum
kept at equimolar while the concentration of DMA was kept at stress of DN and r is the mass fraction of second network in DN,
either 0-10 mol% relative to the total concentration of the which is determined by:
𝑴𝐃𝐍 𝑹𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
monomers. The crosslinker (MBAA) and the photoinitiator 𝒓= ×𝑹 (4)
𝑴𝐬 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 +𝟏
(DMPA) were kept at 4 and 0.1 mol%, respectively, relative to
For repeated cyclic loading, hydrogels were compressed to a
the monomers. Laponite was kept at 0-4 wt% in the precursor
strain of 0.5 and unloaded to 0 strain at a fixed rate of 0.85
solution. The precursor solution was deoxygenated with three
mm/min with a wait time of 0 or 2 h between cycles. Strain
vacuum-nitrogen purge cycles32 and photo-irradiated for 2.5 h
energy was determined by the area under the loading portion
in a mould consisting of two glass plates separated by 1.5 mm
of the stress-strain curve. The energy dissipated during each
thick rubber spacer using a UV crosslinker (XL-1000, Spectronics
cycle was determined by finding the area of hysteresis within a
Corporation, Westbury, NY) located in a nitrogen-filled glove
cycle of the stress-strain curve. The % recovery was calculated as
box (830-ABB Plas-Labs, Lansing, MI). The first network
defined by the ratio of the values found in the 2nd loading cycle
hydrogels were denoted using the notation DxLy, where x is the
divided by those found in the 1st cycle.
mol % of the DMA relative to monomer and y is the wt% of
Laponite. Effect of compressive loading on hydrogel equilibrium
volume
The first network hydrogel was submerged in the degassed
second network precursor solution, composed of 2 M AAm, 0.1 Hydrogels were subjected to compressive cyclic loading to a strain of
mol % MBAA and DMPA for 24 h. The swollen hydrogel that was 0.5 at a rate of 0.85 mm/min and allowed to re-equilibrate in mildly
infused with the second network precursor solution was photo- acidic water (pH = 3.5) for 24 h. The hydrogel volumetric ratio
irradiated for 2.5 h in a nitrogen-filled glove box. DN hydrogels 𝑹𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 was determined by:
𝑽𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
were denoted using the notation DxLy/DN. A second network 𝑹𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 = (5)
𝑽𝐯𝐢𝐫𝐠𝐢𝐧
composed of PAAm was also synthesized by photo-irradiating
where 𝑽𝐯𝐢𝐫𝐠𝐢𝐧 and 𝑽𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 denote the hydrogel
the precursor solution.
equilibrium volume for the virgin hydrogel and a hydrogel subjected
Hydrogel characterization to compressive loading cycle, respectively. The equilibrium volume
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of the dried samples of hydrogel in each state was determined by:
𝑴𝐩 𝑴𝐥𝐚𝐩 𝑴𝐇𝟐 𝐎
were obtained using a Perkin Elmer Spectrum One 𝑽= + + (6)
𝝆𝐩 𝝆𝐥𝐚𝐩 𝝆𝐇𝟐 𝐎
spectrometer. Equilibrium water content (EWC) was

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where 𝑴𝐩 , 𝑴𝐥𝐚𝐩 , 𝑴𝐇𝟐 𝐎 are the mass of the polymer matrix, Laponite, View Article Online
and water, respectively. 𝝆𝐩 is the density of polymer (1.3 g/cm3),36 Laponite DOI: 10.1039/C6TB01828A
𝝆𝐥𝐚𝐩 is the density of Laponite (2.53 g m/cm3),37 and 𝝆𝐇𝟐 𝐎 is the
density of water (1 g/cm3). 𝑴𝐇𝟐 𝐎 was determined from subtracting D0L0
the dried mass of hydrogel (𝑴𝐝 ) from its swollen mass (𝑴𝐬 ). Both

Journal of Materials Chemistry B Accepted Manuscript

𝑴𝐝 and 𝑹𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 were used to calculate 𝑴𝐩 and 𝑴𝐥𝐚𝐩 based on the
theoretical wt% of Laponite used in the precursor solution in the first PAAm
network.
Effect of compressive loading on rheological properties
D10L2/DN
Rheological properties of virgin hydrogels and those that were
previously subjected to a compressive loading cycle (strain = 0.5,
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rate = 0.85 mm/min) were characterized using a HR-2

rheometer (TA Instruments, New Castile, DE, USA). A frequency 4000 3000 2000 1000
-1
sweep (0.1 - 20 Hz at 0.1 strain) experiment was performed to Wavenumber (cm )
determine the storage (G’) and loss (G”) moduli. Hydrogel discs Fig. 1 FTIR spectra of Laponite, D0L0, PAAm, and D10L2/DN.
(diameter ~ 8 mm, n = 3) were tested using parallel plates at a
gap distance that is set at 90 % that of the individual hydrogel
thickness, as measured by a digital caliper. Laponite concentration fixed at 2 wt%. Strong catechol-Laponite
Statistical analysis interactions resulted in the formation of new crosslinking points
within the network, causing these hydrogels to deswell.
Statistical analysis was performed using Origin Pro software.
Student t-test and One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with The EWC for DN was significantly lower when compared to values for
Tukey HSD analysis were performed for comparing means of the corresponding FN due to the infiltration of a second network.
two and multiple groups, respectively, using a p-value of 0.05. Additionally, the mass ratio between the second and first networks
of DN (𝑹𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 ) varied proportionally with the EWC of the first network.
The ability for the first network to swell allowed more of the second
Results and Discussion network monomer to infiltrate into the first network, resulting in a
higher 𝑹𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 value. As such, incorporating both DMA and Laponite
Nanocomposite DN hydrogels containing Laponite and network-
drastically reduced 𝑹𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 value.
bound catechol groups were prepared. Catechol and Laponite were
incorporated into the first network (FN) to introduce reversible
crosslinking into the DN. Given that catechol readily undergoes auto- Table 1 Equilibrium water content (EWC) of the first
oxidation in a basic condition, hydrogels were equilibrated in a mildly network (FN) and its corresponding double network (DN),
acidic aqueous solution (pH = 3.5) to preserve the reduced and and the mass ratio between the second and first network
adhesive form of the catechol side chain for our experiments.34, 38 (𝑹mass ).
Hydrogel characterization FN (%) DN (%) 𝑹mass
FTIR spectra (Fig. 1) confirmed the presence of catechol and Laponite D0L0 99.1 ± 0.0854 92.3 ± 0.140 7.7
in the nanocomposite DN hydrogels. The spectrum of PAAm a
D0L2 98.9 ± 0.0591 91.7 ± 0.126 6.6
exhibited feature bands at 1645 cm-1 for C=O, 3326 cm-1 and 3188
a
cm-1 for primary –NH2, 2929 cm-1 and 1447 cm-1 for –CH2–, D10L0 98.5 ± 0.155 91.0 ± 0.392 5.1
confirming the presence of acrylamide. The band at 1037 cm-1 of D5L2 98.6 ± 0.221 a 91.6 ± 0.105 5.0
D0L0 was assigned to the S=O stretching of SO3H in AMPS. In addition D10L2 98.3 ± 0.353 a,b
89.2 ± 0.572 a,b,d
5.4
to PAAm and AMPS features, D10L2/DN also exhibited characteristic a,b,c
D10L4 97.4 ± 0.476 91.2 ± 0.318 2.4
peaks at 988 and 1529 cm-1 for the Si-O-Si stretching of Laponite and
a
the benzene ring of catechol, respectively. p < 0.05 when compared to D0L0.
b p < 0.05 when compared to D0L2, D10L0, and D5L2.
The FN hydrogel, D0L0, was highly swollen with a EWC of over 99 wt% c p < 0.05 when compared to D10L2.

due to the highly charged AMPS side chain (Table 1). The addition of d p < 0.05 when compared to D10L4.

only Laponite (D0L2) and DMA (D10L0) marginally decreased the Unconfined compression testing
hydrogel water content when compared to D0L0, which is attributed The representative compressive stress-strain curves for the first
to the interfacial interaction between Laponite and polymer matrix39, network hydrogel containing 10 mol % DMA and 2 wt% Laponite
40 and intermolecular interactions (i.e., - interaction, hydrogen
(D10L2), the polyacrylamide second network (PAAm), and the
bonding)25, 41 between network-bound catechol groups, respectively. corresponding DN hydrogel (D10L2/DN) are shown in Fig. 2. The
When the DMA concentration was fixed at 10 mol%, increasing the densely crosslinked D10L2 behaved as a brittle polymer
Laponite concentration from 0 to 4 wt% significantly decreased the network, while PAAm was loosely crosslinked and significantly
EWC of hydrogels. A similar trend was observed when the DMA more compliant. The combination of these two polymer
concentration was increased from 0 to 10 mol% while keeping the networks resulted in a tough DN, which exhibited mechanical

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Compressive strength (kPa)

7000
elevated toughness, the molar concentration ofView the second
Article Online
D10L2/DN x DOI:
network is required to be 20-30 times that of10.1039/C6TB01828A
the first network
D10L2
6000
PAAm (𝑹mass ~ 7-10).14, 15 The presence of the negatively charged
5000
AMPS in the first network promoted its swelling and diffusion
of second network monomers into the first network to ensure a

Journal of Materials Chemistry B Accepted Manuscript

4000 large 𝑹mass value. However, strong interaction between
3000
catechol and Laponite in D10L4 counteracted the swelling
promotion effect of AMPS, and resulted in low second network
2000 content in D10L4/DN with significantly reduced toughness.
1000 x

x
0 Max compressive stress
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0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Max compressive strain

Max compressive stress (kPa)

7000 1.0

Strain a,b

Max compressive strain

6000
Fig. 2 Representative stress-strain curves for the first network a 0.8

(D10L2), the second network (PAAm), and corresponding 5000

a,b,c
double network (D10L2/DN) hydrogels under unconfined 4000
0.6

uniaxial compression testing. “x” marks the indicate fracture

point. 3000
0.4

properties that were more than an order of magnitude higher 2000

when compared to the individual networks used to form the DN 1000

0.2

(Table S1, Fig. 3). For example, the toughness of D10L2/DN was
measured to be 67 and 24 times higher when compared to 0
D0L0/DN D0L2/DN D10L0/DN D10L2/DN D10L4/DN
0.0

those measured for D10L2 and PAAm, respectively. This

Elastic modulus
indicated that we have successfully prepared DN containing Toughness
a,b
catechol and Laponite. 300 a,b
1200
Elastic modulus (kPa)

Toughness (kJ/m )
Laponite interacted weakly to the hydrogel At the matrix.39, 40 a

3
250 1000
concentrations tested, incorporation of Laponite alone
200
(D0L2/DN) did not significantly increase its mechanical 800

properties when compared to D0L0/DN (Fig. 3). On the other 150 600
hand, when 10 mol% of DMA alone was introduced (D10L0/DN),
100
max stress, elastic modulus, and toughness were moderately 400

a,b,c
enhanced. This observation demonstrated that intermolecular 50 200
interactions between network-bound catechol groups
contributed to enhanced the mechanical properties of DN. 0
D0L0/DN D0L2/DN D10L0/DN D10L2/DN D10L4/DN
0

When the Laponite content in first network was fixed at 2 wt%, Fig. 3 Measured compressive strength, strain, elastic modulus,
the mechanical properties of DN were significantly enhanced and toughness of DN hydrogels. Data is presented as mean ± SD
when DMA concentration was increased from 0 to 10 mol% (Fig. (n = 3). a p < 0.05 when compared to D0L0/DN and D0L2/DN, b p <
S1). Among the formulations tested, D10L2/DN exhibited the 0.05 when compared to D10L0/DN, C p < 0.05 when compared to
highest max stress (6.1 ± 0.11 MPa) and toughness (1200 ± 26 D10L2/DN.
kJ/m3). This increase in the mechanical properties coincided
with an increase in its first network hydrogel (D10L2) when
Given that the amount of second network varied in different DN
compared to those without both DMA and Laponite (i.e., D0L0,
formulations, the maximum stress of DN was normalized by the
D0L2, and D10L2; Table S1). Our data confirmed previously
mass fraction of the second network (normal, Table S2). normal
published results, where the elastic modulus of the first
values for D5L2/DN and D10L2/DN were 1.26 and 1.35 fold
network greatly influences the mechanical properties of the
higher when compared to that of D0L0/DN, indicating that
corresponding DN hydrogels.42, 43 This increase in mechanical
strong DMA-Laponite interactions contributed to the enhanced
properties did not compromise the compliance of D10L2/DN.
mechanical properties. On the other hand, adding Laponite
Further increase in Laponite content resulted in a stiff but brittle alone (e.g., D0L2/DN) exhibited no enhancement in the
DN (i.e., D10L4/DN). D10L4 had the lowest EWC among all the maximum stress. Interestingly, adding DMA alone (e.g.,
first network formulation tested due to extensive physical D10L0/DN) also demonstrated an increase in the calculated
crosslinking between catechol and Laponite (Table 1). This normal value, indicating that intermolecular interaction
prevented swelling and diffusion of monomers into D10L4,
resulting in the lowest second network mass ratio (𝑹mass = 2.4).
The ductile second network prevents macroscopic crack
propagation through viscous dissipation.14 To obtain DN with

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between network bout catechol also contributed to the View Article Online
enhanced mechanical properties of DN. A DOI: 10.1039/C6TB01828A
800

Compressive stress (kPa)

First cycle
Recovery property of DN during successive compressive loading 700
Second cycle
D0L0/DN and D10L2/DN were chosen to conduct cyclic compression 600

Journal of Materials Chemistry B Accepted Manuscript

testing with or without wait time between loading cycles (Table 2). 500 Loading
Fig. 4 shows the representative stress-strain curves of D10L2/DN and
400
D0L0/DN during two successive testing cycles with 2 h wait time.
300
D0L0/DN exhibited a significant decrease in the measured strain
energy and hysteresis in the 2nd testing cycle and the % recovery of 200

these values did not change with increasing wait time. This indicated 100
Unloading
that compressive loading irreversibly damaged D0L0/DN. On the
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0
other hand, when D10L2/DN was allowed to recover after the 1st 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

loading cycle, there was a dramatic increase in the recovered strain B Strain
energy and hysteresis (82 and 95 %, respectively) when compared 800
First cycle

Compressive stress (kPa)

to those measured without wait time (73 and 49 %, respectively). 700 Second cycle

600
Table 2 Strain energy and hysteresis measured for D0L0/DN
500
and D10L2/DN after successive compressive cycles to a strain Loading
400
of 0.5. Data is presented as mean ± SD (n = 3)
300
Strain Energy (kJ/m3)
200
Cycle 2 Cycle 2
Cycle 1 Unloading
No wait time 2 h wait time 100
41 ± 1.5 27 ± 1.8 25 ± 2.1
D0L0/DN

0
% recovery - 64% 62% 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Hysteresis (kJ/m3) Strain

Cycle 2 Cycle 2
Cycle 1
No wait time 2 h wait time
Fig. 4 Representative stress-strain curves of the 1st (black) and
20 ± 1.4 6.9 ± 0.52 6.0 ± 0.70
% recovery - 34% 32% 2nd (red) loading cycles in unconfined uniaxial compression for
D0L0/DN (A) and D10L2/DN (B) hydrogels. The hydrogels were
Strain Energy (kJ/m3)
compressed to a strain of 0.5 and unloaded back to 0 strain. The
Cycle 2 Cycle 2
Cycle 1 gel samples were allowed to recover in mildly acidic water bath
No wait time 2 h wait time
61 ± 5.0 43 ± 1.7* 58 ± 2.2 (pH = 3.5) for 2 hours at room temperature between cycles.
D10L2/DN

% recovery - 73% 95%

Hysteresis (kJ/m3)
A 1.5 B
Cycle 2 Cycle 2
Cycle 1
No wait time 2 h wait time
38 ± 1.5 17 ± 1.7* 32 ± 0.70 *
1.0
% recovery - 49% 82%
Rvolume

* p < 0.05 when compared to 2 h wait time.

0.5
The equilibrium volumes of hydrogel before (virgin) and after
compression were measured to determine the effect of deformation
on the network architecture (Fig. 5). For samples that do not contain 0.0
D0L0/DN D0L2/DN D10L0/DN D10L2/DN
both DMA and Laponite (i.e., D0L0/DN, D0L2/DN, and D10L0/DN), Fig. 5 The ratio of the volume (𝑹𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 ) of DN after compression
compressive loading resulted in structural damage and an increase to a strain of 0.5 when compared to virgin DN (A). Data is
in the equilibrium volume of these networks by more than 30 % presented as mean ± SD (n=3). *p<0.05 when compared to
( 𝑹𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 ~ 1.3). Although these networks did not fracture D0L0/DN, D0L2/DN, and D10L0/DN. Photographs of D0L0/DN
macroscopically, deformation led to irreversible covalent bond (top) and D10L2/DN (bottom) in the virgin state and after
breakage in the first network, and these fractured first network compression (B).
pieces were held together by the loosely crosslinked PAAm
network.43, 44 When these gels were allowed to re-equilibrate in a
water bath, water diffused into the hydrogel network to cause an
increase in its volume (Fig. 6). Conversely, the change in the
equilibrium volume of D10L2/DN was significantly lower (𝑹𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 =
1.1 ± 0.050, Fig. 5), indicating that there was minimal structural
damage to D10L2/DN as a result of compressive loading.

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ARTICLE Journal Name

lower when compared to that of a carbon-carbon (C-C) covalent

View Article Online
bond (85 kcal/mol),49 the interaction betweenDOI: 10.1039/C6TB01828A
catechol and Laponite
is reversible. DMA-Laponite bonds were broken during the initial
loading cycle, which dissipated fracture energy. These interfacial
bonds reformed over time, which contributed to the recovery of the

Journal of Materials Chemistry B Accepted Manuscript

measured mechanical properties. This recovery is much faster when
compared to previously reported recoverable DN and can be
acheived without the need for heating.19, 20

5
10
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Storage modulus (Pa)

4
10

3
10 D10L2/DN Virgin
Fig. 6 Schematic representation of DN hydrogels subjected to D10L2/DN After compression
D0L0/DN Virgin
compression and subsequently re-equilibrated in a water bath. D0L0/DN After compression
Compression of D0L0/DN resulted in damage to its first network
2
and an increase in its volume after it was allowed to swell. For 10
0.1 1 10
D10L2/DN, breaking of DMA-Laponite bonds dissipated fracture
Frequency (Hz)
energy and the network exhibited minimal volume and
Fig. 7 Storage modulus (G’) of D0L0/DN (circles) and D10L2/DN
structural change after the reformation of the reversible bonds.
(squares) hydrogels in the virgin state (filled symbols) and after
Black line: first network backbone, red line: second network
compression to a strain of 0.5 (open symbols). Data is presented
backbone, red circle: catechol chemically bound to first
as mean ± SD (n = 3).
network, blue ellipse: Laponite, yellow star mark: breaking of
covalent bonds.
Conclusion
Similarly, oscillatory rheometry was performed to determine the In this work, we prepared DN hydrogel composed of DMA and
changes in the viscoelastic properties of DN before and after Laponite within its first network. This nanocomposite DN hydrogel
compression (Fig. 7). D0L0/DN exhibited a nearly 3 fold reduction in exhibited enhanced mechanical properties when compared to DN
the measure G’ values, indicating a reduction in crosslinking density that do not contain both DMA and Laponite. The reversible DMA-
after compression. Similarly, G” values of D0L0/DN was also Laponite bonds were broken under compressive loading, which
reduced after compression (Fig. S2), which further indicated dissipated fracture energy. When the nanocomposite DN were
irreversible breakage of covalent bonds within the polymer allowed to recover, DMA-Laponite bonds reformed and the hydrogel
network.45, 46 On the other hand, there was no significant difference recovered over 82% of energy dissipated during successive loading
between the measured G’ and G” values between the virgin cycles. In addition, both the equilibrium volume and oscillatory
D10L2/DN and those that were compressed to a strain of 0.5. This rheological data demonstrated that these gels exhibited minimal
result further confirmed that the presence of DMA and Laponite changes to the architecture and stiffness of the network after
minimized changes to the mechanical properties and the compression.
architecture of the DN hydrogel.
Collectively, our results confirmed that large strain deformation led
to irreversible damage of conventional DN hydrogels.47 The
Acknowledgements
presence of the negatively charged AMPS in the first network This project was supported by National Institutes of Health
stiffens its polymer chains for mechanical loading and the covalent under the award number R15GM104846. YL was supported in
bond breakage within its backbone dissipates energy and part by the Doctoral Finishing Fellowship provided by the
contributes to the toughening of DN.43, 44 However, these damages Graduate School at Michigan Technological University. The
were not recoverable and resulted in the irreversibly softening of authors thank Shari Konst for her assistance with DMA
the DN. As such, these conventional DN are not suitable for repeated, synthesis.
large strain deformation. Conversely, incorporating DMA and
Laponite into the first network, introduced strong reversible
crosslinks within DN. The binding energy between catechol and silica
oxide is estimated to be 33 kCal/mol.48 Although this is significantly

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 Journal of Materials Chemistry B Page 8 of 8
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DOI: 10.1039/C6TB01828A

Graphical abstract
Adhesive catechol moiety and Laponite were incorporated into double network to form a mechanically tough and
recoverable hydrogel. The ability for catechol-Laponite to repeatedly break and reform, dissipated fracture energy

Journal of Materials Chemistry B Accepted Manuscript

and minimized structural damage during large strain deformation.
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