FLUID MECHANICS II

TME 314

M. O. Petinrin, Ph.D.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Ibadan
 Textbooks
▪ Cengel Y. A. & Cimbala J. M. (2014). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and
Applications (3rd ed.). New York: Mc-Graw Hill.
▪ Douglas J. F., Gasiorek J. M., Swaffield J. A. & Jack L. B. (2005). Fluid
Mechanics (5th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall.
▪ Hibbeler R. C. (2021). Fluid Mechanics (2nd ed.). London: Pearson Education.
▪ Potter M. & Wiggert D. C. (2008). Fluid Mechanics. New York: Schuam’s
Outline Series, McGraw Hill.
▪ Rajput R. K. (2013). A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines
(5th ed.). New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Ltd.
▪ Subramanya K. (2011). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines: Problems and
Solutions (5th ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Ltd.

Software: MATLAB / Python

COURSE OUTLINE
Week 1: Kinematics of Fluid Motion
Week 2&3: Differential Fluid Flow
Week 4: Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Week 5-7: Two-Dimensional Ideal Flow

Week 8&9: Fluid Friction in Pipes

Week 10-11: Dimensional Analysis and Physical Similarity

Week 12: Fluid Flow Measurements

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 KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION
Fluid kinematics is a branch of fluid mechanics which
deals with the study of velocity and acceleration of the
particles of fluids in motion and their distribution in
space without considering any force or energy involved

Kinematics concerns the study of motion. In fluid

dynamics, fluid kinematics is the study of how fluids
flow and how to describe fluid motion

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 Types of Fluid Flow
Before we discuss flow kinematics, however, it is B. Classifications of Flow Based on Dimension
important to understand the various ways a flow
can be classified ❑ Non-dimensional flow
❑ One-dimensional flow
A. Classification of Flow Based on Its Frictional Effects
❑ Two-dimensional flow
❑ Laminar Flow ❑ Three-dimensional flow
❑ Turbulent Flow
❑ Transition Flow

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 Types of Fluid Flow
C. Classification of Flow Based on Space and Time

❑ Steady flow
❑ Unsteady flow
❑ Uniform flow
❑ Non-uniform flow

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 Types of Fluid Flow - Other Classifications
D. Incompressible and Compressible Flows F. Rotational and Irrotational Flows

All fluids are compressible, so that their density A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid
will change with pressure, but, under steady flow particles while moving in the direction of
conditions and provided that the changes of flow rotate about their mass centres. If the
density are small, it is often possible to simplify flow is rotational as well as steady, it is
the analysis of a problem by assuming that the known as Potential flow
fluid is incompressible and of constant density.

Since liquids are relatively difficult to compress,

it is usual to treat them as if they were
incompressible for all cases of steady flow

E. Viscous and Inviscid Flows

In an inviscid flow the effects of viscosity can be
completely neglected with no significant effects
on the solution to a problem involving the flow.
All fluids have viscosity and if the viscous effects
cannot be neglected, it is a viscous flow 7
 Graphical Descriptions of Fluid Flow
While quantitative study of fluid The types of flow patterns:
dynamics requires advanced
i. Streamlines
mathematics, much can be learned
from flow visualization - the visual A streamline is an imaginary line within the flow so that the
examination of flow field features tangent at any point on it indicates the velocity at that point
Flow visualization is useful not only in Streamlines are useful as indicators of the instantaneous
physical experiments, but in numerical direction of fluid motion throughout the flow field. For
solutions as well example, regions of recirculating flow and separation of a
fluid off of a solid wall are easily identified by the
streamline pattern. V and dr are in the same direction

If the velocity vector V = ui + vj +

wk then the differential equation
of a streamline is given by

A stagnation point is defined as a point in

the flow field where the velocity is zero 8
ii. Streamtubes Graphical Descriptions of Fluid Flow
A streamtube consists of a bundle of streamlines,
much like a communications cable consists of a
bundle of fiber-optic cables. Since streamlines are
everywhere parallel to the local velocity, fluid
cannot cross a streamline by definition

By extension, fluid For some types of analysis, it is

within a streamtube must convenient to consider a bundle of
remain there and cannot streamlines that surround a region of
cross the boundary of the flow. In two dimensions, streamtubes
streamtube are formed between two streamlines

iii. Pathlines

The pathline defines the “path” a single particle travels A pathline is the actual path traveled
over a period of time. To obtain the pathline by an individual fluid particle over
experimentally, a particle can be released within the flow some time period
stream and a time exposed photograph taken 9
 Graphical Descriptions of Fluid Flow
iii. Pathlines

A pathline is a Lagrangian
concept in that we simply equation
follow the path of an of the
individual fluid particle as pathline
it moves around in the for 2D
flow field

iv. Timelines

A timeline is a set of adjacent fluid particles that were

marked at the same (earlier) instant in time

Timelines are particularly useful in situations where the

uniformity of a flow (or lack thereof) is to be examined

Because of friction at the walls, the fluid velocity there

is zero (the no-slip condition), and the top and bottom In regions of the flow away from the walls,
of the timeline are anchored at their starting locations the marked fluid particles move at the
local fluid velocity, deforming the timeline
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 Graphical Descriptions of Fluid Flow
v. Streaklines
A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially
through a prescribed point in the flow. It can be identified by taking an
instantaneous photograph of the trace, or “streak,” of all the particles
Streaklines are the most common flow pattern generated in a physical
experiment. If you insert a small tube into a flow and introduce a
continuous stream of tracer fluid (dye in a water flow or smoke in an
airflow), the observed pattern is a streakline

Streaklines are often confused The main difference is that a streamline

with streamlines or pathlines. represents an instantaneous flow pattern
While the three flow patterns at a given instant in time, while a
are identical in steady flow, streakline and a pathline are flow
they can be quite different in patterns that have some age and thus a
unsteady flow. time history associated with them

A streakline is an instantaneous snapshot of a time integrated flow pattern. A

pathline, on the other hand, is the time-exposed flow path of an individual
particle over some time period 11
 Principle of Continuum
A fluid is composed of molecules which may be widely spaced apart,
especially in the gas phase. Yet it is convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of the fluid and view it as continuous, homogeneous
The continuum assumption
matter with no holes, that is, a continuum.

Although the properties of a fluid arise from its molecular structure, Kn =  0.1
engineering problems are usually concerned with the bulk behaviour L
of fluids. The number of molecules involved is immense, and the
L is the length scale of the
separation between them is normally negligible by comparison with
container
the distances involved in the practical situation being studied
λ is the mean free path of the
molecules
Under these conditions, it is usual to consider a fluid as a continuum
– a hypothetical continuous substance – and the conditions at a point
as the average of a very large number of molecules surrounding that
point within a distance which is large compared with the mean
intermolecular distance (although very small in absolute terms)

Fluid as a continuum is the continuous distribution of matter that

fills the entire region of space it occupies – Macroscopic scale 12
 Fluid Flow Description
The behavior of a fluid is quite different from that of a solid, because
the particles within a fluid can move in all directions, whereas the
particles in a solid maintain a fixed position relative to one another

This difference in behavior can complicate any analysis of a fluid

flow unless we have a proper way to describe it. To do this, we must
first identify a specific quantity of fluid, called a system

that is enclosed within a region of space apart from the fluid particles
outside this region, which is called the surroundings

Provided we know the flow pattern of the fluid system,

we can then establish, for example, the pressure or
forces that act on a structure or machine submerged
within the fluid
To completely define this flow pattern, it is necessary to
specify the velocity of each fluid particle at each point
within the system, and at each instant of time. In fluid ❑ Lagrangian description
mechanics there are two ways for doing this ❑ Eulerian description 13
 Lagrangian Description – System Approach
The flow within a fluid system can be defined by “tagging”
each fluid particle, and then specifying its position r as a
function of time as the particle moves from one position to the
next. This method is referred to as a Lagrangian description

Provided r = r(t) is known, then its time derivative

yields the velocity of the particle, that is

If i, j, k are the unit vectors that

define the positive directions of x, This description works well in particle or rigid
y, z axes, then V can be expressed body dynamics because the body maintains a
in terms of its Cartesian fixed shape.
components

It has very limited use in fluid mechanics, although

for some applications, it may provide insight
regarding the changing geometry of the system.
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 Eulerian Description – Control Volume Approach
The velocity of the fluid particles within a system can also
be described by considering a specific point (x0, y0, z0) in the
system, surrounded by a differential volume of space
The velocity of all the particles that pass through this point
or volume can then be measured at this point. This method
is referred to as an Eulerian description

The volume of space through which the particles flow is

called a control volume, and the boundary of this volume is
the control surface

Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, The field variable at a particular location at a particular
we define field variables, functions of space time is the value of the variable for whichever fluid
and time, within the control volume particle happens to occupy that location at that time

Here the velocity of a particle depends upon the location

x, y, z of the control volume in space and the time t, that is

The velocity field in

Cartesian coordinates 15
 Acceleration Field
From the study of thermodynamics, the fundamental
conservation laws (such as conservation of mass and the first law
of thermodynamics) are expressed for a system of fixed identity
(also called a closed system)

In cases where analysis of a control volume (also called an open

system) is more convenient than system analysis, it is necessary
to rewrite these fundamental laws into forms applicable to the
control volume. The same principle applies here

Once the velocity for a fluid system is established,

it is then possible to determine the acceleration for
the flow from Langrangian description where Fparticle particle is the net force acting on
the fluid particle, mparticle is its mass, and aparticle is
Doing this is important, because we can then apply
its acceleration
Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma, or

The acceleration of a fluid particle

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 Acceleration Field
However, at any instant in time t, the velocity of the particle is
the same as the local value of the velocity field at the location
(xparticle(t), yparticle(t), zparticle(t)) of the particle, since the fluid
particle moves with the fluid by definition

The time derivative, using

the chain rule

Since the acceleration is defined as that Furthermore, at any instant in time under
following a fluid (material) particle consideration, the material position vector (xparticle(t),
(Lagrangian description), the rate of yparticle(t), zparticle(t)) of the fluid particle in the
change of the particle’s x-position with Lagrangian frame is equal to the position vector (x,
respect to time is dxparticle/dt = u y, z) in the Eulerian frame
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 Acceleration Field
The acceleration of the fluid particle thus
becomes

Hence, we may replace aparticle with a(x, y, z, t) to

transform from the Lagrangian to the Eulerian frame
In Cartesian coordinates then, the
of reference. In vector form, it is written as
components of the acceleration vector are

The first term on the right-hand side of is

called the local acceleration and is nonzero
only for unsteady flows. The second term is
called the convective (advective) acceleration
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 Acceleration Field
Material Derivative
The total derivative operator d/dt in the previous equation is given a special name,
the material derivative; it is assigned a special notation, D/Dt, in order to emphasize
that it is formed by following a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field

Other names for the material derivative include total,

particle, Lagrangian, Eulerian, and substantial derivative

When we apply the material derivative of this to the

velocity field, the result is the acceleration field, which is
thus sometimes called the material acceleration is then

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