Geog 213

GEOG 213:
INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER
AND CLIMATE
Instructors: Prof. Kwadwo Owusu

Dr. Peter Bilson Obour
Dr. Clement Kwang
WEATHER, CLIMATE AND
THE ATMOSPHERE
Introduction
• Weather influences our everyday activities, our jobs,
and our health and our comfort. Many of us pay little
attention to the weather unless we are
inconvenienced by it.
• Nevertheless, there are few other aspects of the

physical environment that affects our lives more than
the phenomena we collectively call the weather.
• Weather clearly influences our lives a great deal. Yet it

is also important to realize that people influence the
atmosphere and its behaviour as well.
What is Weather?
• Weather is the current atmospheric
conditions, including temperature, rainfall,
wind, and humidity at a given place.
• Weather is what's happening right now or is

likely to happen tomorrow or in the very near
future.
• You can tell how hot it is by taking a

temperature reading.
What is weather?
Weather is the day to day changes in the atmosphere.

What might this include?
Temperature Precipitation
Wind speed Humidity
Wind direction Cloud cover
Air pressure Sunshine

What is Climate? (I)
• Climate, on the other hand, is the
general weather conditions over a long
period of time.
• For example, on any given day in June,

we expect it to be rainy in Axim, Western
Region and sunny and hot in Tamale,
Northern Region.
What is Climate? (II)
• Climate is sometimes referred to as "average" weather for a
given area. Most National Weather Services use data such as
temperature highs and lows and precipitation rates for the
past thirty years to compile an area's "average" weather.
• However, some atmospheric scientists think that you need

more than "average" weather to accurately portray an area's
climatic character - variations, patterns, and extremes must
also be included.
• Thus, climate is the sum of all statistical weather

information that helps describe a place or region. The
term also applies to large-scale weather patterns in time or
space such as an 'Ice Age' climate or a 'tropical' climate.
Weather vrs Climate
• Some meteorologists say that "climate is
what you expect and weather is what you
get." According to one middle school
student, "“weather tells you what to wear
each day, but the climate helps you figure
out what should be in your closet”
Are Weather and Climate the Same?
Weather is defined as the state of the

atmosphere at some place and time,
usually expressed in terms of
temperature, air pressure, humidity,
wind speed and direction, precipitation,
and cloudiness.
Meteorologists study weather.
Climate is defined in terms of the

average (mean) of weather elements
(such as temperature and precipitation)
over a specified period of time (30 years
according to the World Meteorological
Organization).
What is the difference between weather and
climate?
temperature precipitation
wind speed humidity
wind direction cloud cover
air pressure sunshine

What is the difference between weather and
climate?
temperature precipitation
wind speed humidity
wind direction cloud cover
air pressure sunshine

What is the difference between weather and climate?
Climate is the overall pattern of weather, usually based on an average over 30
years.
Click on the buttons to find out about these types of climate.

What is the difference between weather and climate?
Climate is the overall pattern of weather, usually based on an average over 30
years.
Click on the buttons to find out about these types of climate.

Relationship between Weather
and Climate
• Although weather and climate are different, they
are very much interrelated. A change in one
weather element often produces changes in the
others - and in the region's climate.
• For example, if the average temperature over a

region increases significantly, it can affect the
amount of cloudiness as well as the type and
amount of precipitation that occur.
• If these changes occur over long periods of time,

the average climate values for these elements will
also be affected.
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
• It's a thin layer of gases surrounding our
planet. Many of the planets in this solar system have
atmospheres, but none that we know of has an
atmosphere quite like ours - one that can support life.
• The atmosphere is held to the planet by the force of

gravity, which also determines what gases are present
in it.
• The Earth's primitive atmosphere was much different

from today's and consisted primarily of ammonia,
methane, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and
water vapor. There was little, if any, free oxygen
present.
Earth System Concept
The Earth
System
operates
within four
spheres
The Earth’s Systems
 Atmosphere - thin layer of gases surrounding the earth;
held by gravity; mixture of N, O, Ar, CO2
 Lithosphere - earth’s crust & portion of mantel;

sometimes thought of as the entire solid planet
 Hydrosphere - water in all parts; liquid, solid, & gaseous

form; two forms - fresh and salt. The Earth is
sometimes called the blue planet
 Biosphere - intricate web that connects all organisms with their

physical environment; physical and chemical factors make the
context of life; continually changing.
Examination of the
Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is structured. Three
criteria to examine atmosphere
Composition
Temperature (Structure)
Function
Examination of the
Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is structured. Three
criteria to examine atmosphere
Composition
Temperature (Structure)
Function
Composition of the
Atmosphere
Both air pressure and air density
decrease with increasing altitude.
Pressure/Altitude I
Altitude
(km) Percent sea level pressure
0 100
5.6 50
16.2 10
31.2 1
48.1 0.1
65.1 0.01
79.2 0.001
100 0.00003
The atmosphere decrease in concentration,

and hence pressure, as you rise above the
surface of the earth.
Pressure/Altitude (II)
• The earth's outermost atmosphere, the part above a few
hundred kilometers, is a region of extremely low
density. Near sea level, the number of atoms and molecules
in a cubic centimeter of air is about 2x1019; near 600 km it is
only about 2x107, which is the sea level value divided by a
million million.
• At sea level, an atom or molecule can be expected, on the

average, to move about 7x10-6 cm before colliding with
another particle; at the 600 km level this distance, called the
"mean free path," is about 10 km.
• Near sea level, an atom or molecule, on the average,

undergoes about 7x109 such collisions each second; near 600
km, this number is about 1 each minute.
Atmospheric
Pressure Changes
90% of atmosphere’s mass

is within 15 km of the
surface (the Troposphere)
Atmospheric
Pressure Changes
90% of atmosphere’s mass

is within 15 km of the
surface (the Troposphere)
In this figure, the
environmental lapse rate
can be seen graphically
as the decrease in
temperature with
increasing height.
The normal lapse rate is

observed until the
tropopause is reached.
Temperature/Altitude in Different
Geographic Regions
Homosphere Composition
• Why so much
Nitrogen?
– It is volatile in most
forms
• Eg. Ammonia gas
– It is unreactive with
most solid earth
material
– It is stable in sunlight.
• Why so much
Oxygen?
– Produced by
photosynthesis.
• Why so much
Argon?
– It slowly degasses
from rocks
– It is unreactive so
stays in the
atmosphere
• Argon is a noble gas
• Why so little
carbon dioxide?
– Original
atmosphere was
probably about
25% CO2
– It dissolves in
water
– It is used by plants
in photosynthesis
Thermal Structure of the
Atmosphere
Troposphere
• The bottom layer, where temperature decreases with
altitude, is known as the troposphere (from the Greek
for "turning layer"). The troposphere is approximately
12 kilometers thick, but there are slight variations.
• If the temperature increases with increasing altitude in

the troposphere, then a temperature inversion
exists. All the weather that we are primarily interested
in, occurs in the troposphere.
• The top of the troposphere is marked by the

tropopause.
Stratosphere
• Above the tropopause lies the stratosphere. It gets it's
name from the Greek meaning "stratified layer." The layer
is stratified with the denser, cooler air below the warmer,
lighter air. This leads to an increase in temperature with
height.
• Since the stratosphere isn't turbulent this is where most

planes like to fly. The temperature increases with height
until it reaches about 10°C at an altitude of 48 km. The
primary reason that there is a temperature increase with
altitude is that most of the ozone is contained in the
stratosphere.
• Ultraviolet light interacting with the ozone causes the

temperature increase. The boundary between the
stratosphere and the next layer is called the stratopause.
Troposphere
• The bottom layer, where temperature decreases with
altitude, is known as the troposphere (from the Greek
for "turning layer"). The troposphere is approximately
12 kilometers thick, but there are slight variations.
• If the temperature increases with increasing altitude in

the troposphere, then a temperature inversion
exists. All the weather that we are primarily interested
in, occurs in the troposphere.
• The top of the troposphere is marked by the

tropopause.
Vertical Composition
• The atmosphere also change composition with
height and can be divided into two layers. The
lower layer is called the homosphere and has the
composition we talked about earlier. It's top is
approximately the mesopause.
• Above the homosphere lies the heterosphere, a

layer in which the gases are stratified into four
shells. The lowermost shell is dominated by
molecular nitrogen (N2); next, a layer of atomic
oxygen (O) is encountered, followed by a layer
dominated by helium atoms (He), and finally, a layer
consisting of hydrogen atoms (H).
GEOG 213:
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Dr. Clement Kwang
Lecture 2
RADIATION &
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Energy
• Energy is the ability or capacity to do
work on some form of matter.
• There are several forms of energy,

including the following:
Forms of Energy I
• Potential energy is the energy which a body
possesses as a consequence of its position in
a gravitational field (e.g., water behind a dam).
• Kinetic energy is the energy which a body possesses

as a consequence of its motion (e.g., wind blowing across a
wind generator). It is dependent upon an object's mass
and velocity (e.g., moving water versus moving air).
Forms of Energy II
• Internal energy is the total energy (potential
and kinetic) stored in molecules.
• Heat (or thermal) energy is kinetic energy

due to motion of atoms and molecules. It is
energy that is in the process of being
transferred from one object to another
because of their temperature difference.
Forms of Energy III
• Radiant energy is the energy that propagates
through space or through material media in
the form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Latent heat is the heat energy required to

change a substance from one state to another.
Temperature vrs. Heat
• Temperature - a measure of • Heat – is the transfer of energy

the average kinetic energy of into or out of an object and its
the molecules in a surroundings. Heat flows from a
substance. Therefore, when region of higher temperature to
we talk about the one of lower temperature. Once
temperature of the air, we're the temperature becomes equal,
actually talking about how heat flow stops.
fast the air molecules are
moving.
• Therefore as temperature
increases the velocity of the
air molecules increases.
Lecture 2
RADIATION &
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Energy
• Energy is the ability or capacity to do
work on some form of matter.
• There are several forms of energy,

including the following:
Forms of Energy I
• Potential energy is the energy which a body
possesses as a consequence of its position in
a gravitational field (e.g., water behind a dam).
• Kinetic energy is the energy which a body possesses

as a consequence of its motion (e.g., wind blowing across a
wind generator). It is dependent upon an object's mass
and velocity (e.g., moving water versus moving air).
Forms of Energy II
• Internal energy is the total energy (potential
and kinetic) stored in molecules.
• Heat (or thermal) energy is kinetic energy

due to motion of atoms and molecules. It is
energy that is in the process of being
transferred from one object to another
because of their temperature difference.
Forms of Energy III
• Radiant energy is the energy that propagates
through space or through material media in
the form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Latent heat is the heat energy required to

change a substance from one state to another.
Solar Radiation I
• is energy stored in electromagnetic waves or
radiation. Energy is released when the waves are
absorbed by a surface. Any object with a temperature
above absolute zero (-273° Celsius) emits this type of
energy.
• All types of radiation (electromagnetic radiation)

travels through the vacuum of space at the speed of
light which is 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per
second.
Solar Radiation III
• Sun emits radiation at many

different wavelengths
• Peak energy in visible part of

electromagnetic spectrum
• Amount of radiation emitted is a

function of temperature
Radiation IV
• The amount of radiation emitted changes with
temperature
• The character of the radiation changes as well as
the temperature changes.
– Solar radiation is short-wave (peak around .5 m)
– Terrestrial radiation is long-wave (peak around 10 m)
m is a millionth of a meter (a micrometer)

Solar Radiation I
• is energy stored in electromagnetic waves or
radiation. Energy is released when the waves are
absorbed by a surface. Any object with a temperature
above absolute zero (-273° Celsius) emits this type of
energy.
• All types of radiation (electromagnetic radiation)

travels through the vacuum of space at the speed of
light which is 300,000 km (186,000 miles) per
second.
RADIATION LAWS II
Wien's Law
Wien's law suggests that as the temperature of a
body increases, the wavelength of maximum
emission becomes smaller. Hotter objects produce
more energy at shorter wavelength and cooler
objects produce more energy at longer wavelength.
Wmax = 2898/T
Radiation IV
• The amount of radiation emitted changes with
temperature
• The character of the radiation changes as well as
the temperature changes.
– Solar radiation is short-wave (peak around .5 m)
– Terrestrial radiation is long-wave (peak around 10 m)
m is a millionth of a meter (a micrometer)

Wavelength of EMR
(a) Longer wavelength;
(b) shorter wavelength
Composition of Solar Radiation
• 7 % Ultraviolet and shorter X-
rays, gamma rays, etc.; these
are higher energy waves
• 44 % Visible light - what we

can see with our eyes - we can
see from approximately 0.4 to
0.7 mm
• 32 % Near infrared
• 11 % Far infrared
• > 1 % longer wavelengths -

microwaves, radio waves, etc.
EMR Spectrum
Many different types of radiation have

been identified. Each of these types is
defined by its wavelength. The wavelength
of electromagnetic radiation can vary from
being infinitely short to infinitely long.
INSOLATION
• Incoming solar radiation-

-the flow rate of incoming solar radiation.
Given the amount of energy radiated by the sun and the

average Earth-sun distance of 150 million kilometers, the
amount of radiation intercepted by the outer limits of the
atmosphere can be calculated to be around 1367 W/m2.
For general purposes, the energy output of the sun can be
considered constant.
SOLAR CONSTANT
• The solar constant is the average amount of

energy striking one square meter
(perpendicular to the suns’ rays) each second
at the top of the earths’ atmosphere -about
1367 Wm-2
RADIATION LAWS II
Wien's Law
Wien's law suggests that as the temperature of a
body increases, the wavelength of maximum
emission becomes smaller. Hotter objects produce
more energy at shorter wavelength and cooler
objects produce more energy at longer wavelength.
Wmax = 2898/T
Radiation
Distribution
• Radiation is a
continuous function of
wavelength
• Radiation increases with
temp.
• At higher temps, more
radiation is at shorter
wavelengths.
• Solar radiation peak is in
the visible range.
Sunspot cycle
The number of sunspots peaks

every 11 years.
Schematic showing reduced effectiveness of the Sun to heat as the angle at which the rays pass through the
atmosphere decrease (hence they must pass through more of the atmosphere)
Since the Earth is tilted in it's orbit, not all the Earth receives
the same amount of energy. More energy is received at the equator
than at the poles owing to the obliquity of the Earth's axis.
Solstices and Equinoxes
• Since the Earth is tilted 23.5°
on its axis, there is only one
latitude on the Earth at any
one time when the Sun's rays
are striking at 90° (Sun is
directly overhead).
• As the Earth moves in its

orbit, that latitude changes
from a maximum of 23.5°S
latitude to 23.5°N
latitude. Theses latitudes are (Figure 2-4, page 30 in Lutgens and Tarbuck's The Atmosphere, 2001)
given the special names of Schematic showing solstices and equinoxes.
the Tropic of Capricorn
(23.5°S) and Tropic of
Cancer (23.5°N)
What is the global
annual mean day
length? 12 hours!
Reflection, Refraction, and Albedo
• Okay, so now we know that the Earth gets most of its energy from the Sun. However,
much of the energy that gets to Earth's upper atmosphere never makes it to the
surface.
• Radiation can be absorbed, reflected, scattered, refracted, or transmitted.
• Absorbed: energy is retained by a substance.
• Reflected: the surface returns a portion of the energy.
• Scattered: the electromagnetic waves are changed from propagating in one direction to
all directions.
• Refracted: the electromagnetic waves are changed from propagating in one direction
to another direction.
• Transmitted: energy passes through space or the media.

INSOLATION
• Incoming solar radiation-

-the flow rate of incoming solar radiation.
Given the amount of energy radiated by the sun and the

average Earth-sun distance of 150 million kilometers, the
amount of radiation intercepted by the outer limits of the
atmosphere can be calculated to be around 1367 W/m2.
For general purposes, the energy output of the sun can be
considered constant.
Reflection and Earth’s
Albedo
• The fraction of radiation that is reflected by a
surface is called its Albedo.
• The Albedo of the Earth as a whole is 30%.

What Happens to Incoming
Solar Radiation?
• Reflection and the Earth’s albedo:
– Albedo is the % of radiation reflected by an object.
• The albedo for Earth is about 30%.
• For the moon, the albedo is about 7%.
• Light objects have higher albedos and darker objects have
lower albedos.
Albedo
• Albedo – reflectivity of a surface

– Has values between 0 (no reflectivity) and 100% (full
reflection)
• Albedo values
– Snow 50 – 95 %
– Grass 25 – 30 %
– Roads 5 – 10 %
– Oceans 0 – 60 %
– Forests 10 – 20 %
– Earth average 31 %
Sunspot cycle
The number of sunspots peaks

every 11 years.
Schematic showing reduced effectiveness of the Sun to heat as the angle at which the rays pass through the
atmosphere decrease (hence they must pass through more of the atmosphere)
Since the Earth is tilted in it's orbit, not all the Earth receives
the same amount of energy. More energy is received at the equator
than at the poles owing to the obliquity of the Earth's axis.
What affects insolation?
• Latitude – further from the equator means less insolation.
• Clouds – more clouds = less insolation
Clouds and Albedo
Figure 4.8
The Greenhouse Effect
• Atmospheric scientists first used the term 'greenhouse effect'
in the early 1800s. At that time, it was used to describe the
naturally occurring functions of trace gases in the atmosphere
and did not have any negative connotations.
• It was not until the mid-1950s that the term greenhouse

effect was coupled with concern over climate change. The
negative concerns are related to the possible impacts of an
enhanced greenhouse effect.
• Without the 'greenhouse effect' the Earth’s average

temperature would be 33oC (59oF) colder.
• Greenhouse Effect: the name applied to the
process which causes the surface of the Earth to
become warmer than it would have been without
an atmosphere.
• Global Warming: the increase (we think) in the

magnitude of the greenhouse effect whereby the
surface becomes warmer than it would be with just
the greenhouse effect operating.
Reflection, Refraction, and Albedo
• Okay, so now we know that the Earth gets most of its energy from the Sun. However,
much of the energy that gets to Earth's upper atmosphere never makes it to the
surface.
• Radiation can be absorbed, reflected, scattered, refracted, or transmitted.
• Absorbed: energy is retained by a substance.
• Reflected: the surface returns a portion of the energy.
• Scattered: the electromagnetic waves are changed from propagating in one direction to
all directions.
• Refracted: the electromagnetic waves are changed from propagating in one direction
to another direction.
• Transmitted: energy passes through space or the media.

Heat Budget
• The annual balance of incoming and outgoing radiation is

called Earth’s heat budget.
• Short wave radiation from the sun enters the surface-

atmosphere system of the Earth and is ultimately
returned to space as long wave radiation (because the
Earth is cooler than the sun). A basic necessity of this
energy interchange is that incoming solar insolation and
outgoing radiation be equal in quantity
Reflection and Earth’s
Albedo
• The fraction of radiation that is reflected by a
surface is called its Albedo.
• The Albedo of the Earth as a whole is 30%.

SHORTWAVE RADIATION BUDGET
Reflection (molecules, dust, clouds and the surface) - 30%
Absorption (dust and molecules, and clouds) totals - 20%
Reaching the earth’s surface - 50%.

Incoming vs. Outgoing Radiation
Poles are cooling, equator is warming

Weather moves surplus energy to Poles
GLOBAL NET RADIATION
GEOG 213:
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
TEMPERATURE

Dr. Clement Kwang
Objectives of Today’s
Lecture
• Explain temperature measurements
and basic statistics of global
temperature
• To explain how temperature differs in

time and space.
Temperature
• It is one of the basic elements of
weather and climate.
• It varies on different time scales:

seasonally, daily, sometimes hourly.
• Apart from the earth-sun relationships

there are factors which affect variation
in temperature.
Air Temperature Data
• When we talk about temperatures, or measurements of any
kind, we can discuss them in different terms. We can discuss
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, or even longer, statistics.
• Range - the difference between the high and low temperatures

(Tmax - Tmin)
• Mean - an average of the high and low temperatures.

(Tmax + Tmin)/2
• These statistics are good for a single site, e.g., Tamale, but in
order to look at a region, or the country, we need to contour the
temperatures into an isothermal map.
Isothermal Map
An isotherm is a line along which the temperature is constant.
An isothermal map is useful since it shows us where

temperatures are similar and where they are different.
Temperature
Scales Boiling
point of
water
• Kelvin
0 K = absolute zero
No molecular
Freezing
point of
motion.
water
3 K = temperature
of the universe
Temperature
Scales Boiling
point of
water
• Celsius
100 oC = Boiling
point of water Freezing
point of
water
0 oC = Freezing
point of water
1 oC = 1 K
Temperature
Scales
• Kelvin
0 K = absolute
zero
• Celsius
0 oC = Freezing
point of water
• Fahrenheit
0 oC = ??
The Controls of Temperature
• Apart from Insolation, there are other factors
that control temperature on Earth:
Latitude
Differential heating of land and water
Ocean Currents
Altitude
Geographic Position
Cloud Cover and Albedo

Latitude I
 Latitude - the
tropics receive
more direct
radiation so
should be warmer.
This means the
closer areas are to
the Equator the
warmer they
generally are.
Latitude II
Temperature and Latitude
Differential Heating of Land
and Water I
• Proximity to water - regions closer to water have
more moderated temperatures, i.e., their temperature
ranges fluctuate less than regions more inland. Why?
– As the temperature of water changes, convection regulates

the temperature. Convection can't occur on land, only
conduction.
– The opacity of the land only allows the surface of the land to
heat; in water, the radiation penetrates deeper so a larger
layer is heated.
– The specific heat (amount of heat need to raise 1 gram of

substance 1°C) is much higher for water than for
land. Therefore more energy is needed to heat water than
land.
Specific Heat
Specific Heat- Is the heat capacity of a unit mass of a substance
or heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of a
substance 1 degree Celsius.
Water/land specific heat has a ratio of 4: 1.
Substance Specific
Heat
Water 1.00
Air 0.24 Specific heat of various substances
Granite 0.19
Sand 0.19
Iron 0.11
Latent Heat Flux
• Evaporation of water removes energy
from water's surface
• When water evaporates and thus

changes to vapor, heat energy is
absorbed in the process and it is stored
in the water vapor as latent heat. More
evaporation on ocean than land ( global
evaporation from ocean is estimated at
84%)
Penetration of Radiation
• Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in
water, on land just the immediate surface is
heated.
• Solid ground is opaque, water is transparent.

When light reaches a body of water, it
penetrates the surface because of water’s
transparency. The illuminated zone has an
average of 60m (200 ft) and it is known as
the photic layer
Mixing
• Water is easily mixed by the process of
convection
• Land is a rigid, solid material, whereas water is

a fluid and is capable of movement. Surface
water and deeper water mix, redistributing
energy.
Land–Water Heating Differences
Land-Water Temperature Contrast
Ocean Currents I
 Ocean currents - currents of water
move energy by convection. The
currents also create air currents,
which transfer heat.
Ocean Currents II
A Map of the major ocean currents of the world. Cold oceanic currents are blue,
whereas warm currents are red. Note, along the west coast of Africa there are two,
cold currents.
Major Ocean Current
Ocean Currents III
Along South America's

west coast, the cold
Peruvian Current keeps
temperatures
in Arica cooler than
temperatures along the
east coast of South
America along which
flows the warm Brazilian
Current.
Ocean Currents IV
Comparison of the
climate of Durban, South
Africa with Walvis Bay/
Pelican Point, -Average
monthly temperatures vary
by 2 °C (3.6°F) more
in Durban.
Gulf
Stream
Altitude I
 Altitude - not just as simple as the
normal lapse rate (6.5°C/km). Since
over land the rate of decrease of
temperature with altitude. E.g., the
lapse rate calculated between
Guayaquil (12 meters) and Quito,
Ecuador (2800 m) is approximately
4.4°C/km.
Altitude II
Altitude also has an
effect on the amount of
radiation reaching the
ground and how
quickly it is absorbed
and released - that's
why it will quickly heat
and cool when at
altitude and higher
regions have greater
temperature ranges
than lower altitudes.
Geographic Position I
 Geographic position - where the city lies in relation to
mountains or even which side of a continent it lies on
will have an effect on its temperature. E.g., even if a
city lies relatively close to the ocean, if a mountain
range lies between it and the ocean, the mountains will
act as a barrier to the moderating effect of the ocean.
 Also, winds blowing onto the land from the ocean

(windward coast) or from the land to the ocean
(leeward coast) will have different effects on the
temperature ranges.
Geographic Position II
Cloud Cover and Albedo
 Cloud cover and albedo - The presence of
clouds will reflect radiation from reaching the
Earth from space and will likewise reflect
thermal energy emitted from the Earth. In the
first case, the temperatures will be lower or
more moderated. In the latter case,
temperatures will be higher. This case often
happens at night. If clouds aren't present,
then radiation cooling occurs and the nights
get cooler than normal. Albedo is affected not
only by cloud cover, but snow, water vapor, or
smog.
Latitude:
Annual
Temperature
Variation
Vancouver Winnipeg
Marine and
Continenta
l Climates
San Francisco, CA Wichita, Kansas
Marine and
Continental
Climates
Marine and
Continental
Climates
Daily Temperature Changes
1. Daily temperature variation is less in the
higher latitudes.
2. Coastal locations are likely to experience

modest variation in the daily cycle.
3. Overcast days are responsible for a flattened

daily temperature curve.
4. Water Vapour in the air influences daily

temperature range.
Earth’s Temperature Patterns
• January Temperature Map
– Thermal equator movement southward
– More pronounced over large continents
• July Temperature Map

– Thermal equator movement northward
• Annual Temperature Range Map

– Continentality
January Temperatures
July Temperatures
Global Temperature Ranges
GEOG 213:
LECTURE 3
TEMPERATURE
Objectives of Today’s
Lecture
• Explain temperature measurements
and basic statistics of global
temperature
• To explain how temperature differs in

time and space.
Temperature
• -is one of the basic elements of
weather and climate.
• It varies on different time scales:

seasonally, daily, sometimes hourly.
• Apart from the earth sun relationships

there are factors which affect variation
in temperature.
Air Temperature Data
• When we talk about temperatures, or measurements of any
kind, we can discuss them in different terms. We can discuss
daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, or even longer, statistics.
• Range - the difference between the high and low temperatures

(Tmax - Tmin)
• Mean - an average of the high and low temperatures.

(Tmax + Tmin)/2
• These statistics are good for a single site, e.g., Tamale, but in
order to look at a region, or the country, we need to contour the
temperatures into an isothermal map.
Isothermal Map

Temperature
Scales Boiling
point of
water
• Kelvin
0 K = absolute zero
No molecular
Freezing
point of
motion.
water
3 K = temperature
of the universe
Isothermal Map

Temperature
Scales
• Kelvin
0 K = absolute
zero
• Celsius
0 oC = Freezing
point of water
• Fahrenheit
0 oC = ??
The Controls of Temperature
• Apart from Insolation, there are other factors
that control temperature on Earth:
Latitude
Differential heating of land and water
Ocean Currents
Altitude
Geographic Position
Cloud Cover and Albedo

Latitude I
 Latitude - the
tropics receive
more direct
radiation so
should be warmer.
This means the
closer areas are to
the Equator the
warmer they
generally are.
Latitude II
Temperature and Latitude
Differential Heating of Land
and Water I
• Proximity to water - regions closer to water have
more moderated temperatures, i.e., their temperature
ranges fluctuate less than regions more inland. Why?
– As the temperature of water changes, convection regulates

the temperature. Convection can't occur on land, only
conduction.
– The opacity of the land only allows the surface of the land to
heat; in water, the radiation penetrates deeper so a larger
layer is heated.
– The specific heat (amount of heat need to raise 1 gram of

substance 1°C) is much higher for water than for
land. Therefore more energy is needed to heat water than
land.
Specific Heat
Specific Heat- Is the heat capacity of a unit mass of a substance
or heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of a
substance 1 degree Celsius.
Water/land specific heat has a ratio of 4: 1.
Substance Specific
Heat
Water 1.00
Air 0.24 Specific heat of various substances
Granite 0.19
Sand 0.19
Iron 0.11
Latent Heat Flux
• Evaporation of water removes energy
from water's surface
• When water evaporates and thus

changes to vapor, heat energy is
absorbed in the process and it is stored
in the water vapor as latent heat. More
evaporation from ocean is estimated at
84%)
• Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in
water, on land just the immediate surface is
heated.
• Solid ground is opaque, water is transparent.

When light reaches a body of water, it
penetrates the surface because of water’s
transparency. The illuminated zone has an
average of 60m (200 ft) and it is known as
the photic layer
Mixing
convection
• Land is a rigid, solid material, whereas water is

a fluid and is capable of movement. Surface
water and deeper water mix, redistributing
energy.
Land–Water Heating Differences
Land-Water Temperature Contrast
Ocean Currents I
 Ocean currents - currents of water
move energy by convection. The
currents also create air currents,
which transfer heat.
Ocean Currents II
A Map of the major ocean currents of the world. Cold oceanic currents are blue,
whereas warm currents are red. Note, along the west coast of Africa there are two,
cold currents.
Major Ocean Current
Ocean Currents III
Along South America's

west coast, the cold
Peruvian Current keeps
temperatures
in Arica cooler than
temperatures along the
east coast of South
America along which
flows the warm Brazilian
Current.
Ocean Currents IV
Comparison of the
climate of Durban, South
Africa with Walvis Bay/
Pelican Point, -Average
monthly temperatures vary
by 2 °C (3.6°F) more
in Durban.
Gulf
Stream
Altitude I
 Altitude - not just as simple as the
normal lapse rate (6.5°C/km). Since
over land the rate of decrease of
temperature with altitude. E.g., the
lapse rate calculated between
Guayaquil (12 meters) and Quito,
Ecuador (2800 m) is approximately
4.4°C/km.
Altitude II
Altitude also has an
effect on the amount of
radiation reaching the
ground and how
quickly it is absorbed
and released - that's
why it will quickly heat
and cool when at
altitude and higher
regions have greater
temperature ranges
than lower altitudes.
Geographic Position I
 Geographic position - where the city lies in relation to
mountains or even which side of a continent it lies on
will have an effect on its temperature. E.g., even if a
city lies relatively close to the ocean, if a mountain
range lies between it and the ocean, the mountains will
act as a barrier to the moderating effect of the ocean.
 Also, winds blowing onto the land from the ocean

(windward coast) or from the land to the ocean
(leeward coast) will have different effects on the
temperature ranges.
Geographic Position II
smog.
Latitude:
Annual
Temperature
Variation
Vancouver Winnepeg
Marine and
Continenta
l Climates
smog.
Marine and
Continental
Climates
Daily Temperature Changes
1. Daily temperature variation is less in the
higher latitudes.
2. Coastal locations are likely to experience

modest variation in the daily cycle.
3. Overcast days are responsible for a flattened

daily temperature curve.
4. Water Vapour in the air influences daily

temperature range.
Earth’s Temperature Patterns
• January Temperature Map
– Thermal equator movement southward
• July Temperature Map

– Thermal equator movement northward
• Annual Temperature Range Map

– Continentality
July Temperatures
GEOG 213:
INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER AND
CLIMATE
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE &

PRECIPITATION
Learning Goals
• Explain atmospheric humidity.

• Describe the hydrologic cycle.
• State and explain types of atmospheric
stability.
Land and Water Hemispheres
Ocean and Freshwater
Distribution
Water on Earth
• The supply of water is assumed to be fixed on

earth. This idea is supported by these three
theories below, about the origin of water on
Earth.
• (a) Cold Accretion
• (b) De-Gassing
• (c) Small Comets
Heat Transfer
Latent and sensible heat
Boiling Water Vapor

Temperature (oC)
100
Water
Ice Melting
Heat added
Latent Heat
• Heat
When thatchanges
water is absorbed
phases isduring therelease
will either phaseorchange is
absorb heat:
called latent heat, since it is a hidden heat and
does
S --> G not change
heat the
absorbed (680temperature
calories) during the
sublimation
process.heat
S --> L
It absorbed
can later be released.
(80 calories) melting
L --> G heat absorbed (600 calories) evaporation
• Note that working our way through the water cycle

will result
G --> S
in zero heat gain or loss (conservation
heat released (680 calories) deposition
G --> L heat released (600 calories) condensation
of energy).
L --> S heat released (80 calories) freezing
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
• The hydrologic Cycle describes the way in which
water moves through the earth systems.
Circulation of water between the lithosphere,

hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere.
ATMOSPHERE
Evaporation
84% Evaporation
0.1% 16%
Precipitation
Precipitation 23%
77%
Global Runoff
OCEANS 7%
CONTINENTS
97%
2.9%
Key Words
• Precipitation: H2O falling from the atmosphere, either as a solid, or a
liquid. Gas to liquid or solid.
• Evaporation: conversion of liquid to gas; more water molecules enter the

atmosphere as a gas than return to the liquid water.
• Condensation: conversion of gas to liquid; process in which more molecules

return to the liquid than the gas.
• Sublimation – The transition of solid molecules into the gaseous phase.
• Deposition – The transition of gaseous molecules into the solid phase (frost
on a cold morning)
• Transpiration: release of H2O from plants through their

leaves in the atmosphere as a gas.
Humidity
• Humidity refers to the amount of water
vapour present in the atmosphere. There are
five (5) different methods to express humidity:
(1) Absolute humidity
(2) Mixing ratio
(3) Vapour pressure
(4) Relative humidity
(5) Dew point
Absolute humidity & Mixing ratio
• Absolute humidity: is the mass of water vapor
in a given volume of air (usually grams/meter3)
Since temperatures and pressures change
constantly and they change from place to place,
meteorologists usually prefer mixing ratio.
• Mixing ratio: mass of water vapor in a unit of

air compared to dry air. E.g., mass of water
vapor (in grams)/mass of dry air
(kilograms). Not affected by changes in
temperature or pressure. Also known as specific
humidity.
Vapour Pressure
• Vapor pressure: that part of the total atmospheric pressure
attributable to water vapor. In chemistry we would call this
the partial pressure. We could also measure, or calculate, the
partial pressures of all the other gasses in the atmosphere
(e.g., N2, O2, Ar, CO2, etc.) - they should all add to the total
atmospheric pressure. This is temperature dependent.
• We can actually measure the number of molecules (by way

of the pressure) leaving water, or entering water. When the
number of molecules leaving water is the same as the
number entering, we call that saturation, and the pressure is
the saturation vapor pressure.
Relative = Actual water vapour content of air
x 100
Maximum water vapour capacity of air
Humidity
Dew Point
Temperature
Warm Air Cold Air
100
20
20
20
relative humidity
= 100%
relative humidity=
content/capacity
20%
Relative Humidity II
• If the amount of water vapor is constant:
Increasing temperature decreases RH
Decreasing temperature increases RH
• If temperature is held constant:

• Adding water vapor increases RH
Removing water vapor decreases RH
• This is why we usually see higher relative humidity at night.

Since relative humidity is easily changed by temperature or
amount of water vapor, we would like to find another variable
that is not so easily changed.
GEOG 213:
INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER AND
CLIMATE
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE &

PRECIPITATION
Dew Point II
• Frost (hoar frost, white frost) is caused when the
temperature is below freezing and the air is
saturated with moisture.
• Dew points are directly related to the amount of

moisture in the air, so is a much better indicator
of humidity.
Humidity Instruments – hair hygrometer
Humidity
Instruments –
Sling Hygrometer
Rate of evaporation is
faster (more heat
loss) when humidity is
low
THE ADIABATIC PROCESS
• Heating or cooling process that occurs as a result of
pressure change.
Dry Adiabatic Rate-
10oC per 1000m (5.5oF per 1000ft)
Wet Adiabatic Rate-
5oC per 1000m (2.7oF per 1000ft)
The altitude at which a parcel of air reaches saturation
and cloud formation begins is called the lifting
condensation level. At this point latent heat is released
and the air cools at the lower Wet Adiabatic rate.
Ocean and Freshwater
Distribution
Types of Stability
• The stability of the atmosphere is determined by
measuring the air temperature at different
altitude (environmental lapse rate).
• There are three types of stability:
• 1 Absolute stability
• 2 Absolute Instability
• 3 Conditional Instability
Absolute Stability
• Absolute stability prevails when the environmental
lapse rate is less than the wet adiabatic rate.
Stable
conditions
3000
Altitude (m)
2000
1000
-20o -10o -0o 10o 20o 30o

Temperature (oC)
Instructions:
1) Take a balloon and fill it with air at ground level (note the humidity).
2) Move it up in the atmosphere

• As the Pressure decreases the air in the balloon expands and
becomes cooler
3) Is the air in the balloon at a lower temperature than the surrounding
air?
Latent and sensible heat
Boiling Water Vapor

Temperature (oC)
100
Water
Ice Melting
Heat added
Stable
conditions
3000
Altitude (m)
2000
1000
-20o -10o -0o 10o 20o 30o

Temperature (oC)
Is the air in the balloon at a lower temperature than the surrounding air?
• If the air is MOIST (saturated) at ground level the temperature IN
THE BALLOON at 2000 m is  13 oC
• The temperature of the air outside the balloon is  16 oC
• The air in the balloon is denser so the balloon WILL SINK!!!

Absolute Instability
• Absolute Instability occurs when the
environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry
adiabatic rate.
Environmental Lapse rate 12oC/km
Unstable
conditions
3000
Altitude (m)
2000
1000
-20o -10o -0o 10o 20o 30o

Temperature (oC)
• If the air is MOIST (saturated) at ground level the temperature IN
THE BALLOON at 2000 m is  13 oC
• The temperature of the air outside the balloon is  2 oC
• The air in the balloon is lighter/warmer so the balloon WILL

FLOAT!!!
Unstable
conditions
3000
Altitude (m)
2000
1000
-20o -10o -0o 10o 20o 30o

Temperature (oC)
• If the air is DRY at ground level the temperature IN THE
BALLOON at 2000 m is  ? oC
• The temperature of the air outside the balloon is  ? oC
• The air in the balloon is _______ so the balloon WILL _______!!!

Conditional Instability
• Conditional Instability is more common in the
atmosphere and occurs when moist air has an
environmental lapse rate between the dry and the wet
adiabatic rates (between about 5oC and 10oC per
1000 m)
Conditionally
Unstable 3000
Altitude (m)
2000
1000
-20o -10o -0o 10o 20o 30o

Temperature (oC)
• If the air is MOIST at ground level the temperature IN THE

Conditionally
3000
Unstable
Altitude (m)
2000
1000
-20o -10o -0o 10o 20o 30o

Temperature (oC)
• If the air is DRY at ground level the temperature IN THE

Ways to Achieve Saturation
• Cool the air without adding or removing

moisture.
• Add water vapor without changing the

temperature
Processes That Lift Air
• When air rises it expands and cools adiabatically.
Four mechanical phenomena that cause air to
rise are:
• 1. Orographic lifting
• 2. Frontal wedging
• 3. Convergence
• 4. Localized convective lifting
Orographic lifting
It occurs when air is forced to rise over a
mountainous barrier. As air ascends a mountain
slope, adiabatic cooling often generate clouds
and copious rainfall.
The windward slopes are generally wetter while the
leeward slope are drier. Some of the World’s
great deserts are in the leeward slopes(eg. The
Great Basin Desert of western US, the Gobi
and Patagonian deserts.
10o C 10o C
15o C 20o C
10o C
30o C
30o C
40o C
Windward slope Leeward slope

Relative Humidity I
• Relative humidity: the ratio of the air’s actual water
vapour content compared with the amount of water
vapour required for saturation (at that temperature
and pressure). In effect, it is a measure of how close
to being saturated the air is.
• The amount of water vapor required to saturate air at

various temperatures is variable. That’s why on a very
cold day the relative humidity may be close to 100
percent but it doesn't feel like a muggy 70 percent
relative humidity day when it's 95°F outside.
Convergence
• In the lower troposphere whenever winds (air)
flows together they results in lifting known as
convergence. Convergence can also occur
whenever an obstacle slows or restricts
horizontal air flow.
Localized convective lifting
• They are caused by rising parcels of warm air
called thermals. They are associated with
afternoon rain showers.
Warm Air Cold Air
100
20
20
20
relative humidity
= 100%
relative humidity=
content/capacity
20%
Dew Point I
• Dew Point: temperature to which the air would
have to be cooled, without changing pressure or
moisture content, to reach saturation.
• The drier the air, the more it must be cooled to

reach saturation.
• High dew points indicate a large amount of

moisture in the air.
Low dew points indicate small amounts of
moisture in the air.
Atmospheric Pressure
• Pressure anywhere in the atmosphere is due
to the weight of air above
Atmospheric Pressure
• Pressure decreases faster near the surface,
less so aloft (due to higher density near
surface)
• Ultimately due to
compressibility
Air Pressure and Winds
• Standard atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds per square
inch. We also know that air pressure decreases as we rise in
the atmosphere.
• Air pressure can simply be measured with a barometer by

measuring how the level of a liquid changes due to different
weather conditions.
• The aneroid barometer measures air pressure without the

use of liquid by using a partially evacuated chamber. This
bellows-like chamber responds to air pressure so it can be
used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Air Pressure Records
• 1084 mb in Siberia (1968)

• 870 mb in a Pacific Typhoon (1979)
• Remember that average sea level pressure is 1013 mb
Winds Basic
• Wind is defined as air in motion with respect to the Earth’s
surface. (Horizontal movement). Vertical movement is not
called winds but are called different names, eg. Updraft or
downdraft.
• Wind direction is measured by wind vane and wind speed is

measured by anemometer.
• Wind develops as a result of spatial differences in

atmospheric pressure. Generally, these differences occur
because of uneven absorption of solar radiation at the
Earth's surface. The Sun is the driving force for most winds.
What causes the wind?
• The wind we experience is a result of a combination
of forces:
– Pressure Gradient Force
– Gravity
– Coriolis Effect
– Friction
– Centrifugal Force
– The Net force = PGF + G + Co + Fr + Ce
Note that some of these forces only act to change a wind that exists….which ones?
Pressure Gradient Force,
PGF
The Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) is the direct result of
different air pressures. As we have done for temperature by
drawing isothermal maps, we can do for pressure and draw
isobaric maps. Lines on these maps connect points of
equal pressure.
The magnitude of the pressure difference and the distance

between the two points in question will essentially
determine the velocity of the PGF wind. That is, if the
stations are far apart and the pressure difference is great,
then the winds will be less than if the stations were close
together and the pressure difference where the same.
What is Gradient?
• A change in a quantity over a distance

gives rise to a gradient in that quantity
Pressure Gradient Force
• Pressure Gradient Force – the difference in pressure between two
points divided by the distance between the points
• the larger the pressure difference, the greater the acceleration
through the opening
• magnitude of the pressure gradient = (P1 – P2 / distance)
– Horizontal pressure gradient – the atmosphere causes air parcels
to be accelerated across the surface of the earth toward low
pressure when a horizontal pressure gradient force exists
– Causes of Pressure Gradients
• Differential heating – creation of a horizontal temperature
gradient.
Orographic lifting
It occurs when air is forced to rise over a
mountainous barrier. As air ascends a mountain
slope, adiabatic cooling often generate clouds
and copious rainfall.
The windward slopes are generally wetter while the
leeward slope are drier. Some of the World’s
great deserts are in the leeward slopes(eg. The
Great Basin Desert of western US, the Gobi
and Patagonian deserts.
Isobars
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) resulting in winds generated between

pressure differences. Solid lines are isobars - lines of constant pressure.
Localized convective lifting
• They are caused by rising parcels of warm air
called thermals. They are associated with
afternoon rain showers.
• Expect an acceleration from high pressure to

low pressure in the Horizontal
– No acceleration in the vertical because of
hydrostatic balance
Gravity, G
• The vertical pressure gradient is much larger than

the horizontal pressure gradient (~100 x), yet winds
don't blow straight up. Why? Gravity acts to stop,
or slow, the vertical flow of air, so vertical winds are
much less than horizontal winds. Most vertical
winds are on the order of 1 mph, however some
downdrafts and updrafts can be up to 60 mph.
Coriolis Force, Co
Since the Earth rotates, objects that are above the Earth
apparently move or are deflected if they are already moving,
owing to it's rotation. This apparent motion is caused by the
Coriolis Force, Co. In the Northern Hemisphere objects will
be deflected to their right, while in the Southern Hemisphere
objects will be deflected to their left.
The magnitude of the deflection is also a function of distance

from the equator and velocity. So, the farther from the
equator the object is, the greater the deflection, and the faster
an object is moving, the greater the deflection. These
"objects" can be anything from airplanes, to birds, to missiles,
to parcels of air.
Coriolis Force, Co
Coriolis Force (Co), results in objects

being deflected owing to rotation of the Earth beneath them.
Coriolis Force, Co
The effect of the Coriolis Force (for various latitudes).

Coriolis Force, Co
Friction, F
• Friction is most important near the ground and

less important higher in the atmosphere. If we
consider winds aloft, an important wind is the
geostrophic wind. The geostrophic wind is a
wind that parallels the isobars.
Friction, F
Friction, F
• Winds near the surface are influenced by the
ground. This influence is in the form of
friction. Friction acts to retard the motion of the wind --
it is always in the direction opposite the wind
velocity. Friction acts to oppose the flow of the air. The
air will slow down, reducing the Coriolis force.
• This results in an imbalance of forces. The atmosphere

adjusts, to regain a balance, by turning the wind toward
low pressure. A new balance is achieved when the sum
of the Friction and Coriolis forces balance the horizontal
pressure gradient force.
Low Pressure
• Winds are directed
towards low pressure,
which results in:
• Directional convergence
• Lifting of air
• "Bad" Weather
High Pressure
• Winds are directed away
from high pressure,
which results in:
• Directional divergence
• Sinking of air
• "Good" Weather
What causes circulations?
• Pressure Gradient force induces motion.
• Coriolis force deflects motion to right in

Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• Wind are named according to the direction

from which they come.
OCEAN/CONTINENTAL THERMAL
PROPERTIES
• 1. Specific Heat
• 2. Latent Heat Flux
• 3. Penetration of Radiation
• Mixing.
Latent Heat Flux
• Evaporation of water removes energy from water's
surface
• When water evaporates and thus changes to vapor,

heat energy is absorbed in the process and it is
stored in the water vapor as latent heat. More
evaporation from ocean is estimated at 84%)
• Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in water,
on land just the immediate surface is heated.
• Solid ground is opaque, water is transparent. When

light reaches a body of water, it penetrates the
surface because of water’s transparency. The
illuminated zone has an average of 60 m (200 ft)
and it is known as the photic layer
Mixing
convection
• Land is a rigid, solid material, whereas water

is a fluid and is capable of movement.
Surface water and deeper water mix,
redistributing energy.
LOCAL WINDS (LAND/SEA BREEZE)
• Sea and land breezes are types of thermal circulation

systems that develop at the interface of land and
ocean.
• At this interface, the dissimilar heating and cooling

characteristics of land and water initiate the
development of an atmospheric pressure gradient
which causes the air in these areas to flow.
Land Breeze
• At night the land surface being cooler than the water becomes a
thermal high pressure area. The ocean becomes a warm thermal
low. Wind flow now moves from the land to the open ocean. This
type of localized air flow is called a land breeze.
Nighttime
development
of land
breeze.
Sea Breeze
Sea breeze usually begins in midmorning and reaches its maximum strength in the
later afternoon when the greatest temperature and pressure contrasts exist. It dies
down at sunset when air temperature and pressure once again become similar
across the two surfaces.
Daytime
development
of sea breeze
Monsoonal Winds
• Some regional wind systems seasonally change direction

•Intense shifting systems occur in the tropics over South East Asia,
Indonesia, India, Northern Australia, and Equatorial Africa.
Winter Summer
Monsoon Circulations
• Monsoon: wind system that changes seasonally

• Develops over and lasts for weeks; Very Large Scale
• Strength related to Southern Oscillation
The West Africa Monsoon System
GEOG 213:
PLANETARY WINDS
OBJECTIVE
• To build the actual planetary pressure and
wind systems.
• This is done through the understanding of

ocean and land heating difference.
• A look at local and regional winds, e.g. sea-

land breeze.
CYCLONES & ANTICYCLONES
• These are low and high pressure centers that
dominate daily weather.
• In low pressure centers (Cyclones), air spirals

inward and upward. This is convergence
• In high pressure centers (Anticyclones), air spirals

downward and outward. This is divergence
CYCLONES & ANTICYCLONE I
• Surface winds blow counterclockwise and inward

into a surface low, and clockwise and out of a
surface high in the Northern Hemisphere.
• The winds of the Southern Hemisphere blow

clockwise and inward around surface lows, and
counterclockwise and outward around surface
highs
CYCLONES & ANTICYCLONE II
Circulation patterns of high and low pressure systems in the

North and South Hemisphere.
Convergence and Divergence
Scales of Atmospheric Motion


OBJECTIVE
• To build the actual planetary pressure and
wind systems.
• This is done through the understanding of

ocean and land heating difference.
• A look at local and regional winds, e.g. sea-

land breeze.
CYCLONES & ANTICYCLONES
• These are low and high pressure centers that
dominate daily weather.
• In low pressure centers (Cyclones), air spirals

inward and upward. This is convergence
• In high pressure centers (Anticyclones), air spirals

downward and outward. This is divergence


• Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in water,
on land just the immediate surface is heated.
• Solid ground is opaque, water is transparent. When

light reaches a body of water, it penetrates the
surface because of water’s transparency. The
illuminated zone has an average of 60m (200 ft) and
it is known as the photic layer
Mixing
convection
• Land is a rigid, solid material, whereas water

is a fluid and is capable of movement.
Surface water and deeper water mix,
redistributing energy.
LOCAL WINDS (LAND/SEA BREEZE)
• Sea and land breezes are types of thermal circulation

systems that develop at the interface of land and
ocean. At this interface, the dissimilar heating and
cooling characteristics of land and water initiate the
development of an atmospheric pressure gradient
which causes the air in these areas to flow.
Land Breeze
• At night the land surface being cooler than the water becomes
a thermal high pressure area. The ocean becomes a warm
thermal low. Wind flow now moves from the land to the open
ocean. This type of localized air flow is called a land breeze.
Nighttime
development
of land
breeze.
Sea Breeze
• Sea breeze usually begins in midmorning and reaches its maximum strength in
the later afternoon when the greatest temperature and pressure contrasts exist.
It dies down at sunset when air temperature and pressure once again become
similar across the two surfaces.
Daytime
development
of sea breeze
Monsoonal Winds
• Some regional wind systems seasonally change direction
•Intense shifting systems occur in the tropics over South East Asia, Indonesia,
India, Northern Australia, and Equatorial Africa.
Winter Summer
Monsoon Circulations
• Monsoon: wind system that changes seasonally

• Develops over and lasts for weeks; Very Large Scale
• Strength related to Southern Oscillation
Ocean Currents
• Earth’s Atmospheric and oceanic circulation are intimately
related.
• The driving force of ocean currents is the frictional drag of

winds.
• Ocean currents are also influenced by the following factors:

• Coriolis effect: Currents are deflected
• water density differences: cold water is more dense.

Salinity affects density of water.
• Position of the continents: Continents are in the way of

currents
Ocean Currents
• Surface currents:
•They are deflected by the Coriolis Force

• Ocean circulation is driven by subtropical high pressure cells in both
hemispheres.
Ocean currents are like rivers inside the sea
Ocean Currents
•Along the Equator, there is no Coriolis effect.

•Trade winds generate equatorial currents that flow westward.
•Because water flows westward, water “piles up” along the Eastern sides
of continents. This pile up is known as (western intensification).
• The piled up water then goes north or south.
Water “piles up” Trade winds

(Western
intensification)
West East
Ocean Currents
• Deep Currents:
• Where water is swept away from the coast, an upwelling current develops
• Cold water rises.
• Cold waters are loaded with nutrients, therefore prime areas for fishing
• This happens along the Western South American Coast
winds
Upwelling
current
Coast
Ocean Currents
• Deep Currents:
• where water is accumulating (eastern sides of continents)
• The excess water sinks in a downwelling current
• These currents travel along the ocean floor, transporting heat and salty water.
winds
Downwelling
current
Continent’s
eastern coasts
Global atmospheric circulation
Well-defined pressure patterns exist

across the globe:
 Induces winds
 Largest wind systems define global
atmospheric circulation
26
SIMPLE MODEL OF GLOBAL CIRCULATION
•The Earth is not rotating

in space.
•The Earth's surface is
composed of similar
materials.
•The global reception of
solar insolation and loss of
longwave radiation will
cause a temperature
gradient of hotter air at the
equator and colder air at
the poles.
Hadley Cell Circulation
Entirely thermally
driven! A thermally
direct
Circulation
NO ROTATION
Ocean currents are like rivers inside the sea
Ocean Currents
•Along the Equator, there is no Coriolis effect.

•Trade winds generate equatorial currents that flow westward.
•Because water flows westward, water “piles up” along the Eastern sides
of continents. This pile up is known as (western intensification).
• The piled up water then goes north or south.
Water “piles up” Trade winds

(Western
intensification)
West East
THREE CELL MODEL
Global atmospheric
Three-cell model: circulation
3. Polar cell: heat-driven cell
 Circulates air from polar high to subpolar low
 Dominated by polar easterlies
32
What happens on the “Real” Earth?
• Southward moving surface air is deflected to
the right (in northern hemisphere)
• Flow is impeded by Terrain Features
• Three cell model develops

– Hadley Cell is not hard to find in observations
– Ferrel cell is harder to find
– Polar Cell difficult to find
GEOG 213:
Cloud Formation & Classification

Clouds
• Clouds are defined as visible aggregate of minute
droplets of water, or tiny crystals of ice, or a
mixture of both.
• Clouds are a visible indication of what is going

on in the atmosphere.
• It is a thick mass of suspended water drops or ice

crystals
What is a cloud?
•Warm air contains water vapor
•The air cools as it rises
•The water condenses around a solid
object, such as dust or smoke, and forms
either water droplets or ice crystals
Ocean Currents
• Deep Currents:
• Where water is swept away from the coast, an upwelling current develops
• Cold water rises.
• Cold waters are loaded with nutrients, therefore prime areas for fishing
• This happens along the Western South American Coast
winds
Upwelling
current
Coast
Let’s start with the cloud’s appearance.
Clouds can be thick and white, dark and
gray, or thin and nearly transparent (see-
through). They can be round, oval, tall
or flat. They can be large or small.
What do clouds tell us?
The presence of clouds in the sky is one type
of signal to meteorologists that there will be
changes in the weather. Predicting the weather
requires the understanding of the different
types of clouds
Condensation
• Clouds are a form of condensation produced when water
vapour condenses in the atmosphere. Adiabatic cooling is
the most important cloud forming process.
• Sunlight causes water to evaporate into the atmosphere.

This air containing the water vapor is heated at the surface
of the earth and rises. As the air rises, it cools and the
water vapor condenses on some form of particulate
matter such as dust, ash, or smoke to form clouds. The
particulate matter are called Condensation Nuclei.
Condensation
• When air is lifted, where will condensation occur?
• Depends on the moisture content of the air that is being
lifted.
Moist air requires less cooling, hence less lifting, to reach
the dew point.
Drier air requires more cooling and more lift to reach the
dew point.
• The lifting condensation level (LCL) is the altitude, usually
expressed as a pressure, at which the lifted air is cooled dry
adiabatically to saturation.
• Clouds will form at this level.
Cloud Condensation Nuclei
(CCN)
Small, airborne particles are necessary on which
water vapor can condense to produce cloud
droplets
Without such particles, RH>100% would be
needed to produce clouds
Such surfaces are called
Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN)
CCN are light and stay suspended for days
Cloud Condensation Nuclei
(CCN).
• Nearly a century ago it was discovered that the atmosphere contains particles that
have an affinity for water. These serve as centers for condensation. They are called
Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN).
The atmosphere has plenty of CCN:
• Dust
• Salt Spray from Oceans
• Volcanoes
• Sulfate Particles from Phytoplankton
• Forest Fires
• Trees
• Anthropogenic Origins
• CCN are more plentiful near the surface of the earth and more plentiful over land
rather than the ocean.
Ocean Currents
• Deep Currents:
• where water is accumulating (eastern sides of continents)
• The excess water sinks in a downwelling current
• These currents travel along the ocean floor, transporting heat and salty water.
winds
Downwelling
current
Continent’s
eastern coasts
Cloud Classification
• Clouds are classified on the basis of two criteria:
form and height.
• Three basic cloud forms are recognized:
• Cirrus- thin, wispy clouds of ice

• Cumulus- clouds having vertical development
• Stratus – layered cloud
Cloud Types and Identification
Cirrus
Clouds are high, white and
thin. They are detached
and form delicate veil-like
patches and often have a
feathery appearance.
Cirrus Cloud
Sun Pillar
Sometimes, when the sun is just below the horizon, aligned ice crystals reflect light from their
crystal faces. We see the cumulative effect of millions of reflections of this sunlight as a sun
pillar.
Cirrus Cloud
Sundog
Cumulus
Clouds consist of
globular individual
cloud masses. They
normally have a flat
base and appear as
rising domes or
towers. They are said
to have cauliflower-
like appearance.
Stratus
• Stratus clouds are best described as sheets or
layers (strata) that cover much or all of the sky.
Normally there are no distinct individual cloud
units.
High Clouds
• They are above 6000 m. They are usually thin
(why?) and white and mostly of ice crystals.
There are three types:
• Cirrus
• Cirrostratus
• Cirrocumulus
Middle Clouds
Clouds at the middle altitude range between 2000
m and 6000 m and have the prefix alto as part of
their name. There are two types:
• Altostratus
• Altocumulus
Low Clouds
There are three members of this family below
2000 m.
• Stratus
• Stratocumulus
• nimbostratus
Clouds of Vertical Development
• These are clouds that do not fit into any of the
three height groups. They have their base in the
low height range and extend upward into the
middle or high altitude. They are associated with
unstable weather. There are two types of these
clouds:
• Cumulus
• Cumulonimbus
Basic Cloud Types
Cloud Family and Height Cloud Type
High Clouds –above 6000 m • Cirrus (Ci)
• Cirrostratus (Cs)
• Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Middle Clouds –2000 - 6000 m • Altostratus (As)

• Altocumulus (Ac)
Low Clouds –below 2000 m • Stratus (St)
• Stratocumulus (Sc)
• Nimbostratus (Ns)
Clouds of Vertical Development • Cumulus (Cu)

• Cumulonimbus (Cb)
Fog
Fog is defined as a cloud with its base at or very
near the ground. Physically, fog and clouds are the
same in their appearance and structure.
Types of Fog
• Fog is named after cooling mechanism
• Radiation Fog -- forms after a long clear night, when air
cools to dewpoint
– Especially likely over water source (river)
• Advection fog -- Warm air moves over cold surface, cools
to dewpoint
– Common over snow cover when it’s raining
– Very Common in Spring (at higher latitudes)
• Upslope fog -- Air moves uphill, cools adiabatically
• Steam Fog -- find this over a warm lake in Fall -- also
known as mixing fog
Fog Formed by Evaporation
• When saturation occurs mainly due to the
addition of water vapour, the resultant fog is
called evaporation fog.
• Types:
1. Steam Fog
2. Frontal Fog
Hadley Cell Circulation
Entirely thermally
driven! A thermally
direct
Circulation
NO ROTATION
UNDERSTANDING FRONTS
Air Masses
• An air mass is a defined as a large body of air
with very similar characteristics.
• Generally speaking, air masses are generally

defined by temperature and dewpoints
(moisture parameters.)
• Air masses are named based on the source

region of the air mass itself
Types of Air Masses
• Continental Polar, “cold and dry”
– Originates closer to the Poles over
land-locked regions.
• Continental Tropical, “warm and
dry”
– Originates closer to the Tropics
over land-locked regions.
• Maritime Polar, “cold and damp”
– Originates closer to the Poles over
water.
• Maritime Tropical, “warm and
humid”
– Originates closer to the Tropics
over water.
• Arctic, “very cold”
– Originates in the very cold land-
locked areas
Analyzing Air Masses
• An air mass is most easily identified by
comparing it to other air masses.
• Air masses can be modified with time,
most notably by days of sunshine or lack
thereof.
• Fronts are the dividing line between air
masses so understanding air masses,
means understanding where fronts are
located.
Front: a narrow zone of transition between air masses of
contrasting density, that is, air masses of different temperatures
or different water vapor concentrations or both.
** Named by the airmass that is advancing

• Fronts are actually zones of transition, but sometimes the transition zone,
called a frontal zone, can be quite sharp.
• The type of front depends on both the direction in which the air mass is
moving and the characteristics of the air mass.
• There are four types of fronts that will be described: stationary front, cold
front, warm front, and occluded front.
When 2 different air

masses come together,
interesting things can
happen
What is a Front?
• Definition: A narrow transition zone, or
boundary, between disparate synoptic scale air
masses whose primary discontinuity is density. It
is synoptic scale along the length of the front
but mesoscale across the front itself.
• Commonly associated with ..
– Moisture gradient
– Temperature gradient
– Wind shift
– Pressure Trough
– Convergent boundary
Rules for finding fronts
• Look for:
1. Sharp temperature changes over a relatively short

distance
2. Change in moisture content
3. Rapid shifts in wind direction
4. Pressure changes
5. Clouds and precipitation patterns

• Hadley Cell
• Three-dimensional atmospheric circulation cell located at roughly
0 to 30° North and South of the equator. The Hadley cell consists
of rising air (intertropical convergence zone) at the equator and
descending air (subtropical highs) at 30° North and South. (The
Hadley cell is named for George Hadley, who first proposed its
existence in 1735)
• Ferrel Cell
30 to 60° North and South of the equator.
• Polar Cell
60 to 90° North and South of the equator.
Cold Front
• Marked on a map with a blue line and blue

triangles pointing towards the warm air.
• Slopes of 1/50 to 1/150
• Associated with cumulus & cumulonimbus
clouds ahead of the front in the warm air,
producing showers and thunderstorms.
Cold Front
• Simple 3-D idea:
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7r.html
Cold Front
• An animation:
Warm Front
• Marked on a map by a red line with red semi-

circles pointed towards the cool air (in the
direction the warm air is retreating to.)
• Slope ranges from 1/100 to 1/300.
• Generally associated with stratus type clouds,
overcast skies, fog, and general rain or snow.
Let’s start with the cloud’s appearance.
Clouds can be thick and white, dark and
gray, or thin and nearly transparent (see-
through). They can be round, oval, tall
or flat. They can be large or small.
Warm Front
http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/images/warm-front.gif
Warm Front
• An animation:
Stationary Front
• Marked by alternating blue lines & blue triangles

(pointed in the direction of the warmer air) and red
lines & red semi-circles (pointed in the direction of
the cooler air)
• Usually noted as *quasi*-stationary as it is rarely
ever completely stationary. It tends to meander a bit.
Occluded Front
• Marked by a purple line with alternating

purple triangles and purple semi-circles, all
pointing in the direction of the frontal
movement.
• There are two general types of occlusions,
cool-type and cold-type. Examples to
follow.
Occluded front (occlusion): a narrow zone of transition formed
when a cold front overtakes a warm front.
Occluded Front
• Simple 3-D idea:
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7r.html
Cirrus Cloud
Sun Pillar
Sometimes, when the sun is just below the horizon, aligned ice crystals reflect light from their
crystal faces. We see the cumulative effect of millions of reflections of this sunlight as a sun
pillar.
GEOG 213:
AND CLIMATE

Dr. Clement Kwang
1
SEVERE WEATHER
2
What is severe weather?
• It is defined as any dangerous
meteorological phenomena with the
potential to cause damage, serious
social disruption, or loss of human life.
• Types of severe weather vary

depending on latitude, topography, and
atmospheric conditions.
3
What causes everyday weather
and storms?
• Air Pressure
• Air Masses
4
STORM
• Violent disturbance in atmosphere.
• Storms is caused by sudden change in air

pressure.
5
Thunder
• Rapidly heated air.
• Explosive!!
• Travels slower than lightning.
6
Thunderstorm
• Heavy rain with thunder and
lightning.
• Forms in large cumulonimbus

clouds.
• Forms when warm air is forced

upward at cold front.
• Occurs often in humid afternoons

in spring and summer.
7
Stratus
• Stratus clouds are best described as sheets or
layers (strata) that cover much or all of the sky.
Normally there are no distinct individual cloud
units.
Thunderstorm seen from a Space Shuttle
9
Lightning
• Sudden spark of energy

• May heat air
as much as
30,000 °C
10
Lightning
11
Safety
• Avoid metal (conduction)
• Get into low area away from
trees, poles.
• Get away from water.
• In house avoid using electrical
devices.
12
Facts: thunderstorm and lightning
• About 16 million thunderstorms a year.
• Every minute about 100 bolts of lightning strike

Earth.
• Kills about 70 people/ year.
• 300+ are injures.

13
Tornado
• Rapid, whirling, funnel
shape cloud that reaches
land.
• Over Lake/Ocean is called

waterspout
14
Tornado
15
Basic Cloud Types
Cloud Family and Height Cloud Type
High Clouds –above 6000 m • Cirrus (Ci)
• Cirrostratus (Cs)
• Cirrocumulus (Cc)
Middle Clouds –2000 - 6000 m • Altostratus (As)

• Altocumulus (Ac)
Low Clouds –below 2000 m • Stratus (St)
• Stratocumulus (Sc)
• Nimbostratus (Ns)
Clouds of Vertical Development • Cumulus (Cu)

• Cumulonimbus (Cb)
How do tornadoes form?
• Low, Heavy cumulonimbus clouds.
• In spring and summer; usually in late
afternoon.
• Squall lines form where warm and
cold fronts meet.
17
Tornado safety
“Watch”: tornado is possible
“Warning: tornado has been spotted
Get in basement of well built building
middle of ground floor away from windows
and doors.
Lie under sturdy furniture.
Get out of mobile home and lie flat in
ditch.
18
Hurricane
Tropical storm with winds 119 mph or
greater.
19
Characteristics
Occur between June and November.
Typically 600 km across (300+ miles).
In the Atlantic ocean it is called Hurricane.
 In Pacific/Indian Ocean it is called Typhoon
Brings destruction/ but needed rainfall to S and
SE Asia.
May last 1 week or longer.
20
How does it form?
• Begins over warm water as low pressure
system. Begins as tropical depression
• Grows larger =
Tropical storm Hurricane
• Energy is generated from warm water/humid
air
• Air rises and produces clouds.
• Winds spiral in toward low pressure.
• Center= low pressure and warm .
temperatures.
• Faster winds towards center. 21
How Hurricanes Move?
• Carried by the trade winds towards

Caribbean and SE United States
• Friction on land slows down storm
22
Fog
Fog is defined as a cloud with its base at or very
near the ground. Physically, fog and clouds are the
same in their appearance and structure.
Types of Fog
• Fog is named after cooling mechanism
• Radiation Fog -- forms after a long clear night, when air
cools to dewpoint
– Especially likely over water source (river)
• Advection fog -- Warm air moves over cold surface, cools
to dewpoint
– Common over snow cover when it’s raining
– Very Common in Spring (at higher latitudes)
• Upslope fog -- Air moves uphill, cools adiabatically
• Steam Fog -- find this over a warm lake in Fall -- also
known as mixing fog
Fog Formed by Evaporation
• When saturation occurs mainly due to the
addition of water vapour, the resultant fog is
called evaporation fog.
• Types:
1. Steam Fog
2. Frontal Fog
GEOG 213:
AND CLIMATE
Instructor: Dr. Kwadwo Owusu

Safety Actions (II)
 Move to higher ground away from water.
Do not cross/play in streams/drains.
Do not drive on flooded roads.
Boil water if possible contamination before use,
e.g., for drinking.
28

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GEOG 213:

Instructors: Prof. Kwadwo Owusu

• Nevertheless, there are few other aspects of the

• Weather clearly influences our lives a great deal. Yet it

• Weather is what's happening right now or is

• You can tell how hot it is by taking a

Weather is the day to day changes in the atmosphere.

Wind speed Humidity

Wind direction Cloud cover

Air pressure Sunshine

• For example, on any given day in June,

• However, some atmospheric scientists think that you need

• Thus, climate is the sum of all statistical weather

Weather is defined as the state of the

Climate is defined in terms of the

wind speed humidity

wind direction cloud cover

air pressure sunshine

wind speed humidity

wind direction cloud cover

air pressure sunshine

Click on the buttons to find out about these types of climate.

Click on the buttons to find out about these types of climate.

• For example, if the average temperature over a

• If these changes occur over long periods of time,

• The atmosphere is held to the planet by the force of

• The Earth's primitive atmosphere was much different

 Lithosphere - earth’s crust & portion of mantel;

 Hydrosphere - water in all parts; liquid, solid, & gaseous

 Biosphere - intricate web that connects all organisms with their

The atmosphere decrease in concentration,

• At sea level, an atom or molecule can be expected, on the

• Near sea level, an atom or molecule, on the average,

90% of atmosphere’s mass

90% of atmosphere’s mass

The normal lapse rate is

• If the temperature increases with increasing altitude in

• The top of the troposphere is marked by the

• Since the stratosphere isn't turbulent this is where most

• Ultraviolet light interacting with the ozone causes the

• If the temperature increases with increasing altitude in

• The top of the troposphere is marked by the

• Above the homosphere lies the heterosphere, a

Instructors: Prof. Kwadwo Owusu

• There are several forms of energy,

• Kinetic energy is the energy which a body possesses

• Heat (or thermal) energy is kinetic energy

• Latent heat is the heat energy required to

• Temperature - a measure of • Heat – is the transfer of energy

• There are several forms of energy,

• Kinetic energy is the energy which a body possesses

• Heat (or thermal) energy is kinetic energy

• Latent heat is the heat energy required to

• All types of radiation (electromagnetic radiation)

• Sun emits radiation at many

• Peak energy in visible part of

• Amount of radiation emitted is a

m is a millionth of a meter (a micrometer)

• All types of radiation (electromagnetic radiation)