UNIVERSTY OF IBADAN

CONSULTANCY SERVICES UNIT

SCHOOL OF HYGIENE, KANO

LECTURE NOTE

GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY ISSUES AND HUMAN EFFECTS

(EHB 214)

BY

AHMAD SHAMAKI
(HND Env. Health, PGDE, BSc. Health Edu., MSc Env. Health)

JUNE , 2023
Definition of climatology

Climatology is the scientific study of climate. The Climate of a place can be defined as the
average weather conditions obtained through the building up of weather elements prevailing
there for over a period of 30-35 years. The weather, on the other hand, is defined by the
atmospheric condition of a place or a given location at a particular time. The weather elements
at a particular place and time are sunshine, temperature, pressure, precipitation, humidity,
evaporation, wind conditions etc Thus climatologists seeks the understanding of how the
world’s climate system works, how it varies from time to time and space to space, and any use
that can be made of resources provided by climate. Weather and climate are explained by the
same elements in combination but weather and climate are not the same. The climate pertains
to an area is within a long period of time while weather pertains to a place and at a particular
time. In other words weather is an instantaneous condition of the atmosphere and it keeps
changing all the time but the climate of an area is fairly constant over a period of time.

Weather and Climate

Weather and climate are the two major physical components of the atmosphere that are
closely related. Therefore in order to place the atmosphere within the scale of our
understanding and also to have a better picture of the effects of its dynamic characteristics on
the components of the terrestrial ecosystems, we need to study weather and climate more
closely.

The Weather

Weather is the atmospheric condition of a place or a given location at a particular time or for a
short time and can be described in terms of the various elements such as sunshine,
temperature, pressure, precipitation, fog/visibility, and humidity, evaporation, and wind
conditions. Weather keeps changing all the time and the time-scale of such changes could vary
from minute to minute hour to hour and day to day. Weather deals with specific and changing
event at a given point in time and at a specific location. For instance a period of bright sunshine
can within few minutes change to one of complete cloud cover. Also after a heavy downpour of
rain a bright sunshine may emerge. It is these sorts of changes in the atmosphere we call
weather

The Climate

The word “climate” indicates a broad generalization of weather conditions. The Climate of a
place is therefore the average weather conditions obtained through the synthesis of weather
elements prevailing there for over a period of 30-35 years. Thus climate pertains to an area and
a long period of time of repeated observation of climatic elements in that area. It is important
to note that climate of an area is fairly constant over a period of time and it is the constancy of
the occurrence of a dominant weather element over an area for a long period or time that
characterizes the climate of that area. Thus the nature of climate is indicated by the same
elements used to express weather condition. But from the earlier observation weather and
climate are not identical.

Weather and Climate Compared

Weather and climate are explained by the same element in combination but weather and
climate are not one and the same. Climate of a place can be defined as the average weather
conditions obtained through the synthesis of weather elements prevailing there for over a
period of 30-35 years. The weather, on the other hand, is defined by the atmospheric condition
of a place or a given location at a particular time. Thus climate pertains to an area is determined
over a long period of time while weather pertains is determined for a particular place and at a
specific time or for a short time. Weather keeps changing all the time and the time-scale of such
changes could vary from minute to minute hour to hour and day to day. Generally the time
scale of the variability in weather is considerably shorter than that of climate. The
meteorologist studies weather conditions of the atmosphere by making use of the laws of
classical physics and mathematical techniques. Temperature, rainfall, humidity, sunshine, wind
etc., can be termed as climatic conditions or weather elements.

THE ATMOSPHERE
The term atmosphere refers to the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth The atmosphere
reaches over 550 kilometer from the surface of the earth. The atmosphere is believed to have
developed some millions of years ago and it is still maintaining its present form and
composition as a result of chemical and photochemical processes combined with differential
escape rates from the earth’s gravitational field. Atmosphere composed of a mixture of various
gases, water vapour, and aerosols, the atmosphere is held to the earth by the gravitational
attraction of the earth and it is densest at the sea level and thins rapidly upwards. Generally the
atmosphere is highly oxidized and contains very little hydrogen. The most important
constituents of the air in the earth’s atmosphere are nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere
helps to shield and protect all life forms from the harmful radiation from the sun and its
gaseous content sustains plants and animals life.

Composition of the Atmosphere

Although some of the gases like water vapour and ozone are highly variable, the atmosphere is
well mixed and is constant in composition in the lower layer referred to as the homosphere. At
the higher levels, the Heterosphere, there is little mixing and so, diffusive separation tends to
take place up to about 100km. Generally the composition of the atmosphere changes with the
height above the sea level. Water vapour is limited to 10-12km while at higher levels oxygen
and minor constituents such as carbon dioxide are dissociated by solar ultraviolet radiation.

The non-gaseous constituents are concentrated in the lower layer of the atmosphere.

The non-gaseous constituents are the aerosols such as the particles of dust, smoke, organic
matter, sea salt and the by-products of fire and industry such as carbon, sulphur dioxide, carbon
monoxide and lead. The aerosols are so light that even minor movements in air can sustain
them. Dust, salt, carbon, sulphur, lead and aluminum compounds are the most abundant in the
aerosols.

The Composition of the Atmosphere.

Costituent Chemical formula Volume (%) dry air

Nitrogen N2 78.08
 Oxygen O2 20.95

Argon Ar 0.93

Carbon dioxide CO2 0.03 (highly variable)

Water Vapour H2O Highly variable

Ozone O3 0.02-10ppmv

Neon Ne 18ppmv

Helium He 5ppmv

Hydrogen H2 0.5ppmv

Krypton Kr 1ppmv

Xenon Xe 0.08ppmv

Methane CH4 2ppmv

Nitrous oxide N2O 0.3ppmv

Ammonia NH3 4ppb

Nitrogen dioxide NO2 1ppbv

Sulphur dioxide SO2 1ppbv

Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0.05ppbv

ppmv and ppbv are parts per million and parts per billion by volume

THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS

The climatic elements that be consider here are solar radiation, precipitation, temperature, and
other hydrothermal variables that have direct and indirect influence on the components of the
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem

The Solar Radiation.

Solar radiation is the radiation from the sun. Solar radiation is the primary source of energy in
to the terrestrial ecosystems Solar radiation from the sun is referred to as the incoming
shortwave electromagnetic radiation

Precipitation
Precipitation is the deposition of moisture on the earth surface. Precipitation may occur in the
form of rainfall, Dew, snowfall, hail or sleet. Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation
in the tropical regions. Rainfall occurs when the dew point of the air in which condensation is
taking place is above the freezing point and the water vapour is converted into drops of water.
However, if the dew point of the condensing air is below the freezing point, it leads to
conversion of water vapour into small crystals of ice and the resulting precipitation is in the
form of snowfall. Snow is the major form of precipitation in the temperate region.

Temperature

Temperature is a measure of heat in the body, be it the atmosphere or the earth or some living
being. However, here the term temperature refers to the heat in the lower part of the
atmosphere and on the surface of the earth. It is one of the vital controls of life on earth.
Temperature is the direct result of the energy received by the earth from the sun.

The Wind

Wind is the climatic element that transports heat and moisture into a region. Climatologists are
mostly interested in wind with regards to its direction, speed, and gustiness. Wind is therefore
usually discussed in terms of prevailing direction, average speeds, and maximum gusts. Some
climatological studies use resultant wind, which is the vectorial average of all wind directions
and speeds for a given level, at a specific place, and for a given period.

THE MAJOR EFFECTS OF CLIMATIC FACTORS ON THE BIOTIC COMMUNITY OF THE

ECOSYSTEMS

The major climatic factors that have significant influence on the biotic community of the
ecosystems are:

i. Light
ii. Temperature
iii. Water availability
iv. Wind
v. Soil
 vi. Topography
 The effect of Light on the biotic community of the ecosystem

Light and temperature are influenced by the duration and intensity of solar radiation. The three
major aspect of light that influence the biotic community in the ecosystem are:

 Light intensity or energy content

 Quality or wavelength composition
 Duration of light or day- length otherwise referred to as photoperiod

Light intensity has many effects on biotic communities, including:

 Photosynthesis: Light is essential for photosynthesis, which allows plants to produce

food and support the food chain.
 Plant growth: Plants grow towards sunlight, so light intensity affects their growth.
 Distribution of plants and animals: Light intensity limits photosynthesis, which affects
the distribution of plants and animals in a community. For example, in low light, fungi or
mosses may replace green plants.
 Animal migration: The duration of light affects the migration of many birds.
 Animal physiology: Light intensity affects the physiological state of animals, including
their coloration, growth, reproduction, and migration.
 Water temperature: Light energy affects water temperature.
 Predator-prey relationships: Light energy affects the relationship between predators
and prey. For example, nocturnal rodents decrease food harvesting rates in open areas
and increase foraging under cover in .
 The role of temperature in an ecosystem

Temperature as an environmental factors acts directly and indirectly on the biotic community.
Temperature directly affects the functioning of organisms by controlling their body chemistry. It
also acts indirectly by influencing the status of other environmental factors such as evaporation
which largely determines water availability in terrestrial habitats. Most living organisms
function within a temperature range of between 0 and 500C.
  The effect of water on the biotic community of an ecosystem

Water constitutes the bulk of the living tissues of plants and animals. Most physiological and
biochemical processes occur in an aqueous matrix.

Furthermore water is the medium of life in aquatic ecosystem. In terrestrial ecosystem its
distribution, scarcity or abundance is largely responsible for the dramatic difference in
vegetation. It should be noted that differences in precipitation and solar radiation accounts for
the variations in supply which basically determine the functioning of terrestrial ecosystem.

 The role of wind on the biotic community of an ecosystem

Air in motion is the wind. Strong winds may directly induce physical damage on plants structure
or cause malformation in terrestrial communities.

Wind intensity and direction can have a significant impact on biotic communities in many ways,
including:

 Plant growth: Wind can affect plant growth, reproduction, distribution, and death. For
example, wind can increase the yield of agricultural crops. However, wind can also cause
mechanical deformation of plants through frictional drag.
 Pollination and seed dispersal: Wind is a key factor in pollination and seed dispersal.
 Insect herbivory: Wind can affect insect herbivory.
 Predator-prey interactions: Wind can affect predator-prey interactions. For example,
wind can decrease the flying ability of small-bodied invertebrate aerial predators, such
as mosquitoes and flies. However, wind can also increase the effectiveness of
locomotion and mobility of large-bodied predatory birds.
 Plant-soil interactions: Wind can change the fine-root morphology of plants, which can
influence plant-soil interactions.
 Organism location: Wind can determine where organisms are found. Some organisms
prefer more sheltered locations where plant seeds are more likely to settle and
germinate.
 Effect of light, temperature, water, wind, soil and topography on biotic community of
an ecosystem
 The role of edaphic (i.e. soil) factors on the biotic community of an ecosystem

The edaphic factor habours biotic communities which includes bacteria, fungi and other
organisms that fix atmospheric nitrogen decompose organic matter and incorporate it with
minerals matter. In terrestrial habitat, the soil serves as the medium of plant growth and
provides anchorage for roots, water supply, essential inorganic nutrients, and aeration for the
respiration of roots and decomposer organisms.

 The role of topography or surface relief on the biotic community of an ecosystem

Topography or surface relief tends to modify the climatic factors in the environment and this
can lead to a change in vegetation types. The aspects or slope orientation of a particular habitat
determines the amount of solar radiation received at the surface. Slopes directly facing the sun
are warmer and more productive than those under shade conditions. This explains the contrast
between the vegetation along the slopes of a contrasting aspect.

GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGICAL ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

The impacts of climate change on different sectors of society are interrelate. For instance;

 Drought can harm food production and human health.

 Flooding can lead to disease spread and damages to ecosystems and infrastructure.
 Global Warming can lead to drought, flooding, outbreak of communicable diseases,
Heat related stroke, Etc.

Climate change impacts are seen throughout every aspect of the world we live in. However,
climate change impacts are uneven across the country and the world, even within a single
community, climate change impacts can differ between neighborhoods or individuals. Long-
standing socioeconomic inequities can make underserved groups, who often have the highest
exposure to hazards and the fewest resources to respond, more vulnerable.

Below are some of global Climatological issues and problems to be discuss under this course;
 i. Climate change
ii. Air pollution
iii. Greenhouse gas and effect
iv. Solar energy utilisation system
v. Ozone layer depletion
vi. Generally modified foods
vii. Biotechnology and biodiversity
viii. Global warming
ix. Acid rain
x. Flooding

GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

Definition

Genetically modified foods (GM foods), also known as genetically engineered foods (GE foods),
or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced
into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow
for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to
previous methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

Genes encoded for desired features, for instance an improved nutrient level, pesticide
resistances, and the possession of therapeutic substances, are often extracted and transferred
to the target organisms, providing them with superior survival and production capacity.

THE PROCESS OF CREATING GMO/GMF

Creating genetically modified food is a multi-step process.

The first step is to identify a useful gene from another organism that you would like to add. The
gene can be taken from a cell or artificially synthesised, and then combined with other genetic
elements, including a promoter and terminator

regents and a selectable marker.

The second step, the genetic elements are inserted into the targets genome. DNA is generally
inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the
cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. In plants
the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated recombination, biolistics
or electroporation. As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must
be regenerated from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture. In
animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells.

The third step, (testing step) Further testing using polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Southern
hybridization, and DNA sequencing is conducted to confirm that an organism contains the new
gene.

BENEFITS OF GM FOODS

Genetically modified foods are usually edited to have some desired characteristics, including
certain benefits for surviving extreme environments, an enhanced level of nutrition, the access
of therapeutic substances, and the resistance genes to pesticide and herbicides. These
characteristics could be beneficial to humans and the environment in certain ways.

 Prepare for extreme weather

Plants that have undergone genetic modification are capable of surviving extreme
weather. Genetically modified (GM) food crops can be cultivated in locations with unfavorable
climatic conditions on occasion. The quality and yield of genetically modified foods are often
improved. These foods tend to grow more quickly than conventionally cultivated ones.
Furthermore, the application of genetically modified food could be beneficial in resisting
drought and poor soil.

 Nutritional enhancement

Increased levels of specific nutrients in food crops can be achieved by genetic engineering. The
study of this technique, sometimes known as nutritional improvement, is already well
advanced. Foods are well monitored to gain specific qualities that became practical, for
example, concentrated nutraceutical levels and health-promoting chemicals, making them a
desirable component of a varied diet. Among the notable breakthroughs of genetic
modification is Golden Rice, whose genome is altered by the injection of the vitamin A gene
from a daffodil plant conditioning provitamin A production. This increases the activity of
phytoene synthase, which therefore synthesizes a higher amount of beta-carotene, followed by
modification and improvement of the level of iron and bioavailability. This affects the rice’s
color and vitamin content, which is beneficial in places where vitamin A shortage is common. In
addition, increased mineral, vitamin A, and protein content has played a critical role in
preventing childhood blindness and iron deficiency anemia.

Lipid composition could also be manipulated to produce desirable traits and essential nutrients.
Scientific evidence has shown that inadequate consumption of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acids is generally associated with the development of chronic diseases and developmental
aberrations. Alimentary lipids can be modified to gain an increased saturated fatty acid
together with a decreased polysaturated fatty acid component. Genes coded for the synthesis
of unsaturated fatty acids are therefore introduced into plant cells, increasing the synthesis of
polyunsaturated omega-3 acids. This omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid is responsible to
lower the level of LDL cholesterol and triglyceride level as well as the incidence rate of
cardiovascular diseases.

 Production of therapeutic substances

The genetically modified organisms, including potato, tomato, and spinach are applied in the
production of substances that stimulate the immune system to respond to specific
pathogens. With the help of recombinant DNA techniques, the genes encoded for viral or
bacterial antigens could be genetically transcribed and translated into plant cells. Antibodies
are often produced in response to the introduction of antigens, in which the pathological
microflora obtains the immune response towards specific antigens. The transgenic organisms
are usually applied to use as oral vaccines, which allows the active substances to enter the
human digestive system, targeting the alimentary tract in which stimulate a mucosal immune
response. This technique has been widely used in vaccine production including rice, maize, and
soybeans. Additionally, transgenic plants are widely used as bioreactors in the production of
pharmaceutical proteins and peptides, including vaccines, hormones, human serum albumin
(HSA), etc. The suitability of transgenic plants can helps meet the demand for the rapid growth
of therapeutic antibodies. All this has given new impetus to the development of medicine.

HEALTH AND SAFETY OF GM FOODS

There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no
greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested
on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less
likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods
varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them
with widely differing degrees of regulation.

Opponents claim that long-term health risks have not been adequately assessed and propose
various combinations of additional testing, labeling or removal from the market.

There are no certifications for foods that have been verified to both be genetically modified – in
particular in a way that is ensured to be well-understood, safe and environmentally friendly – as
well as otherwise organic (i.e. produced without the use of chemical pesticides) in the U.S. and
possibly the world, giving consumers the binary choice of either genetically modified food or
organic food.

The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or
restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of
regulation. Countries such as the United States, Canada, Lebanon and Egypt use substantial
equivalence to determine if further testing is required, while many countries such as those in
the European Union, Brazil and China only authorize GMO cultivation on a case-by-case basis. In
the U.S. the FDA determined that GMO's are "Generally Recognized as Safe" (GRAS) and
therefore do not require additional testing if the GMO product is substantially equivalent to the
non-modified product. If new substances are found, further testing may be required to satisfy
concerns over potential toxicity, allergenicity, possible gene transfer to humans or genetic
outcrossing to other organisms.
Some studies purporting to show harm have been discredited, in some cases leading to
academic condemnation against the researchers such as the Pusztai affair and the Séralini
affair.

CONTROVERSIES AGAINST GM FOODS

The genetically modified foods controversy consists of a set of disputes over the use of food
made from genetically modified crops. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology
companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, environmental and
political activists and scientists. The major disagreements include whether GM foods can be
safely consumed, harm the human body and the environment and/or are adequately tested
and regulated. The objectivity of scientific research and publications has been
challenged. Farming-related disputes include the use and impact of pesticides, seed production
and use, side effects on non-GMO crops/farms, and potential control of the GM food supply by
seed companies.

The conflicts have continued since GM foods were invented. They have occupied the media, the
courts, local, regional, national governments, and international organizations.

"GMO-free" labelling schemes are causing controversies in farming community due to lack of
clear definition, inconsistency of their application and are described as "deceptive".

 Allergenicity

New allergies could be introduced inadvertently, according to scientists, community groups,

and members of the public concerned about the genetic variation of foods. An example
involves the methionine rich soybean production. Methionine is an amino acid obtained by
synthesizing substances derived from Brazil nuts, which could be an allergen. A gene from the
Brazil nut was inserted into soybeans during laboratory trials. Because it was discovered that
those who were allergic to Brazil nuts could also be allergic to genetically modified soybeans,
the experiment was stopped. In vitro assays such as RAST or serum from people allergic to the
original crop could be applied to testify the allergenicity of GM goods with known source of the
gene. This was established in GM soybeans that expressed Brazil nut 2S proteins and GM
potatoes that expressed cod protein genes. The expression and synthesis of new proteins that
were previously unavailable in parental cells were achieved by gene transfer from the cells of
one organism to the nuclei of another organism. The potential risks of allergy that may develop
with the intake of transgenic food come from the amino acid sequence in protein
formation. However, there have been no reports of allergic reactions to currently approved GM
foods for human consumption, and experiments showed no measurable difference in
allergenicity between GM and non-GM soybeans.

 Resistance genes

Scientists suggest that consumers should also pay attention to the health issues associated with
the utilizations of pesticide-resistant and herbicide-resistant plants. The ‘Bt’ genes cause insect
resistance in today's GM crops; however, other methods to confer insect resistance are in the
works. The Bt genes are usually obtained from the soil bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, and they
can generate a protein that breaks down in the insect’s gut, releasing a toxin called delta-
endotoxin, which causes paralysis and death. Concerns about resistance and off-target effects
of crops expressing Bt toxins, consequences of transgenic herbicide-tolerant plants caused by
the use of herbicide, and the transfer of gene expression from GM crops via vertical and
horizontal gene transfer are all related to the expression of transgenic material.

 Environmental Impacts

Another concern raised by ecologists is the possible spread of the pest-resistant genes to
wildlife. This is an example of gene pollution, which is often associated with a decrease in
biodiversity, proliferation resistant weeds, and the formation of new pests and pathogens.

Studies have proven that herbicide resistant pollen from transgenic rapeseed could spread up
to 3 km, while the average gene spread of transgenic crops is 2 km and even reach to maximum
21 kilometers. The high aggressiveness of these GM crops could cause certain disasters by
competing with traditional crops for water, light, and nutrients. Crossbreeding of spreading
pollens with the surrounding organisms has led to the introduction of the modified resistant
genes. An international database that demonstrated genetic contaminations with undesired
seeds has been a major problem due to the expansion of field trials and commercially viable
cultivation of GM crops around the world. Even a decrease in the number of one pest under the
impact of a pest-resistant weed could increase the population of other pests that compete with
it. Beneficial insects, so named because they prey on crop pests, were also exposed to
dangerous doses of Bt.

 Other Concerns

The introduction of GM crops in place of more locally adapted varieties could lead to long-term
negative effects on the entire agricultural system. Much of the concern with GM technology
involves encoding genes that increase or decrease biochemicals. Alternatively, the newly
programmed enzyme might result in the consumption of the substrate, forming and
accumulating the products. Also, it might lead to the conversion of metabolites between
secondary biochemical pathways, resulting in metabolic disorders are disrupted in
unpredictable ways and an increase in toxin concentrations. Toxin evaluation is usually done in
animals, but differences between animals make it difficult to assess the effects on humans
according to GM food effect of the ingestion of GM foods in animals. Insertional mutagenesis is
associated with a series of consequences; for example, mutations occur when existing genes of
the host plant are rewritten, and endogenous genes are inactivated.

In terms of socioeconomics, GM crops are usually dependent on high levels of external

products, for example, pesticides and herbicides, which limit GM crops to high-input
agriculture. This, coupled with the widespread patents held on GM crops, limited farmers’
trading rights over the harvested seeds without paying royalties. Other arguments against GM
crops hold by some opponents are based on the high costs of isolating and distributing GM
crops over non-GM crops.

Consumers could be categorized based on their attitudes regarding genetically modified

foods. The ‘attitudinal’ sector of US consumers could be explained in part by cognitive
characteristics that are not always observable. Individual characteristics and values, for
example, can play a role in shaping consumer acceptance of biotechnology. The concept of
transplanting animal DNA into plants is unsettling for many people. Studies has shown that
consumer’s attitudes towards GM technology is positively correlated to their knowledge about
it. It was found that elevated genetically modification acceptance usually partnered with a high
education level, whereas high levels of perceived risks are associated with the opposite. People
tend to worry about unpredictable dangers due to the lack of sufficient knowledge to predict or
avoid negative impacts.

Another crucial link of the change in consumer attitudes towards genetically modified foods has
been shown to be closely related to their interaction with socioeconomic and demographic
characteristics, for example, age, ethnicity, residence, and level of consumption. Opposition to
genetically modified foods could also include religious and cultural groups, because the nature
of GM foods goes against what they believe are natural products.. On the one hand, it was
found that consumers in most European countries, especially in northern Europe, the UK and
Germany, believe that the benefits of GM foods do not outweigh the potential risks. On the
other hand, consumers in the United States and other European countries generally hold to
view that the risks of GM foods could be far less than the benefits it brought. GM foods are
then expected to be supported by more appropriate policies and clearer regulations.

OZONE LAYEE DEPLETION

What is an Ozone Layer?

The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s atmosphere. It has the
potential to absorb around 97-99% of the harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun
that can damage life on earth. If the ozone layer was absent, millions of people would develop
skin diseases and may have weakened immune systems.

However, scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This has focused
their concern on various environmental issues and steps to control them. The main reasons for
the ozone hole are chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons.

What is Ozone Layer Depletion?

Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper atmosphere. This
happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the atmosphere come in contact with ozone
and destroy the ozone molecules. One chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is
destroyed more quickly than it is created.

Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure to high ultraviolet light, which
then contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such compounds are known as Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODS).

The ozone-depleting substances that contain chlorine include chlorofluorocarbon, carbon

tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and methyl chloroform. Whereas, the ozone-
depleting substances that contain bromine are halons, methyl bromide, and hydro
bromofluorocarbons.

Chlorofluorocarbons are the most abundant ozone-depleting substance. It is only when the
chlorine atom reacts with some other molecule, it does not react with ozone.

Montreal Protocol was proposed in 1987 to stop the use, production and import of ozone-
depleting substances and minimise their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the ozone
layer of the earth.

CAUSES OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors. The main
causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are listed below:

 Chlorofluorocarbons

Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion. These are released by
solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken down by ultraviolet

radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react with ozone and destroy it.

 Unregulated Rocket Launches

Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much more depletion of the
ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone
layer by the year 2050.

 Nitrogenous Compounds

The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for the depletion of
the ozone layer.

 Natural Causes

The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-spots
and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-2% of the ozone layer depletion.

The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.

OZONE DEPLETING SUBSTANCES (ODS)

“Ozone-depleting substances are the substances such as chlorofluorocarbons, halons, carbon

tetrachloride, hydrofluorocarbons, etc. that are responsible for the depletion of the ozone
layer.”

In the table below is the list of some main ozone-depleting substances and the sources from
where they are released:

Ozone-Depleting Sources
Substances

Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerators, air-

(CFCs) conditioners,
solvents, dry-
cleaning agents,
etc.

Halons Fire-extinguishers
 Carbon tetrachloride Fire extinguishers,
solvents

Methyl chloroform Adhesives, aerosols

Hydrofluorocarbons fire
extinguishers, air-
conditioners,
solvents

EFFECTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The depletion of the ozone layer has harmful effects on the environment. Let us see the major
effects of ozone layer depletion on man and environment.

 Effects on Human Health

Humans will be directly exposed to the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to the
depletion of the ozone layer. This might result in serious health issues among humans, such as
skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing and weak immune system.

 Effects on Animals

Direct exposure to ultraviolet radiations leads to skin and eye cancer in animals.

 Effects on the Environment

Strong ultraviolet rays may lead to minimal growth, flowering and photosynthesis in plants. The
forests also have to bear the harmful effects of the ultraviolet rays.

 Effects on Marine Life

Planktons are greatly affected by the exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays. These are higher in
the aquatic food chain. If the planktons are destroyed, the organisms present in the food chain
are also affected.

SOLUTIONS TO OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programmes have been launched
by the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps should be taken at the
individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.

Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:

 Avoid Using ODS

Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and air
conditioners, replacing the halons based fire extinguishers, etc.

 Minimise the Use of Vehicles

The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse gases that lead to global warming as well as
ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.

 Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products

Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and bromine releasing chemicals that find a way
into the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer. These should be substituted with natural
products to protect the environment.

 Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited

The government should take actions and prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is
adversely affecting the ozone layer. People should be made aware of the harmful effects of
nitrous oxide and the products emitting the gas so that its use is minimised at the individual
level as well.

SOLAR ENERGY UTILISATION SYSTEMS

A solar energy utilization system, also known as a photovoltaic (PV) system, uses solar energy to
generate electricity or heat and cool buildings:

There three types of solar energy utilisation as;

 Photovoltaic systems: These systems use solar panels made of photovoltaic cells to
directly convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity can be used to power devices or
stored in batteries.

 Solar hot-water heaters: These systems use flat-plate collectors to heat water for use in
a building. The collectors are made of a blackened metal plate covered with glass, which
is heated by sunlight. The heat is then transferred to water that flows past the back of
the plate.

 Building heating and cooling: These systems use solar energy to heat or cool the
interior of a building.
Solar energy utilization has many advantages, including:

 Abundance: Solar energy is abundant and conveniently available.

 Sustainability: Solar energy is pollution-free and sustainable.

Solar energy has many positive effects on climate change, including:
i. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: Solar energy doesn’t emit direct
greenhouse gases, unlike fossil fuels. It can help slow global warming by
replacing fossil fuels.
ii. Improving air quality: Solar energy reduces air pollution.
iii. Conserving water: Solar power doesn’t use water like traditional power
generation methods, which can help with droughts.
iv. Being renewable: Solar energy is a carbon-free, renewable resource.
v. Preserving habitats: Combining solar power with other land uses can help
preserve habitats.
vi. Mitigating climate change: Solar energy can replace about 80% of the energy
needed to heat homes and water.
However, solar energy also has some disadvantages including: low energy density,
intermittency, and cost.

Among the nagative effect of solar energy utilisation on environment and biotic community are;

i. Hazardous materials

Solar technology contains hazardous materials that are similar to those found in
electronics. As solar energy becomes more popular, the challenge of disposing of this
waste will increase.

ii. Land, water, and pollution

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems can have negative environmental impacts on land,
water, and pollution.

iii. Noise and visual

PV systems can also have negative visual and noise impacts.

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