Gale Austria, Janine Dizon, Justine Sia May 29, 2021

Bio 116 Lec 2

Slide Captions

Part 1

Slide 2

Arthropod legs can be uniramous or divided

(“biramous”) which means that two distal leg
branches (“rami”) originate from the same
proximal leg base. The legs are separated
into pieces by joints where muscles insert on
either side. Leg segments can have
subdivisions inside them where no muscle
attaches, i.e. muscles pass through without
inserting. The subdivisions in the tarsus of
insects, arachnids, and myriapods function as
sites of flexion, however subdivisions lacking
muscle insertions do not represent real
segments. Coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia,
tarsus, and pretarsus are the components of
a prototypical arthropoda leg, in order from
most proximal to most distal.

The proximal section and functional basis of

the leg is the coxa. It articulates with the
pleuron and related sclerites of the thoracic
segment, as well as the border of the sternite
in certain species. Although the trochanter
articulates with the coxa, it is normally
securely linked to the femur. The femur is the
biggest part of the leg in most insects.
Because the normal leaping mechanism is to
straighten the joint between the femur and
the tibia, and the femur possesses the
requisite enormous bipennate muscle, it is
notably noticeable in many insects with
saltatorial legs.

The tibia is the fourth and last portion of an

insect's leg. In general, an insect's tibia is
short in comparison to its femur, although it is
at least as long, if not longer, than the femur.
There are usually two or more tibial spurs
toward the distal end. The tarsi of most
contemporary insects are split into five
subsegments (tarsomeres).
The pretarsus is the distal portion of a typical
insect leg. The pretarsus is a single claw in
Collembola, Protura, and many insect larvae.
Most insects have a pair of unguis, plural
ungues, claws on their pretarsus. The
pretarsus is supported by a median
unguitractor plate that runs between the
ungues. The plate is secured to the apodeme
of the ungues' flexor muscle.

https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.01.20.427514

https://kids.kiddle.co/Arthropod_leg

Slide 3

The arthropod body has metamerism, which

means it is made up of similar segments. A
pair of appendages are attached to each
segment. Metamerism results in the
specialization of bodily areas for certain
purposes. Tagmatization is the term for the
regional specialty. Tagmata are the body
regions of arthropods. Feeding and sensory
perception, movement, and visceral functions
are all specialized Tagmata functions.

https://biologyboom.com/metamerism-and-ta
gmatization/

Slide 4

Arthropods' distinctive, nonliving, organic,

jointed exoskeleton Serves as support as well
as protection and, in conjunction with the
muscular system, contributes to effective
movement. The epicuticle, a thin outer protein
layer, and the procuticle, a thick inner
chitin–protein layer, make up the exoskeleton.

The epicuticle of most terrestrial arthropods

includes waxes that help to reduce
evaporative water loss. An exterior exocuticle
and an interior endocuticle make up the
procuticle. Cross-bonding of the
chitin–protein chains in the exocuticle offers
extra strength to the skeletal material. The
thickness and degree of tanning of the
exocuticle are connected to the hardness of
various portions of the exoskeleton in
arthropods. Additional stiffness is generated
in crustaceans by impregnating the
exoskeleton with various quantities of calcium
carbonate.

Molting, or ecdysis, the periodic shedding of

the old exoskeleton, addresses the problem
of growth in arthropods. The underlying cells
secrete enzymes that break down the old
exoskeleton's base before secreting a new
exoskeleton underneath it.

https://www.britannica.com/animal/arthropod/
Form-and-function

Slide 5

The arthropod epidermis rests on a

foundation membrane and secretes a strong
cuticle, the majority of which is made up of
chitin fibers embedded in a protein matrix. An
epicuticle is located on the periphery of this.
Chitin is a polysaccharide with amino groups
that has a high molecular weight. Sugars and
amino sugars are used to make it in the
epidermis. Chitin creates a strong yet flexible
cuticle in the integument of caterpillars.
However, in most arthropods, body or limb
segments have solid plates that form a real
exoskeleton and are joined to neighboring
segments by flexible membranes.

Sclerotization is the molecular stability of the

cuticle protein chains by the formation of
cross-links. Sclerotin is a kind of natural
plastic produced through sclerotinization. To
avoid these little animals from drying out, the
cuticle of terrestrial arthropods must behave
as a waterproof coating. A coating of wax is
secreted on the cuticle's surface, which
provides waterproofing.

The sarcomeres of all arthropod muscles

appear to be striated, not obliquely striated or
smooth, and the lengths of the sarcomeres
vary. The frequency of action potentials in the
axons, which is an extension of the nerve cell
that transports nerve impulses out from the
cell body, is used to control the force exerted
by the muscle.

https://www.britannica.com/science/integume
nt/Arthropods

Slide 7

The cuticle of arthropods is a living structure

that is perforated by ducts of dermal glands
that discharge fluids onto the surface. It may
make tactile bristles, pigment-bearing scales,
claws, wings, and other structures, among
other things.

The Condyle is a large prominence that often

acts as a structural support for the hyaline
cartilage beneath it. It is the part of the joint
that takes the brunt of the force. The articular
membrane is a flexible region of the cuticle
that serves as a joint between sclerotized
areas of an arthropod's exoskeleton.

https://www.britannica.com/science/integume
nt/Arthropods

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5132
59/

https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/ar
ticular+membrane#:

Slide 8

Molting is the process of the old cuticle being

shed periodically after a new, larger cuticle
has been laid down beneath it. Molting in
insects is regulated by hormones. Ecdysone
is a molting hormone produced primarily by
the thoracic glands, and its secretion is
influenced by a prothoracicotropic or
ecdysiotropic hormone produced by certain
brain cells.

The insect stops feeding and becomes

practically inactive as it prepares to molt. The
apolysis, or separation of the old cuticle from
the epidermis, and the secretion of a molting
fluid by certain epidermal cells and dermal
glands, is the first molting step. During the
molting process, the molting fluid fills the
space between the old and new cuticles.
The epidermis begins a cycle of mitosis and
cell divisions as apolysis begins, eventually
forming the epicuticle's cuticulin layer. This
cuticulin layer is made up of lipoproteins that
combine with other proteins to sclerotize the
ensemble. The epicuticle develops resistance
to chemical and enzymatic attacks in this
way.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/B9780128130209000090

Slide 9

Continuing, the old cuticle has essentially

been discarded, while not being shed,
because it is no longer physically linked to the
epidermis, and the freshly created cuticle now
represents the cuticle of the next instar (1).
As a result, even if ecdysis has not yet
happened and the insect seems to still be in
the skin of the previous instar, apolysis is
believed to signal the transition to the next
instar.

Ecdysis occurs when the old exoskeleton

breaks along predefined lines, resulting in the
actual shedding of the old exoskeleton.
Existing cuticle weakens at key locations, and
the animal separates its old exoskeleton by
ingesting water or air. The animal then pulls
itself away from the old skin and inflates its
new one. The animal may move again once
the new exoskeleton has dried and solidified.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/B9780123694935500031

https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/ter
ms/ecdysis/
Slide 10

Arthropods have an open circulatory system

with a dorsal heart and a network of arteries
that can be small as in insects, or large as in
spider and in crabs). Blood is delivered into
tissue gaps or hemocoels, where it finally
drains back into a huge pericardial sinus that
surrounds the heart.When the valves are
open, a varied number of paired openings or
ostia are situated throughout the length of the
heart where blood can flow in. When the
heart contracts, closed valves prevent blood
from returning to the heart and drive it into the
tissues' arteries, where it flows to neighboring
hemocoels.

The blood then flows via the gills of bigger

crustaceans, where it is oxygenated before
returning to the heart. The blue,
oxygen-carrying pigment hemocyanin is
found in the blood of big arachnids and
crustaceans. Because the tracheal system
provides oxygen directly to the tissues,
insects lack a respiratory pigment.

https://www.britannica.com/animal/arthropod/
Digestive-system-and-feeding

Slide 11

Arthropods have a dorsal blood artery and

enormous bodily chambers called hemocoels
that make up their open circulatory system. In
arthropods, these blood-filled areas are the
principal body cavities. These veins drain into
the hemocoels, where blood must disperse to
reach all of the body's tissues.

https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-adv
anced-concepts/section/15.30/
Slide 12

The blood in an open circulatory system is

pushed into a cavity called a hemocoel, which
is termed hemolymph because the blood
mixes with the interstitial fluid. The
hemolymph circulates through the organs
within the body cavity when the heart beats
and the animal moves, and then reenters the
hearts through openings called ostia.

This mobility enables for the exchange of

gases and nutrients. An open circulatory
system consumes less energy to run and
maintain than a closed system; nevertheless,
the volume of blood that can be delivered to
metabolically active organs and tissues that
demand high amounts of oxygen suffers as a
result.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ivytech-bio
1-1/chapter/overview-of-the-circulatory-syste
m/

Slide 13

Due to the lack of veins in open circulatory

systems, hemolymph is returned to the heart
via a succession of efferent sinuses that
eventually merge with the massive mid-dorsal
pericardial sinus. When the heart relaxes,
blood from the pericardial sinus is sucked into
the heart through three pairs of ostia.
Hemocyanin is the main blood pigment that
transports oxygen in decapods. Decapods'
open circulatory systems have little capacity
to redirect hemolymph from one section of
the body to another, and hemolymph
circulation is considerably aided by the
animal's muscular motions during locomotion.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/B9780123850263000322
Slide 14

An arthropod's nervous system is made up of

neurons, which are specialized cells. The
brain, which is located in the head at the
anterior end, and the ventral nerve cord,
which spans from the head to the caudal end,
the abdomen, make up the central nervous
system of arthropods.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.063

Slide 15

The insect nervous system is made up of a

brain made up of three pairs of anterior
ganglia (groups of neurons), a ventral cord
that includes the subesophageal ganglion
made up of three pairs of ganglia, and pairs
of thoracic and abdominal ganglia for each
segment linked together by connective cords
that run the length of the body.

The ganglia supply innervation to the various

segments. In insects, the ICS has a
hierarchical structure. Neurohormones
secreted by the brain and the subesophageal
ganglion activate specific endocrine glands
such as the prothoracic gland and the
corpora allata to release ecdysone and JH,
respectively. Insects' growth, development,
and reproduction are thus controlled by the
CNS.

Cabej, Nelson R. (2013). Building the Most

Complex Structure on Earth || Rise of the
Animal Kingdom and Epigenetic Mechanisms
of Evolution. , (), 239–298.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-401667-5.00005-5
Slide 16

The exoskeleton barrier has some

specialization in the sense organs (sensilla)
on the body surface. Cuticular hairs (setae),
peglike projections, cones, pits, or slits, which
can be seen in huge numbers on antennae,
mouthparts, joints, and leg tips, are where
sensory nerve ends are lodged. Nerve
endings are stimulated by changes in the
tension of the surrounding cuticle.

Small movements in the cuticular membrane

are caused by tension changes in the
exoskeleton, which excite the receptors. Slits
of varied lengths can be joined together,
much like harp strings. Arthropods use their
slit sense organs to detect web vibrations
caused by trapped insects, and scorpions use
them to detect ground vibrations caused by
approaching prey. Chemoreceptive sensilla
have pores in the cuticle that allow chemical
compounds to pass through.

Although most arthropods have eyes, they

are mostly used to detect the intensity of light
and the direction of the light source. The
capacity to identify things has been severely
hampered.

https://www.britannica.com/animal/arthropod/
Nervous-system-and-organs-of-sensation

Slide 17

There are several digestive system

characteristics that all arthropods share as a
phylum. In some aspects, its digestive system
resembles that of humans, with a foregut
(pharynx and esophagus leading to stomach),
midgut (stomach), and hindgut (colon, anus).
A chitin-like substance lines the foregut and
hindgut, which is the same substance that
makes up the exoskeleton.

The anatomy of the digestive tract changes

substantially depending on the animal's food
and feeding method. The midgut, on the other
hand, is the primary location of enzyme
synthesis and processed food absorption.
The enzymes may travel through the anterior
section of the intestine and even outside the
prey's body.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/phylum-art
hropod-digestive-system.html

https://www.britannica.com/animal/arthropod/
Digestive-system-and-feeding

Slide 18

The majority of arthropods are unisexual. All

classes, with the exception of Arachnida,
have a large number of hermaphrodites. The
reproductive gland or gonad opens into each
reproductive duct, which is a modified
coelomoduct. The reproductive organ's
position, as well as the locations of
reproductive openings, differs.

The majority of arthropods are oviparous, and

the majority of them have internal fertilization
systems. Some kinds of viviparity can be
discovered, however full vivipary is only seen
in Onychophores.

https://www.biologydiscussion.com/invertebra
te-zoology/arthropods/arthropods-body-cavity
-digestive-system-and-life-history/33562

Slide 19

Trilobites are organisms that belong to the

group Trilobitomorpha that used to
abundantly inhabit the Earth during the
Cambrian and Ordovician Period before their
extinction during the Paleozoic era. Trilobites
had a flattened oval body divided into three
parts: a head­shield (cephalon) with a pair of
antennae, compound eyes, and biramous
appendages; a trunk (thorax) with paired
biramous limbs; and a terminal segment
(pygidium). The majority of known species
were one mm to ten centimetres long, with
some giants reaching 76 centimetres. The
name trilobite refers to the three longitudinal
lobes of the creature.

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/37012832.pdf
Slide 20

The anterior digestive system occupies the

glabella (pink), which is located in the axial
region of the cephalon. The pleural lobes on
each side of the glabella are known as the
cheeks (genae,purple). When trilobites molt
or die, the librigenae (or "free cheeks") split
along the facial sutures, leaving just the
cranidium (or "fixed cheeks") behind.

https://www.trilobites.info/cephalon.htm

Slide 21

The cephalon is a head shield made up of

fused segments that houses a trilobite's
principal sensory organs (eyes, antennae), as
well as the mouth and a ventral plate called
the hypostome. A trilobite's initial three or four
pairs of legs are also attached to the
cephalon, which is located behind the
antennae, with a pair of legs attached to each
of the primary glabellar lobes

https://www.trilobites.info/cephalon.htm

Slide 22

Arthropods have segmented bodies and

segmented limbs in common[1]. A
cephalothorax, which houses the head, limbs,
and thoracic organs, and an abdomen make
up the Chelicerata body. As in the case of
mites, the segmentation may be concealed
by the merging of body segments.
Chelicerates do not have antennae, but their
oral palpi are extended and provide a sensory
role comparable to that of antennae.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/B9780123850249000162
Slide 23

The chilaria are a pair of appendages in the

prosoma that are morphologically linked to
the first pair of opisthosomal appendages.
These appendages, assumed to be remnants
of the first opisthosomal segment's legs,
operate as a barrier to prevent food from
escaping behind the final pair of moving legs.

https://allyouneedisbiology.wordpress.com/ta
g/chilaria/

Slide 24

Males cling onto the backs of females during

mating seasons, holding them with their
primitive first pair of pincers. Females travel
to the coast with a male on their backs in
search of a suitable location to bury the eggs.
Females often deposit between 200 and 300
unfertilized eggs. Finally, men use external
fertilization to coat the eggs with sperm.

https://allyouneedisbiology.wordpress.com/ta
g/chilaria/

Slide 25

Arachnids belong to a wide and diversified

class of invertebrates that have two body
regions: a cephalothorax and an abdomen.
They have six appendages in total: four pairs
of legs and two pairs of mouthpart
appendages. Chelicerae are the first of them.
Pedipalps are the second set of mouthpart
appendages.

Within the arachnida, most authorities

acknowledge 11 orders. The tagmatization of
arachnids varies, but most orders have a
cephalothorax with a single tagma for
mouthparts, sensory organs, and walking
legs, and an abdomen (opisthosoma) with
digestive and reproductive organs that may or
may not be segmented.
https://entomology.unl.edu/class-arachnida

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/B9780123850263000255

Slide 26

The Order Aranae is distinguished by four

pairs of legs and a cephalothorax and
abdomen that are normally unsegmented and
connected by a slender pedicel. Some
spiders belonging to this order have
pedipalps that resemble legs. On the
cephalothorax, most spiders have eight basic
eyes (ocelli).

https://entomology.unl.edu/class-arachnida

Slide 27

The spider's body is split into two parts: an

anterior (prosoma) and a posterior
(opisthosoma), which are joined by a slender
stalk (pedicel). Chelicerae, pedipalps, and
four legs make up the prosoma's extremities,
from front to back.

The gnathocoxae border the mouth opening

laterally, the typically soft skinned labrum
anteriorly, and the sclerotised labium
posteriorly. The prosoma's lateral portions are
soft (and hence not or very minimally
sclerotized), whilst the dorsal cover
(carapace, tergum) and ventral plate
(sternum) are sclerotized. The eyes are
located on the prosoma's head.

One pair of poison glands, the brain (nervous

system), esophagus and sucking stomach, as
well as the endosternite and muscles, are the
most significant organs in the prosoma. The
epigastric furrow with the vaginal entrance
and the spiracles is found on the anterior
section of the ventral side of the
opisthosoma, and there are generally three
pairs of spinnerets on the posterior side.

The tube-shaped heart, the respiratory

organs (book lung, tracheae), and the
spinning glands are all found within the
opisthosoma. The testes or ovaries, as well
as the heavily segmented midgut and
hindgut, are located within the opisthosoma.
The spider's hairs serve as sensory organs
that respond to mechanical and chemical
stimuli.

https://araneae.nmbe.ch/glossary

Slide 28

Any of the roughly 1,500 elongated spider

species with a segmented curving tail topped
with a deadly stinger at the back of the body
and a pair of grabbing pincers at the front are
known as scorpions who belong to the Order
Scorpiones or Scorpionida. While scorpions
are most widespread and diverse in deserts,
they may also be found in a variety of other
environments.

Scorpions have two enormous pedipalps that

come to a point at the end of the chela (hand
or "pincer"). Except for pseudoscorpions, who
lack a metasoma, they are notable for their
long five-segmented metasoma (tail) with an
extra telson bearing the stinger/aculeus.

Seven parts make up the pedipalps and legs

(from the body outward: coxa, trochanter,
femur, patella, tibia, basitarsus, and tarsus).
The tarsal claws at the end of the legs are
used to hold surfaces during walking. The
dorsal carapace, which covers the prosoma,
has one central pair of eyes and zero to five
lateral pairs.

https://www.britannica.com/animal/scorpion
https://bugguide.net/node/view/2441
Slide 29

The mesosoma is divided into seven parts.

The sternum is carried by the first (pregenital)
segment, whereas the ventral gonopore is
covered by the second (genital) segment.
The genital segment produces the distinctive
comblike pectines. On the ventral side of
mesosomal segments three through six, there
are two book lungs. The “body” comes to an
end with the seventh mesosomal segment.

The mesosoma is covered on the dorsal side

by plates separated by a flexible membrane.
The five-segmented cylindrical metasoma
and a telson carrying the stinger make up the
tail. At the end of the fifth metasomal
segment, the anus leaves.

https://www.britannica.com/animal/scorpion/In
ternal-features

Slide 30

Ticks and mites belong to the Order Acari of

arachnids. The absence of wings and
antennae, the presence of four pairs of legs
in nymphs and adults, and the presence of
chelicerae distinguish them from other
insects. Idiosoma is a single component that
combines the head, thorax, and abdomen.
Ticks have an important role in medicine as
they might be biological vectors and their
saliva can be poisonous.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/B9780128114360000022
Slide 31

The mouth, specialized feeding appendages

(chelicerae), and segmented structures called
palps, or pedipalps, are all found in an
anterior area termed the gnathosoma.
Internally, the mouth or buccal cavity
connects to the pharynx, and paired salivary
glands may discharge into or in front of the
mouth's aperture. Chelicerae are
three-segmented pincerlike appendages;
nevertheless, certain mites' chelicerae are
changed into piercing organs as a result of
their varied eating patterns (stylets). The
pedipalps, which can be simple sensory
structures or predatory organs adapted for
grabbing or piercing, contain five free
segments: trochanter, femur, genu, tibia, and
tarsus, with a clawlike apotele on occasion.

A vast area (idiosoma) lies behind the

gnathosoma, containing the legs, genital and
anal openings, and a variety of tactile and
sensory organs. The idiosoma's functions are
similar to those of the abdomen, thorax of
other insects.Stigmata (respiratory pores) and
sclerotized shields of various shapes and
sizes are common. Legs feature a basal coxa
and the same fundamental segmentation as
pedipalps. Segment fusion or division, on the
other hand, is common. The tarsus can be
ended by a clawlike or suckerlike apotele or
by a collection of sensory hairs (setae).

https://www.britannica.com/animal/acarid/For
m-and-function
 Slide 32

Harvestmen (Opiliones) are little arachnids

that are among the biggest in the woods.
Their bodies are tiny, but their legs are
extremely lengthy, indicating that they live on
the surface of the litter or in open locations.
Smaller, shorter-legged species prefer to live
in loose leaf litter or in cramped places.
Despite the fact that opilionids lack venom
glands, they are predominantly predaceous.

The cephalothorax (prosoma) and abdomen

(opisthosoma) of opilionids are widely united,
giving the body an oval shape. Opilionids
differ from mites in that they have 6–10
segments in their abdomen, whereas mites
have none.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/
pii/B9780121797263500058

Part 2

Slide 35

Because of their diversity, ecological

significance, and impact on agriculture,
human health, and natural resources, insects
are significant and greatly affect nature. All
terrestrial ecosystems are built on the
biological basis of insects. They offer a
significant food supply for other taxa, cycle
nutrients, pollinate plants, distribute seeds,
maintain soil structure and fertility, manage
populations of other creatures, and provide a
major food source for other taxa.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118945568.ch2
Slide 36

Shown in the slide is an illustration of the

general strcuture of an insect. The head,
thorax, and abdomen are the three different
sections of the body. Each area is subdivided
even further into parts. Six in the head, three
in the thorax, and eleven in the abdomen are
typical. Segments of highly evolved insects,
particularly in the abdomen, may become
fused together.

The head of an adult insect possesses two

massive compound eyes, which are tiny
organs of sight that allow the insect to
perceive minute movements, and are made
up of numerous distinct facets. Thousands of
facets can be found in a single eye. The
thorax is divided into three sections, each
with two legs. The second and third segments
also contain wings, which vary in size, form,
and texture from one insect group or order to
the next. The digestive tract, the heart, a
portion of the respiratory system, and the
reproductive organs are all located in the
abdomen. It has an exoskeleton, just like the
rest of the body, that protects it from shocks
and dryness.

https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/what-bug-is
-this/insects.html

https://m.espacepourlavie.ca/en/three-part-bo
dy

Slide 37

The mouthparts are altered, sometimes

radically, to ensure that the food is ingested
satisfactorily. Many examples of parallel
evolution may be seen in insect mouth parts,
with the same goal being attained in different
ways along similar but not identical lines.
Liquid food is consumed by many insects.
The formation of the sucking arrangement
from the mouthparts helps with this.

The labrum, mandibles, maxillae, and labium

are the four major mouthparts. The labrum is
a protective covering that is sometimes
referred to as the upper lip. The strong,
powerful cutting jaws are the mandibles. The
maxillae function as 'pincers' that are weaker
than the mandibles. They're utilized to keep
the food stable and manipulate it. They have
a five-segmented sensory palp that is
frequently dealt with taste. The bottom cover,
often known as the lower lip, is the labium. It's
actually the fusion of two ancestral second
maxillae. They have a three-segmented palp
that also serves as a sense organ.

Slide 38

The brain, a mouth aperture, mouthparts

utilized for food intake, and primary sensory
organs are all housed in the head capsule of
most insects. Embryological data shows that
the head capsule of most modern insects was
formed by fusing the first six body segments
(three pre-oral and three post-oral) of a
primordial worm-like ancestor.

The three types of insect heads are

determined by the slope of the long axis of
the head and the orientation of the mouth
parts.The head of a Prognathous stays on the
same axis as the body, and the mouth
portions are pushed forward. Hypognathous
has a vertical head that is at a straight angle
to the body's long axis, and mouth parts that
are ventrally positioned and extended
downwards. The head of an Opisthognathous
is similar to that of a prognathous, but the
mouthparts are angled backwards and held in
between the forelegs.

https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent425/li
brary/tutorials/external_anatomy/head.html

http://www.jnkvv.org/PDF/0704202020123064
201202.pdf
Slide 39

Because the insect swings its antennae

around, they are commonly referred to as
"feelers." This is an incorrect term because
they are utilized for more than only touch.
The antennae serve as the insect's 'nose,'
since they are utilized to detect odors. A
number of separate joints make up the paired
antennas. As a result, they may be quite
mobile.

Filiform antennae are the most basic type of

antennae. This fundamental structure is
altered in a number of ways.
There are many joints in setaceous antennae.
From the base to the tip, the antenna tapers
progressively.

The spherical segments of the moniliformt

antenna resemble a string of beads.

The segments of serrate antennae are angled

on one side, giving them the appearance of a
saw edge.

The segments of pectinate are longer on one

side than the other, giving it a comb-like look.

The segments of the clavate antenna get

broader as they approach the antenna's tip.
This might be progressive over time or a
rapid rise, impacting mostly the final few
joints and creating the impression of a club.

The segments at the end of the lamellate are

flattened and plate-like. This creates the
illusion of a fan.

Part of the way along the antenna, the

Geniculate antenna features an abrupt bend
or elbow.

Each segment of plumose antennae has a

number of tiny thread-like branches. The
result is a feather-like look.

https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/fact-files/an
tennae.html
Slide 41

Distinct insects have different leg designs that

are most suited to their lifestyle and the
environment in which they dwell. The variety
of legs found in insects reflect their activity.
Cursorial legs are utilized for sprinting since
they are long and thin, allowing the insect to
move incredibly rapidly.

Because saltatorial legs are big and packed

with thick, powerful muscles, they are ideal
for jumping. All of those muscles enable
insects with this leg type to jump and drive
themselves forward over vast distances in a
short amount of time. Saltatorial legs are
almost often the back legs.

Raptorial legs are the type of legs found on

predatory insects like mantids and gigantic
water bugs that are used for hunting. These
are enormous legs with strong, muscular
muscles, similar to the saltatorial legs. These
legs, on the other hand, are generally found
at the insect's front, where they are employed
to grip and hold food while it is being eaten.

Aquatic insects with natatorial legs have

modified legs that allow them to travel freely
through water. Natatorial legs are generally
flattened, wide, and fringed with thick hairs,
as shown in this image of a predaceous
diving beetle hind leg.

Insects with fossorial legs dwell underground

and dig tunnels with their highly modified
legs, which are generally the forelegs.
Fossorial legs are often quite wide, flat, and
thick. They frequently have large, powerful
claws. Fossorial legs act as shovels, ripping
dirt apart fast and effortlessly, allowing the
beetle to quickly bury itself in the earth.

https://thedragonflywoman.com/2010/12/10/in
sect-legs/
Slide 42

Most insects breathe passively through their

'Spiracles' (special holes in the side of their
cuticle), and the air enters the body through a
series of smaller and smaller pipes known as
'Tracheae' (when their diameter is big, and
'Tracheoles' when their diameter is extremely
small).

The tracheal system in most insects is

connected by a network of longitudinal pipes
called trunks and several minor connections.
The Dorsal Longitudinal Trunk is found
towards the top of the insect's body, near the
rear. Just in front of the spiracles, the Lateral
Longitudinal Trunk runs down the sides. The
insect's belly is connected with the Ventral
Longitudinal Trunk.

earthlife.net/insects/anatomy-2.html

Slide 43

The wings are made up of two cuticle

membranes pushed together and sustained
by a network of veins. The venation, or vein
pattern, is not random but rather regular,
though it does show changes. These are
quite helpful in the identifying process. The
wings are triangular in shape and specific
areas may be identified.

The arrangement of veins within an insect's

wing is known as venation. The venation of
wings is studied by entomologists and is
frequently used to distinguish between
otherwise identical species. The veins going
down the wing (longitudinal veins) were
linked by a network of cross veins in early
insects.

https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/fact-files/wi
ngs.html

https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/ter
ms/venation/
Slide 44

Every insect has a fully functional digestive

system. This implies that food is processed
within the alimentary canal, a tube-like
enclosure that runs longitudinally through the
body from mouth to anus. In most cases,
ingested food only goes in one direction. It
allows for functional specialization, in which
distinct sections of the system may be
tailored to perform specific activities such as
food digesting, nutrient absorption, and waste
excretion. The alimentary canal is divided into
3 functional parts in most insects: the foregut
(stomodeum), the midgut (mesenteron), and
the hindgut (mesenteron) (proctodeum).

The stomodaeum is a muscular valve

(sphincter) that marks the “front” of the
foregut in insects. It is positioned centrally at
the base of the mouthparts. Finger-like
extensions diverge from the midgut walls at
the anterior end of the mesentron. The
stomach caecae provide more surface area
for enzyme production and water absorption
from the alimentary canal. The Proctodaeum
is a pyloric valve that is the source of dozens
to hundreds of Malpighian tubules. These
lengthy structures run the length of the
abdominal cavity and act as excretory
organs, eliminating nitrogenous wastes from
the bloodstream. A sequence of chemical
processes within the Malpighian tubules
transform the poisonous NH4+ to urea and
ultimately to uric acid. The semi-solid uric
acid builds up inside each tubule before being
discharged into the hindgut and eliminated as
part of the fecal pellet.

https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/bug-bytes/digesti
ve-system/
Slide 46

Apterygotes are different from pterygotes in

that they don't have wings and go through a
straightforward transformation. They also
differ in thorax anatomy and the development
of abdominal appendages. The mouthparts of
these hexapods are an essential criteria for
dividing them into two groups.

Protura, Collembola, and Diplura have

entognathous mouthparts, whereas Protura,
Collembola, and Diplura have ectognathous
mouthparts (Zygentoma, Archaeognatha, and
the extinct Monura). Order Zygentoma is
composed of insects where the small
compound eyes are present or missing, trunk
segments are flattened, telson is a long
midline tail filament, telson and cerci are long
or short, and abdominal styli are unjointed.

The complex eyes have three ocelli, the

telson is a long middle tail filament, the cerci
are lateral tail filaments, the styli are on the
thoracic legs and abdomen, and there are
setae and scales in the Order
Archaeognatha.

https://www.britannica.com/animal/apterygote
/Classification

Slide 47

Order Orthoptera, which means'straight

wings,' includes grasshoppers, crickets,
katydids, and locusts. Most may be identified
by their larger rear legs, which are used for
leaping. When disturbed, they can be seen
jumping away or heard'singing' at night. They
are mostly medium to big insects, with some
species reaching a length of 10 cm in
Australia. This order's overall look makes it
difficult to confuse with other insects.
Orthoptera's young form resembles tiny
wingless adults. By rubbing their legs, wings,
or abdomen together, several orthopterans
may generate sound. These noises are
typically made by men in order to attract
ladies.

https://www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/or
thoptera.html

Slide 48

Many insects have tympanal cells which they

use to hear. The auditory sensory cells attach
to a thin, external vibrating membrane called
the tympanum, which is associated with the
tracheal air systems (Pechenik, 2015). Many
insects employ their tympanal organs to send
early warning signals because they respond
to a wide variety of sounds, even those of
very high frequency, such as those made by
predatory bats. Many insects communicate
with each other via high-frequency noises.

To make noise, some insects, such as

grasshoppers, have a series of small pegs
located on the inside of their hind legs
(Amateur Entomologists’ Society, n.d.). These
pegs are then rubbed against the fore wing to
produce the sound. The act of rubbing two
body parts together is called stridulation.

Amateur Entomologists’ Society. (n.d.).

Stridulation. Retrieved from
https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/glossary/ter
ms/stridulation/#

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Slide 49

The mandibulate mouthparts of the

grasshopper are pointed downward for biting
and devouring the leaves of a host plant
(Northern Carolina State University, n.d.). The
labrum is a large flap that acts as the front lip
of the joint. Mandibles go from one side to the
other. They have scissors-like overlapping
edges and molar surfaces for grinding or
crushing. With fork-shaped laciniae and
spoon-shaped galeae, paired maxillae assist
in food manipulation. The hypopharynx is a
tongue-like fleshy structure that hangs
between the maxillae. A rear lip is formed by
the labium. The paraglossae are the large
outer lobes, whereas the glossae are the
small interior lobes. Touch and taste
receptors are mostly supported by the
five-segmented maxillary palps and the
three-segmented labial palps.

North Carolina State University. (n.d.).

Mouthparts. Retrieved from
https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/bug-bytes/mouth
parts/

Slide 50

Crickets undergo incomplete metamorphosis

during its life cycle (Karolis, n.d.). Because of
this, young crickets look similar to the adult
ones. Once the eggs have been laid, it may
take one to two weeks before hatching. Once
they do, crickets start jumping and will learn
to jump higher and higher with every day. For
four to seven weeks, they will undergo the
nymph stage of their life cycle, where they will
significantly increase in size. They will
actively begin to shed their exoskeleton.
Crickets molt around seven times in their life
cycle. As their exoskeleton does not increase
in size, the crickets will shed in when they
outgrow it. After molting, they will change
color to white, and will be vulnerable to
predators due to their soft bodies. It takes
thirty minutes to an hour for a new
exoskeleton to form. Since the exoskeleton
also contains chitin, crickets feed on it after
shedding. As they increase in size, they will
look much like the adult crickets, and start to
form their wings. Those of males tend to be
bigger, and they will use these for chirping.

After molting seven times, they will reach

maturity and become molts. They will not
grow any bigger than they already are. After
the last molting, the ovipositor of female
cricketers and the wings of male crickets will
be fully formed, meaning that they are ready
to mate.

Karolis. (n.d.). Cricket’s life cycle. Retrieved

from
https://www.cricketsmode.com/crickets-life-cy
cle/#

Slide 51

The insects under Order Blattaria are the

cockroaches. Many of these species are
omnivorous, while others have wood in their
diet or live in unlikely habitats such as
deserts, caves, or ant nests (Pechenik,
2015). Many species also lack wings. They
have dorsally flattened bodies that help them
move quickly and fit into small spaces and
narrow crevices. Moreover, they have a
depressed head under the prothorax, as well
as antennae and five-jointed tarsi. Their eggs
grow in hard cases. Lastly, they are
negatively phototactic, repelled by light, and
spend most of their times in dark places and
are therefore most active at night.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Slide 52

The thorax of a cockroach is attached to

three pairs of legs, and each pair is named
after the thorax region it is attached to
(Khandelwal & Uthaman, n.d.). The
cockroach's prothoracic legs are closest to its
head. These are the roach's smallest legs,
and they serve as brakes as it runs. The
mesothoracic legs are the ones in the center.
They alternate between speeding up and
slowing down the roach. The cockroach's rear
legs are the long metathoracic legs, which
move the cockroach forward.

The lengths and functions of these three pairs

of legs are different, but they share the same
components and move in the same manner.
The coxa, or top section of the leg, connects
the leg to the thorax at the thoracic-coxal
joint. The trochanter functions as a knee for
the cockroach, allowing it to flex its leg. The
femur and tibia are thigh and shin bones,
respectively. Lastly, the segmented tarsus
acts like an ankle and food, helping the
cockroaches climb walls and walk upside
down on ceilings.

Khandelwal, G. & Uthaman, D. (n.d.).

Morphology and anatomy of cockroach.
Retrieved from
https://biology4isc.weebly.com/morphology-a
nd-anatomy-of-cockroach.html

Slide 53

Regarding the mouth of a cockroach, an

opening is present on the head that is
surrounded by the mouth parts. This consists
of a pair of mandibles, first maxillae, labium
or fused second maxillae, hypopharynx and
labrum (Khandelwal & Uthaman, n.d.). These
help in biting and chewing food.

The labrum is a broad, flattened terminal

sclerite on the dorsal side of head, which is
movable articulated to the clypeus and acts
as an upper lip. It also has an epipharynx
(chemoreceptors) on its inner side.
The mandibles are thick, triangular
appendages underneath the labrum on either
lateral side of the mouth that carry sharp,
tooth-like projections that are called denticles.

The first maxillae is found on each side of the

mouth, next to the mandibles, and is used for
cutting and chewing. They also bear olfactory
receptors.

The labium is formed by the fusion of the

second maxillae, a large structure that covers
the mouth from the ventral side. It is also
called the lower lip, and bears the tactical and
gustatory sensory setae.

Lastly, the hypopharynx is a small, cylindrical

mouthpart, found between the first maxillae
and covered by the labrum on the dorsal side
and the labium and the ventral side. It
contains several sensory setae on the free
end, and there is an opening of the salivary
duct on its basal part.

Khandelwal, G. & Uthaman, D. (n.d.).

Morphology and anatomy of cockroach.
Retrieved from
https://biology4isc.weebly.com/morphology-a
nd-anatomy-of-cockroach.html

Slide 54

In the digestive system of a cockroach, the

alimentary canal is long and can be divided
into three parts: the foregut, midgut, and
hindgut (Khandelwal & Uthaman, n.d.).

First, the foregut, also known as the

stomodaeum, can be divided into five parts,
which are the buccal chamber, pharynx,
oesophagus, crop and gizzard. The gizzard is
muscular, and internally contains six cuticle
teeth that are responsible for crushing the
food. There is a stomodeal valve present
between the gizzard and mesenteron, which
allows food to pass through the midgut while
preventing it from returning into the gizzard.

The midgut, or the mesenteron or ventriculus,

is short, tubular,, and lined with glandular
endoderm. At the anterior end of the midgut,
there are eight glandular hepatic caeca,
which are responsible for secreting digestive
enzymes.

The hindgut, the proctodaeum, comprises the

ileum, colon, and rectum. The wall of the
rectum contains six rectal papillae. These
help in the absorption of water and salts.

The main digestive enzymes of the saliva are

zymase and amylase, and most of the
nutrients from the food are digested in the
crop. The absorption of the digested food
then occurs in the mesenteron.

Khandelwal, G. & Uthaman, D. (n.d.).

Morphology and anatomy of cockroach.
Retrieved from
https://biology4isc.weebly.com/morphology-a
nd-anatomy-of-cockroach.html

Slide 55

The Order Homoptera is composed of

cicadas, leafhoppers, and aphids, and is
composed of 35,000 species (Pechenik,
2015). These are scale insects that are small
with piercing and sucking mouthparts. The
base of their beak is close to the thorax. They
are herbivorous insects that are related to the
hemipterans. They have four membranous
forewings of similar thickness, and their wings
tend to be held in a tent-like position over
their body. Moreover, they undergo gradual
metamorphosis.

Their main source of food is plant sap, though

some are parasitic with plant hosts. Others
also have a mutualistic relationship with
bacteria or other insects.

There are 55 families under this order. Some

of these include Aphididae (plant lice,
aphids), Cicadidae (cicadas), Cercopidae,
and Cercopidae (spittlebugs).

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Slide 56

Aphids feed on cell sap by inserting their very

thin mouthparts (stylets) into plant tissue
(Dixon, 1975). An aphid secretes a stylet
sheath around its stylets when it inserts them
into plant tissue. The stylet sheath remains in
the plant tissues after the stylets are
removed, indicating the exact passage taken
by the stylets.

The rostrum is the feeding appendage that is

used to access and feed on plant phloem
(“Rostrum,” 2014). It is composed of five
segments, and contains a sclerotized groove
where the stylets are found to extend back
and forth as they access the phloem. The
groove can be found in most of the second
rostral segment and in the third, fourth, and
fifth segment.

Another defining feature of aphids is the

presence of siphunculi (“Siphunculus,” 2014).
These are structures that can be found on the
dorsum of the sixth abdominal segment.
There is an opening or pore where
pheromones are emitted from, often coming
in the form of liquid globules. Siphunculi may
be long and cylindrical, short and conical, or
in the form of pores. They are also known as
cornicles, and is where exudates are
released.

Dixon, A. (1975). Aphids and translocation.

Retrieved from
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F
978-3-642-66161-7_6

Rostrum. (2014, March 31). Retrieved from

http://aphid.aphidnet.org/rostrum.php

Siphunculus. (2014, March 31). Retrieved

from
http://aphid.aphidnet.org/siphunculus.php
Slide 57

Among the aphids, there are two types of life

cycles for the species: heterecious and
autoecious (World Heritage Encyclopedia,
n.d.).

For the heterecious species, the hosts are

alternating. Aphids spend winter on trees or
bushes as the primary hosts, and migrate to
the secondary host in the summer, which is
usually a herbaceous plant. They then return
to the primary host in autumn. This migration
may be due to the decline in food quality in
the trees during the summer, as well as
overcrowding when there are too many
aphids in one place.

As for the autoecious life cycle, the aphids

are host plant specific. They live on either a
single host or a few closely related hosts
throughout the course of a year.

Moreover, in these two host life cycles, there

are other forms of life cycles: holocyclic,
anholocyclic, and androcylic. In the holocyclic
lifestyle, sex is involved, which will lead to the
egg production that facilitates overwintering.
The anholocyclic life cycle, on the other hand,
does not involve sex or eggs, as reproduction
is done parthenogenetically. Lastly, the
androhydrocyclic life cycle has reproduction
occurring at the end of the season through
parthenogenesis, which produces males that
will later on contribute to the holocyclic
phase.

World Heritage Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Aphid.

Retrieved from
http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Aphid
Slide 58

There are a few terms used when concerning

aphids (Influential Points, n.d.).

One of these is fundratix, which refers to the

mature wingless stem mother that hatches
from overwintering eggs. It is the foundress
from the first egg.

Fundatrigeniae refers to the apterous

vivipare. It is a wingless aphid that is
produced through live birth (parthenogenesis)
from the fundatrix. This may also be called
the fundatrispuriae.

Emigrants are referred to the winged females

that migrate from a primary host.

Apterous exules are the aphids that are on

their secondary host. These are wingless
females. On the other hand, alate exules are
those that are winged.

Gynoparae are the parthenogenetic females

that bear the sexual generation. They are
females whose offspring develop to sexual
forms. These may also be called the migrant
alates for host alternating species.

The ovipare are the females that produce

eggs through sexual reproduction.

Lastly, like the gynoparae, the sexuparae are

the parthenogenetic females that produce the
sexual generation. These develop on the
secondary host.

Influential Points. (n.d.). Aphid glossary.

Retrieved from
https://influentialpoints.com/aphid/Aphid-gloss
ary.htm#sexuparae
Slide 59

Periodical cicadas are insects that are best

known for their highly synchronized life cycles
(National Wildlife Federation, n.d.).
Depending on the species, they spend 13 or
17 years in larval form, burrowed under the
soil and feeding on fluids from plant roots.
When the spring comes, they all emerge from
the soil at the same time to complete their
final molt into adulthood. The males will then
cluster in groups and produce loud choruses
to attract females they can mate with. After
mating, the females will excavate furrows into
tree branches, which is where they will
deposit their eggs. The larvae will then hatch
and drop to the ground, burrowing beneath
the soil. After 13 or 17 years, they will
emerge.

National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Periodical

cicadas. Retrieved from
https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/
Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Periodical-Cicad
as

Slide 60

The Order Dermaptera is composed of the

earwigs. These are elongated insects that are
known to be similar in appearance to beetles,
except they have glatter bodies and paler
legs (Pechenik, 2015). Most earwigs are
free-living herbivores or carnivores, though
there are around 20 species that have
exclusively parasitic or commensal
relationships with bats and rodents. Many of
the species live in tropical areas and are
nocturnal. Moreover, they have chewing
mouthparts, compound eyes, and large
forceps like cerci. Many of these species
have wings and elytra. More on their wings,
their forewings are leathery, short, and meet
in a straight line down the middle of their
back. On the other hand, their hind wings are
membranous and fan-shaped, folded
underneath the front wings. Their antennae
are thread-like and can be as long as half of
their body length. They also undergo gradual
metamorphosis. While the nymphs are similar
to the adults, they do not have wings yet.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 61

Earwigs have the most compact wing folding

of any insect, giving them unparalleled
ground mobility (Saito, 2020). It has been
greatly likened to origami as well. When an
earwig is not in flight, its hind wings fold
automatically under tiny leathery forewings in
a pattern that lowers surface area by 10 to 15
times, depending on the species.

The insects may then slither into the earth

and other tight locations, as well as utilize
their trademark back pincers, because their
wings are shielded and their abdomens are
fully flexible.

Moreover, the eggs of earwigs are colored

white to tan, and are nearly round. Females
can lay about 50 eggs depending on the
species, and these are relatively small in size.

Saito, K. (2020, July 14). Build it like an

earwig wing. Cosmos. Retrieved from
https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/engine
ering/build-it-like-an-earwig-wing/

Slide 62

The Order Mantodea is comprised of the

mantids or “praying” mantids, and there are
eight families under this order (Pechenik,
2015). Moreover, there are also 2,000
species found under this order, all of which
prey on other insects. The head is easily
moveable due to its flexible neck muscles
and long prothorax. Like the other Orders,
they possess biting and chewing mouthparts.
Its raptorial forelegs are enlarged for grasping
purposes, as well as for stability. They have a
five-jointed tarsi. Their antennae are
segmented, either slender or with bristles.
They also undergo metamorphosis, and the
nymph greatly resembles the young adults.
The adults usually possess two pairs of
wings, though it is possible that the females
may lack these. The females, however, are
generally larger than the males, and lay eggs
in masses. The young do not have wings yet.
Lastly, these mantids are known for their
stealthy movements, and they are mostly
tropical.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 63

The praying mantis is capable of perfectly

camouflaging into its environment of sticks,
barks, leaves, and flowers (Willamd, 2017). It
does this in order to hide from predators and
to catch prey. Mantises can either be green,
brown, or a combination of colors in order to
match their environment, taking the colors of
their natural surroundings. They are also
capable of mimicking the charred remains of
sticks, weeds, and grass after a fire.
Moreover, it also sways repetitively from side
to side to mimic the movement of vegetation
in the wind.

Williams. (2017, September 26). How does a

praying mantis camouflage into an
environment. Retrieved from
https://animals.mom.com/how-does-a-praying
-mantis-camouflage-into-an-environment-124
52957.html

Slide 64

The Order Phasmida, also known as

Phasmatoptera, are generally known as the
walking sticks or stick insects (Carausius,
Diapheromera) and walking leaves or leaf
insects (Phyllium). There are 2,500 species,
mostly tropical, and they are known for their
mimicking behavior. (Pechenik, 2015). They
are able to almost perfectly mimic, both
morphologically and behaviorally, a variety of
stems and leaves of plants, particularly those
that they feed or rest on. To do this, most
species are able to change their body
coloration with each molt so that they can
match the color pattern of their surroundings.
Some species have small wings while others
have none at all. Their thorax and legs are
elongated, and they have a five-jointed tarsi.
Overall, they are slow-moving and feed on
foliage. Lastly, they lay eggs one at a time.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 65

Both the stick insects and leaf insects are

capable of camouflage. They escape
predation by blending into the plant material.
As given by their name, they look like sticks,
and even sway back and forth to resemble a
twig moving in the wind. Depending on the
species, they can grow from 1 to 12 inches
long (National Wildlife Federation, n.d.). Stick
insects are said to be the biggest insects in
the world, as one species even grows up to
20 inches long with its leg outstretched.

Similarly, the leaf insects use camouflage to

protect themselves, mimicking the
appearance of a leaf. THis way, predators
cannot distinguish them from real leaves.
This process is referred to as crypsis.

National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Walking

sticks. Retrieved from
https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/
Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Walking-Sticks
Slide 66

Order Odonata is made of the damselflies

(suborder Zygoptera) and the dragonflies
(suborder Anisoptera), with over 5,200
species (Pechenik, 2015). These insects are
predaceous with two pairs of wings that are
long, narrow, and net-veined. However, like
the Ephermeroptera, their wings cannot be
folded along the abdomen when the insect is
resting. They have a slender, elongated
abdomen, and large eyes and chewing
mouthparts. They undergo gradual
metamorphosis, and the gilled nymph tend to
develop in freshwater, where they are the
major predators, as well as food resources for
fish. However, the adults only eat other
insects. Dragonflies are stout-bodied, and
they do not bite or sting. There are 25
families within this order.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 67

The characteristic feature of the Odonata

nymphs is their extendable lower lip or labium
(Sabet-Peyman, 2000). It consists of two
connected parts and a pair of labial palps.
These palps have thorns at the end, which
are then used to grab prey. When not in use,
it is composed under the head and covers the
mandibles.

Dragonfly nymphs are shorter and bulkier

than those of damselflies. Their gills are
located inside the abdomen. Dragonfly
nymphs expand and contract their abdomen
to be able to move water over their gills, and
are also able to squeeze water out rapidly for
a short burst of jet propulsion underwater.

Damselfly nymphs, on the other hand, are

recognizable through the three feathery gills
that extend from the tips of their abdomen.

Sabet-Peyman, J. (2000, July 16).

Introduction to the Odonata. Retrieved from
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/unirami
a/odonatoida.htm

Slide 68

Order Anoplura is composed of the 15

families of lice, such as the sucking lice, crab
lice, and the human body lice (Pediculus).
There are 520 species, all of which are small
blood-sucking ectoparasites with mouthparts
that are adapted for sucking (Pechenik,
2015). They are wingless and have flat
bodies, and are commonly the ectoparasites
for birds, mammals, and domestic animals.
Head louse and body louse are then the
parasites for humans. They may cause
irritation, though more serious cases may
lead to diseases such as typhus fever. To
accommodate the large amounts of blood,
their abdomen swells extensively.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 69

The life cycle of a head louse can be divided

into three stages: egg, nymph, and an adult
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2019).

The eggs of lice are called nits. They are

difficult to see by the eye, and thus can be
easily confused with dandruff. They are laid
by an adult female, and are placed at the
base of the hair shaft nearest to the scalp.
They take around a week to hatch, and viable
eggs can be found within 6mm of the scalp.

The egg hatches, releasing a nymph. A day

after this, the first molt occurs, followed by
another after a few days, then a last one after
this. The nit shell becomes a dull yellow color
and remains attached to the hair shaft. The
nymph resembles the adult, but is much
smaller in size. After the three molts have
occurred, it may be considered an adult.
Once the louse has reached the adult stage,
it is ready for reproduction and mating.
The adult louse has six legs with claws, and
is tan to gray-white in color. Females tend to
be larger than males, and can lay around
eight nits a day. They may also live up to 30
days on a person’s head. To live, they feed on
the blood of the host several times a day, or
else they may die within a day or two days.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

(2019, September 11). Lice. Retrieved from
https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/lice/head/biolo
gy.html#

Slide 70

Those in Order Hemiptera are called the true

bugs, and there are 50,000 species across 74
families, many of which are major agricultural
pests or transmitters of diseases (Pechenik,
2015). However, there are also other species
that are beneficial. Most of the species feed
on different portions of plants, while some
also eat other arthropods, and others are
ectoparasites of vertebrates. There are five
species that are referred to as the
open-ocean insects, found in the genus
Halobates.

True bugs are large with piercing and sucking

mouthparts, and a jointed beak that is
attached far forward on the head. A triangular
scutellum can be found between the wing
bases. As for their wings, their forewings
have a thickened basal and distal section and
can be crossed at rest, while their hind wings
are completely membranous. Like the other
Orders, they go through gradual
metamorphosis.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Slide 71

The Order Thysanoptera are known as the

thrips, which are small slender insects with 5
families and 5,300 species (Pechenik, 2015).
Some of them are winged, while others are
not. Their wings are narrow with a few veins
and are fringed with hairs. They do not have
any cerci present. Most feed on various parts
of plants, and are capable of transmitting
diseases among the plants that they are
feeding on. They have conical mouthparts
that have adapted for rasping and sucking.
Their antennae have 6 to 10 joints, while their
tarsi have 1 or 2 joints.

As for reproduction, parthenogenesis is

common among them as males are rare.
Eggs are inserted into a plant tissue, where
nymph-like instars emerge and feed on the
host plant. Non-feeding instars are in the soil.
Following this is a pre-adult pupa stage.
Mobile adults then move from the soil, from
plant to plant or migrate from a distance.
Generally, these insects will feed on the sap
from flowers, but some also feed on termites
and other smaller insects.

The entire life cycle can be completed over

18 days. Adult thrips may live for 3 to 5
weeks, and a female may lay 55 eggs. The
adults can have either long or short wings,
though the long wings usually appear in late
spring when migrating to a new host.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Slide 72

Thrips are known to be sole vectors to the

Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV), which can
cause the death of many plants (Riley, et al.,
n.d.). TSWV is acquired by immature thrips in
the first and second instars from infected host
plants, the virus grows in the vector as it
matures, and viruliferous adults distribute the
virus when they travel to new plants. After a
TSWV-infected adult thrips feeds on a plant, it
takes one to three weeks for the virus to
propagate throughout the plant and be
acquired by thrips larvae feeding on the plant,
depending on plant age and climatic
circumstances. TSWV management is
complicated, since once infected, adult thrips
may migrate vast distances to new host
plants and spread the virus frequently. Each
generation of thrips must re-acquire the virus
because the virus isn’t passed on to the eggs
of adult females. Once they have acquired
the virus, they remain infected throughout
their whole life span.

Riley, D., Srinivasan, R., Joseph, S., Diffie, S.

(n.d.). Thrips vectors. Retrieved from
https://tswv.caes.uga.edu/usda-ramp-project/t
hrips-vectors.html

Slide 73

Order Isoptera are the termites or “white ants”

with six families and 2,100 species
(Pechenik, 2015). They are believed to have
evolved from wood-eating cockroaches.
Much like those cockroaches, termites have
symbiotic protozoa or bacteria that digest
cellulose, and later on release nutrients to the
insect host. Other termites species are able
to acquire cellulose by farming fungi and
eating it. Moreover, a single termite colony
contains over a million individuals below
ground and above ground. They are
destructive towards wooden structures, such
as homes and trees, but they are also
important in nutrient and energy recycling,
particularly in tropical locations. Moreover, all
the species are eusocial. Termites are divided
into certain castes that will define their social
rank and what work they will do, such as
workers, males, soldiers, and queens.

Aside from this, termites are pale and soft

bodied with chewing mouthparts. The
abdomen is broadly attached to the thorax,
and they have a four-jointed tarsus. They
have two pairs of wings that are narrow and
membranous which they carry flat on their
back when resting, and detach after nuptial
flight. Their forewings and hind wings are of
relatively similar size. However, workers and
soldiers do not have wings. Those that are
capable of sexually reproducing have also
been noted to be darker in color. Lastly,
termites undergo gradual metamorphosis,
and the nymph looks similar to the adult.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 74

A few differences in appearance have been

noted between termites and ants (Ehrlich,
n.d.). First, termites have straight antennae,
while ants have bent antennae. Termites also
have a straight waist that is much thicker in
comparison to the pinched waists of ants.
Their wing lengths are also different from one
another, whereas the lengths of termites
wings are the same, while ants have wings of
different lengths. Lastly, flying ants do not
shed their wings, while termite swarmers do.

Ehrlich. (n.d.). Termite identification.

Retrieved from
https://www.jcehrlich.com/termites/identificati
on/
Slide 75

Order Hymenoptera is composed of ants,

bees, wasps, and sawflies, making it a very
large and varied order with 130,000 species
(Pechenik, 2015). They have chewing
mouthparts which may also be modified for
lapping and sucking. There are both winged
and wingless species, and the wings are
transparent with a few veins. The larvae may
be caterpillars or grub-like with chewing
mouthparts, and they may also be legless.
Females have a modified ovipositor.
Depending on their role in the colony, they
may come in different sizes. These insects
undergo complete metamorphosis.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 76

There are three types of honeybees in a hive:

worker, drone, and queen (University of
Arkansas, n.d.).

First, the queen can be recognized through

her abdomen, as it is usually smooth and
elongated, and extends beyond her folded
wings. Her main function is production, and is
the only reproductive female in the colony.
She can lay as many as 2000 eggs per day,
and can live up to five years. Younger queens
tend to produce more eggs, while older ones
may produce excessive drones. Most of the
time, beekeepers re-queen the colonies every
two years, as older queens are often replaced
by the workers. Queens also produce a
pheromone that passes from bee to bee as
they share food, and it is how workers can
notice if she is absent.

Worker bees are the smallest type of bees,

and they are all female, though incapable of
mating and reproduction. Their tasks include
secreting the wax used in the hive to form
into honeycombs, foraging for the nectar and
pollen brought into the hive to transform it into
honey, producing royal jelly to feed the queen
and young larvae and tending to them,
capping the cells of mature larvae for
pupation and removing debris and dead bees
from the hive, and defending the hive from
intruders and maintaining optimal conditions
in the hive. They have compound eyes on the
sides of their heads, and three simple eyes at
the vertex. Their tongue is elongated for
taking up nectar from flowers.

Drones are the male honey bees, whose

main function is to fertilize a young queen
bee. They are larger and stouter than the
worker bees, and possess large eyes on the
top of their heads. Moreover, their antennae
are slightly longer than that of the workers or
the queen, and their mouth parts are
generally reduced. Drones develop from
unfertilized eggs, and are larger in size than
workers. They do not do the same tasks as
worker bees, and instead feed themselves
directly from the honey cells in the hive or ask
for food from the worker bees.

University of Arkansas. (n.d.). About

honeybees - types, races, and anatomy.
Retrieved from
https://www.uaex.edu/farm-ranch/special-pro
grams/beekeeping/about-honey-bees.aspx

Slide 77

The mouthparts of honey bees are divided

into two groups: the mandibles and the
proboscis (Rusty, 2011). Chewing is done by
the mandibles, or "jaws." The proboscis is a
straw-like tongue that is used for both sucking
and tasting liquids.

The proboscis is composed of several

different parts. There is an outer and inner
tube. The outer tube is used to suck in large
quantities of water or honey, while the smaller
tube , found inside the larger one, is used to
collect tiny amounts of liquid found inside
flowers. It is equipped with a hairy spoon-like
tip that aids in mopping up the small drops of
nectar, and it also has taste receptors. The
proboscis can also be used for food
exchange through a process called
trophallaxis. Moreover, the proboscis is not a
permanent functional organ. It is temporarily
improvised by putting together parts of the
maxillae and labium to create a unique tube
for drawing up liquids such as sweet juices,
nectar, water, and honey. When it is needed,
the insect releases it, then retracts and folds
it back underneath the insect's head when it
is not.

The mandibles are a pair of jaws that are

hanging from the bee's head and mouth.
They are used by the insect to chew wood to
redesign the hive entrance, chew pollen, and
work wax for comb-building. They also
support any task that necessitates the use of
two gripping tools. The maxilla is the
mouthpart beneath the mandible that is able
to handle the food items, while the labial pa;p
is the part used to taste and feel during
feeding.

Rusty. (2011). Wednesday wordphile:

proboscis. Retrieved from
https://www.honeybeesuite.com/wednesday-
wordphile-proboscis/#

Slide 78

The thorax of a bee is attached to the legs

(Adjare, 1990). Each pair of legs is different in
size and shape from the other two pairs, and
is divided into six segments with a pair of
claws at the tip to aid clinging to surfaces.
Any of the six joints of the leg can be flexed.
Its main function is to assist the bee in
walking and running, although several parts
have additional functions.

Pollen and other particles are swept off the

head, eyes, and mouth parts using the
brushes on the inner surface of the fifth
segment (the tarsus) of the two front legs.
The tarsi of the mid-legs are employed as
brushes to clean the thorax, while the spines
at the end of the fourth segment (tibiae) are
employed to remove pollen pellets and clean
the wings.
The antenna cleaner is a deeply-cut
semi-circular notch on the inner margin of the
forelegs' tibia, furnished with a comb-like row
of tiny spines. This cleaning mechanism is
used by all three castes: drones, queens, and
workers.

Adjare, S. (1990). Anatomy of the honeybee.

Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/3/t0104e/t0104e06.htm

Slide 79

Much like all other insects, wasps have a

strong exoskeleton that covers their three
major body segments: the head, metasoma,
and mesosoma (New World Encyclopedia,
2020. A constricted portion known as the
petiole connects the first and second
segments of the abdomen in wasps (the first
segment is part of the mesosoma, the second
is part of the metasoma). Wasps have
multiple simple eyes called ocelli in addition
to their complex eyes. These are usually
grouped in a triangle shape slightly anterior of
the vertex area of the head.

Some of the characteristics present in most

wasps are the presence of two wings, an
ovipositor or stinger (in females), and few to
no hairs (New World Encyclopedia, 2020).
Moreover, the sex of wasp species can be
distinguished through the number of divisions
on the antennae. An example are male
yellowjacket wasps are thirteen, while
females have twelve. For some species,
males and females can be distinguished in
some situations by the presence of an extra
terga in the top portion of the male's
mesosoma (known as the tergum). Typically,
there are six terga in total.

New World Encyclopedia. (2020). Wasp.

Retrieved from
https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/
Wasp
Slide 80

Order Coleoptera is composed of the beetles,

and is the largest insect order with 153
families and 360,000 species (Pechenik,
2015). These include whirligig beetles,
ladybugs, click beetles, Japanese beetles,
and water penny beetles. They are known for
their hard bodies, and have chewing
mouthparts that look snout-like. Many feed on
plants, though there are some predatory
families. Some species are also aquatic.

Most beetles have two pairs of wings: the

front pair is used as a protective sheath for
the membranous rear pair which is used for
flight. The forewings meet along the
middorsal line. They also have an
eleven-jointed antennae. The mesothorax is
moveable, and the metathorax is placed
united to the abdomen. The species all
reproduce in various ways, one of which is
through stridulation, where specialized body
parts are rubbed together. Lastly, they also
undergo complete metamorphosis.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 81

There are four stages in the life cycle of a

beetle, as they undergo complete
metamorphosis, and these are known as egg,
larval, pupal, and adult (Terminix, n.d.).

First, the female beetle lays hundreds of

either white or yellow eggs depending on the
species. These eggs can be deposited in
decaying leaves, rotten wood, and animal
feces. However, some species also keep their
eggs inside and give birth to live larvae.

As for the larval stage, the beetle larvae are

grub-like in appearance and have large
appetites. As they begin to grow, they begin
to shed the outer covering of their bodies, the
exoskeleton, to provide more room for their
bodies. Molting may occur seven to ten times
before the pupal stage begins.

In the pupal stage, the larvae will form the

pupa or cocoon and lay dormant. The time
period inside the cocoon varies for different
types of beetles. Once they have reached
adulthood, the mature beetle will emerge
from the cocoon.

In the adult stage, they will have large

mandibles used for catching prey and
defending themselves from predators. Their
body may be divided into three regions: head,
thorax, and abdomen (San Diego Zoo Wildlife
Alliance, n.d.). The head is where the
compound eyes, mouth, brain, and antennae
(used for finding food and to alert the beetle
for nearby predators) are found. The thorax is
where the six legs and wings are attached.
Thick and hardened front wings, the elytra,
cover most of the beetle’s body, and the back
wings aid in protection. The abdomen
contains the organs for digestion and
reproduction. The exoskeleton and elytra
protect the beetle’s soft membranes, and aid
in keeping the beetle from drying out or
getting waterlogged. Beetles also have setae,
tiny hairs that are sensitive to touch, sound,
smell, taste, and light.

San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. (n.d.).

Beetle. Retrieved from
https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/beetl
e

Terminix. (n.d.). The life cycle of a beetle.

Retrieved from
https://www.terminix.com/blog/bug-facts/the-li
fe-cycle-of-a-beetle/#
Slide 82

The Order Lepidoptera is composed of the

butterflies and moths, spanning over 137
families and 160,000 described species.
(Pechenik, 2015) They are soft-bodied
insects with wings, and they have
appendages that are covered with pigmented
scales. They have larval mouthparts for
chewing, and adults have a modified
siphoning proboscis that is fused with
maxillae for sucking on flower nectar.
However, they do not have mandibles. Their
antennae are long and their eyes are large.

Most species, such as the moths, are

nocturnal and active only at night. For some
species, the females are wingless. Their
wings are broad, membranous, and scaly.
The larvae generally feed on plants, leaves,
stems, fruits, and seeds, but there are also
those that prey on other insects. Moreover,
the larvae have silk glands on the labium, and
they have prolegs for grasping. These
species also undergo complete
metamorphosis.

The differences between moths and

butterflies are that moths are nocturnal, while
butterflies are diurnal. For moths, they rest
their wings at the sides, while butterflies rest
their wings upright. Moths’ antennae are
feathered or pointed, while those of butterflies
are straight and chubbed. Lastly, moths have
a much thicker body than butterflies.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Slide 83

The body of a caterpillar can be divided into

three regions: head, thorax, and abdomen
(ThoughtCo, n.d.).

The head is the first part of the caterpillar's

body. It has six eyes (called stemmata),
mouthparts, short antennae, and spinnerets,
which generate silk for the caterpillar.
Antennae can be seen on both sides of the
labrum, however they are tiny and
unnoticeable. The labrum is similar to the top
lip. Its purpose is to keep food in place as the
mandibles chew.

The thorax is the caterpillar's second portion,

and it consists of three segments. There are
three pairs of true legs with hooks and a
dorsal plate called the prothoracic shield,
which is found in the first segment. This
shield's color pattern is useful for
distinguishing between caterpillar species.

The abdomen is the caterpillar's third region,

and is 10 segments long. The prolegs, most
of the spiracles, and the anus are among
these segments. The rolegs are fleshy, fake,
unsegmented legs found on the third through
sixth abdominal segments, generally in pairs.
The caterpillar utilizes hooks on the tips of its
delicate prolegs to cling to leaves, bark, and
silk. The arrangement and length of these
hooks are occasionally used by experts to
identify caterpillars at the family level.
Spiracles are breathing pores on the outside
of the body. To open and close the spiracles,
the caterpillar contracts muscles. The first
thoracic segment has one spiracle pair, while
the other eight pairs are located on the first
eight abdominal segments. On each of the
three thoracic segments, there are three pairs
of segmented legs, commonly known as
thoracic legs or real legs. Each genuine leg
has a small claw at the end. These are not to
be confused with the fleshy, fake prolegs that
can be found along the abdominal cavity.
Moreover, they also have anal prolegs, whch
are a pair of unsegmented false legs found
on the last abdominal segment.
Caterpillars also have mandibles located in
the head region, which are jaws used for
chewing leaves. Some caterpillars, such as
hornworms, have horns that help camouflage
the larva and scare off predators.

ThoughtCo. (n.d.). Insect anatomy: The parts

of a caterpillar. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/parts-of-a-caterpill
ar-1968482

Slide 84

Butterflies undergo complete metamorphosis

and have four stages in their life cycle: egg,
larva, pupa, and adult (Drexel University,
2018).

First, an adult female butterfly lays eggs on

plants. The plant will be the caterpillar's food
when it hatches. These can be deposited in
the spring, summer, or fall, depending on the
species, and they can be rather small in size.
It is then known as a caterpillar for the larval
stage. Then, the caterpillar consumes as
much as it is able to, as the food will be
stored and needed when it is an adult. The
caterpillar will then break its skin and lose it
as it develops. Molting happens about four or
five times. Moreover, caterpillars can grow up
to a hundred times their original size at this
stage. Following this, once the caterpillar has
fully evolved, it will become a pupa or
chrysalis. The pupa can hang from a limb, be
disguised in foliage, or be buried
underground. The pupa stage can span
anywhere from a few weeks to over a month.
Cells that were present in the larva are
rapidly developing within the pupa to form
parts of the adult butterfly's wings, legs, and
eyes. Finally, the adult stage occurs when the
butterfly emerges from the cocoon. Its
appearance differs significantly from that of
the larva, which is why it is also categorized
as holometabolous metamorphosis. The
mature butterfly then concentrates on mating
and laying eggs while searching for the best
plant to put its eggs on. Although some
species may survive for several months, most
mature butterflies only survive for one or two
weeks.

Drexel University. (2018). Butterfly life cycle.

Retrieved from
https://ansp.org/exhibits/online-exhibits/butter
flies/lifecycle/#

Slide 85

The Order Siphonaptera are composed of the

fleas and the jiggers, with 15 families and
2,000 species (Pechenik, 2015). They have
long legs with large coxae that have adapted
for jumping around. They do not have
compound eyes, and instead have no or
simple eyes. Their bodies are laterally
compressed, and they do not have wings.
Their antennae are short and in grooves, and
they have five-jointed tarsi. Their mouthparts
are capable of piercing and sucking so that
they may feed on the blood of animals. The
adults are parasitic (commonly ectoparasitic)
on warm-blooded animals, particularly
mammals and rodents. The larvae, however,
are not generally parasitic and pupate within
silken cocoons (Pechenik, 2015).

Moreover, as flea adults jump from one host

to another frequently, they are considered to
be excellent vehicles for transferring diseases
among hosts. Because of this, they were also
vectors of the Bubonic plague. Some species
are obligate intermediate hosts for the
common tapeworm of dogs and cats.

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.
Slide 86

The bodies of fleas are covered with hard

plates that are called sclerites (Wilson &
Bowman, 2020). These protect them while
jumping. Their exoskeleton is covered in tiny
hairs that point away from the head of the
flea. Their flattened bodies allow them to
crawl through the fur of the host, and the tiny
hairs help them remain attached to the skin.

Fleas also have spines around their head and

mouth, though the number and shape may
vary depending on the species. The mouth is
adapted to pierce the skin and suck blood,
and there are several mouthparts that come
together in order to form a needlelike drinking
tube.

The legs of fleas are adapted for jumping.

They have three pairs of legs which are
attached to the thorax (Wilson & Bowman,
2020). The back legs are long and can be
bent at several joints. A tendon then holds the
bent leg in place. The jumping action of fleas
has been likened to the action of a crossbow.

The thorax consists of three segments:

prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax.
Each segment contains a pair of legs. On
alates, the wings can be found at the
mesothorax and metathorax, which also have
well-developed exoskeletal plates.

The abdomen of termites is divided into ten

segments with two plates, which are called
the tergites and sternites. The last segment
has a pair of short cirri.

Wilson, T. & Bowman, W. (2020, October 8).

How fleas work. Retrieved from
https://animals.howstuffworks.com/insects/fle
a1.htm
Slide 87

Termites, like other insects, have a pad of

elastic protein called resilin which aids in their
jumping by storing energy. It functions as a
“super elastic rubber” in specialized cuticle
regions where extension and retraction are
needed (Qin, et al., 2012).

Qin, G., Hu, X., Cebe, P. & Kaplan, D. (2012).

Mechanism of resilin elasticity. Nature
Communications, 3(1003).
https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2004

Slide 88

In the mouthparts of fleas, the labrum and

labium make up the upper and lower lips,
while the labial palps are long,
five-segmented sensory organs that come
from the labium (Wilson & Bowman, 2020).
The maxillae are a pair of short, wide plates
that are found in front of the labial palps. The
maxillary palps are long, four-segmented
palpus that are attached at the end of each
maxilla. Fascicles are three long and slender
stylets that are supported within the labial
palps. The maxillary lacinae are the two outer
stylets of the fascicle, which are serrated and
blade-like. As for the median epipharynx, this
is the central stylet of the fascicle, joining the
maxillae in order to form a tube-like food
canal. The heads of termites are rather small,
and it also usually bears a median ocelius.
Lastly, termites also possess a pair of salivary
glands that consist of lobed acini that are
connected by salivary canals. From these
canals are also salivary reservoirs that are
used to store water and increase humidity
when needed (Gallagher, 2010).

Gallagher, N. (2010). Structure and function

of salivary reservoirs of the eastern
Subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes
(Kollar). Retrieved from
https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/sen
d_file/send?accession=osu1282067420&disp
osition=inline
Wilson, T. & Bowman, W. (2020, October 8).
How fleas work. Retrieved from
https://animals.howstuffworks.com/insects/fle
a1.htm

Slide 89

Order Diptera are classified as the true flies.

It is considered to be a large order with an
estimated 1,000,000 species, consisting of
organisms with functional front wings. They
have reduced knoblike hind wings.
Furthermore, their mouthparts are variable
like body form. Some examples include crane
flies, hoverflies, mosquitoes, horseflies,
midges and gnats. Adults are often vectors of
diseases while their larval form usually
damages vegetables and domestic animals.
From this, it can be said that they undergo
complete metamorphosis (Pechenik, 2015).

Pechenik, Jan A. (2015). Biology of the

Invertebrates (7th ed). Boston:McGraw-Hill.

Slide 90

A compound eye is a visual organ found in

arthropods such as insects and crustaceans.
It may consist of thousands of ommatidia
which is a structure containing lots of
photoreceptor cells surrounded by support
cells and pigment cells. Also, it has cornea
and lens which are able to distinguish colors
and brightness. The image a compound eye
can generate is a combination of what the
thousands of ommatidium can input, oriented
at different angles, however, it can only
generate low resolution images at very large
angles which is why organisms from this
order are able to detect fast movement and,
in some cases, the polarization of light.

"Senses. Insect eyes''. Insects and Spiders of

the World. Volume 8: Scorpion fly - Stink Bug.
New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2003. p. 459.
ISBN 978-0761473428.
Slide 91

Species Scientific Name: Culex sp. Aedes sp.

Anopheles sp

A typical mosquito has 3 body regions: head,

thorax and abdomen. The head of mosquitos
is its sensory center. It is where the
compound eye, antennae, and proboscis are
located. The head is nearly spherical in
shape and is dominated by two large
compound eyes, which are excellent visual
organs, even in low-light situations. Secondly
it has a paired antennae between the eyes
that serve as both chemosensory and
mechanosensory (sound detecting) organs.
Lastly, it has a proboscis which is the
elongate mouthpart of a mosquito. It is
composed of a ventral sheath, which holds
the styliform (needlelike) elements that pierce
host flesh, deliver mosquito saliva and
transport blood. At the tip of the proboscis are
the labella, two sensory lobes (usually
appearing fused) that mosquitoes use to
locate host blood vessels. During blood
feeding, the labium bends and remains
outside with the two lobes on the tip (labella)
making direct contact with the host's skin. All
six fascicles of the stylet are inserted in the
host's skin, i.e., a pair of maxillae, a pair of
mandibles, the hypopharynx, and the labrum.

“Mosquitoes Use 6 Needles To Suck Your

Blood”. (2016). Retrieved from
https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/201
6/06/07/480653821/watch-mosquitoes-use-6-
needles-to-suck-your-blood
 Slide 92

A life cycle of a mosquito starts when a

female mosquito lays eggs in containers
holding water. Often mosquitoes lay eggs laid
side by side and stick together to form rafts.
After about days or months, the eggs start to
hatch in larvae especially when they are
covered in water. These larvae live in water,
feed on tiny food particles, dead plants and
algae. The larvae require air to breathe so
they have a specialized body part called the
“siphon” or airtube used to breathe air at the
water's surface. Then their skin starts to
change and develop into pupae as fast as 5
days, a process called molting. A pupa is
comma-shaped and rolls and tumbles in
water. This form does not eat then they
develop into adult flying mosquitoes in 2-3
days. Adult mosquitoes (female) can fly and
feed on blood, while male mosquitoes can
feed on plant nectar and juices.

“Life Cycle”. (n.d). Retrieved from

https://www.mosquito.org/page/lifecycle.

Part 3

Slide 94

They live in temperate and tropical regions -

mandible bear teeth and a thick fringe of
setae, lies beneath. They have a
ventro-lateral surface of the head; beneath it,
mandibles are two pairs of maxillae. A pair of
FORCIPULES- covers their mouth
appendages. They have poison claws;
appendages of first trunk segment

For protection:
a. last pair of legs in centipedes
b. scolopendromorpha and geophilomorpha
with repugnatorial glands on ventral side of
each segment
c. male lithobiomorpha centipedes possess
glands on the coxae of the last four pairs of
legs (for water uptake and production of
pheromones)

For locomotion: they are adapted for running.

They have tergal plates- to overcome
tendency to undulate; geophilomorpha
adapted for burrowing.

For nutrition: they are predators

For gas exchange: except in

scutigeromorpha, the spiracles of the tracheal
system lie in the membranous pleural
region above and just behind the coxae.

For excretion: they have a single pair of

malpighian tubules.

Sense organs: all geophilomorpha and some

scolopendromorpha lack eyes.

Slide 95

A normal centipede can grow up to 3-6cm

(30cm). Its body tagmata consists of the
head, trunk. It may or may not contain eyes
(1). But it can have many ocelli or compound
eyes found in Scutigeromorpha. It has an
antennae which is elongated. Their hind legs
are often antenna-like. They have
ectognathous mandibles, 1st maxillae with
fused coxae, 2nd maxialle with limb-like
processes, labrum, poison claws
(maxillipeds) as their mouthparts. They have
about 15-191 pairs of legs in adults. For
respiration, they have paired spiracles on
trunk segments in the pleural region, but
those scutigeromorpha open in dorsal tergite.
Their gonopore is located on the legless
terminal segment. Their distinguishing feature
is their poison claws, one pair of legs per
trunk segment; usually the last pair of limbs
elongate, antenna-like.
Slide 96

Centipedes have a flattened, segmented

body, long antennae, and many legs (each
leg is slightly longer than the one in front of
it). Centipedes have from 15 to about 177
segments (but most have about 15).

Each body segment has one pair of jointed

legs attached to it. When a leg is cut off it will
regenerate (grow back). The body is divided
into two parts, the head and a segmented
trunk. Centipedes breathe through spiracles,
holes positioned along the length of the body.

Centipede head

The centipede's head is quite flat and

covered with a round or oval shield. It carries
a pair of prominent antennae, which are the
animal's major sense organs, enabling it to
smell and feel its way around. Many of the
species are quite blind, but some carry a
number of simple eyes on the front of their
head shield. Even so, with a few notable
exceptions, their eyesight is very poor.

The underside of the head bears a pair of

stout jaws and two pairs of accessory jaws or
maxillae, which hold the food whilst it is being
chewed.

Curving around the sides of the head are a

pair of stout poison claws with which the
centipede catches and kills its prey. The
poison produced by these claws is very
strong and some of the large tropical
centipedes can give a man a very painful and
sometimes dangerous bite. Our British
species however, are quite harmless,
because they are all small and rarely able to
pierce the skin.

Centipedes, like all arthropods, lack internal

skeletons. Instead, they are covered with a
hard exoskeleton made of cuticle, which
protects the soft internal organs and also
serves as an attachment point for the
centipede's muscles. Most of the cuticle
consists of chitin, which is the same
substance found in crab shells.

Slide 97

Gonopods are the most variable anatomical

structures in the Polydesmida. The gonopod
itself usually consists of a gonocoxa and a
telopodite. In some Polydesmida the
telopodite pivots on the gonocoxa, while in
other Polydesmida the two elements are
fused together. The gonocoxae may be small
or massive, 'hairy' with setae or relatively
bare, entirely within the aperture (image
above, left) or largely outside the aperture
(image below, left), attached to the aperture
rim or free. In some polydesmidan groups the
two gonocoxae are fused together into a
syncoxite. In other groups the two gonocoxae
are only lightly joined along their median
edges, and in Paradoxosomatidae the two
gonocoxae are entirely separate.

Male gonopods are in the form of setose

stylets. Female gonopods are larger and
biarticulate.

Slide 99

These are millipedes or thousand leggers.

They are secretive; largely -shun light living
beneath leaves, soil, logs and bark. They
have diplose segments derived from fusion of
2 originally separate somites; each
diplosegment has 2 pairs of legs. Their head
is convex dorsally and flattened ventrally;
sides are covered by the convex bases of the
large mandibles. Their biting edge of
mandible with teeth and a rasping surface.
They have gnathochilarium - fused pairs of
maxillae forming the oral chamber floor. Their
trunk is dorsoventrally flattened in flat back
millipedes. They have collum which is
extreme anterior segment, legless, forms a
large collar behind the head

Their integument is hard particularly tergites

impregnated with calcium salts; surface is
smooth

Protective mechanisms include the :

i. calcareous skeleton
ii. coiling of the trunk into a spiral when at rest
or disturbed
iii. repugnatorial glands - usually a pair per
segment, consist of large secretory sac,
components of the
secretion include aldehyde, quinones, quinols
and hydrogen cyanide

For nutrition: most are herbivorous, eating

mostly on decomposing vegetation; some are
omnivorous; digestive tract is typically a
straight tube with a long midgut

For Gas exchange, internal transport and

secretion : 4 spiracles per diplosegment
located on the sterna; each opens in an
internal tracheal pouch from which arise
different trachea. Heart ends blindly at the
posterior end of the trunk but anteriorly, a
short aorta continues into the head, 2 lateral
ostia for each segment. Two malpighian
tubules arise from each side of the midgut -
hindgut junction and often long and looped

Sense organs: eyes may be totally lacking; 2

to 80 ocelli, arranged above the antennae,
most are negatively phototactic with
integumental photoreceptors; antennae with
tactile hairs and peg-like and cone-like
projections supplied with chemoreceptors

For Reproduction and development: a pair of

long Rise tubular ovaries lying between the
midgut and ventral nerve cord with 2 oviducts
-- sperm transfer is indirect
-- development is anamorphic
Slide 100

Millipedes have a segmented body, short

antennae, and many legs. Most body
segments have two pairs of legs that stick out
from the sides of the body (each segment is
really 2 segments fused together). The
segments that have two pairs of legs are
called diplosomites. The first few segments
have only one pair of legs; they are called
somites. The second-to-last segment has no
legs. The last segment is called the anal
segment; it is where waste (in the form of
pellets) leaves the body. Most millipedes have
from 25 to 100 segments (47 to 197 pairs of
legs). The legs move in a wave-like motion.

The body is divided into two parts, the head

and a segmented trunk. Millipedes breathe
through spiracles, holes positioned in paris
along the body. The top of each segment is
called the tergite (or tergum); the underside
(between the pairs of legs) is called the
sternite (or sternum). Millipedes have poor to
no vision. Millipedes range in size from a
fraction of an inch to about 9 inches (23 cm)
long.

Slide 101

The myriapod body plan is elongated and

composed of numerous segments. Each
segment, except for the head and anal
segments, bears either one (centipedes) or
two (millipedes) pairs of legs, although the
first few segments in millipedes bear only one
pair of legs. They have one pair of antennae
on the head, Simple eyes, Mandibles (lower
jaw) and maxillae (upper jaw). They also
have a Respiratory exchange occurring
through a tracheal system.
Slide 102 (REPEAT)

Slide 103

Gonopods are specialized appendages of

various arthropods used in reproduction or
egg-laying. In males, they facilitate the
transfer of sperm from male to female during
mating, and thus are a type of intromittent
organ. In crustaceans and millipedes,
gonopods are modified walking or swimming
legs. Myriapods have a male gonopod which
consists of a bulbous base from which
extends a small coxal endite and a large
conspicuous telopodite.

Slide 106

Branchiopoda are small crustaceans with

foliaceous trunk appendages. They are
mostly inhabitants of freshwater
environments. It comprises fairy shrimp, clam
shrimp, Cladocera, Notostraca and the
Devonian Lepidocaris. They are mostly small
that feed on plankton and detritus.
Slide 107

Horizontal transmission occurs when infected

hosts die and spores are released from the
cadaver to the environment. Environmental
spores can survive outside the host for
several weeks to months (e.g., the entire
winter) and can survive the temporary
disappearance of their hosts. Infected
females can transmit the parasite to their
parthenogenetic sons and daughters through
vertical (transovarial) transmission. Vertical
transmission also occurs in the sexual cycle
through the resting eggs. Finally, ephippia
may serve as a vehicle for parasite dormancy
and dispersal, with a new cycle of vertical
and/or horizontal transmission starting after
hatching. Red thick arrows, transmission of
parasite; black broken arrows, growth of
hosts; thin black arrow, interaction between
two hosts

Slide 108

Anostraca is one of the four orders of

crustaceans in the class Branchiopoda; its
members are also known as fairy shrimp.
They live in vernal pools and hypersaline
lakes across the world, and they have even
been found in deserts, ice-covered mountain
lakes and Antarctic ice. They are usually
6–25 mm (0.24–0.98 in) long (exceptionally
up to 170 mm or 6.7 in). Most species have
20 body segments, bearing 11 pairs of
leaf-like phyllopodia (swimming legs), and the
body lacks a carapace. They swim
"upside-down" and feed by filtering organic
particles from the water or by scraping algae
from surfaces. They are an important food for
many birds and fish, and some are cultured
and harvested for use as fish food. There are
300 species spread across 8 families.
Slide 109

Fairy Shrimp cysts hatch as soon as there is

water in the vernal pools. Individuals grow
quickly and can reach maturity in 18-60 days
depending upon species and the pool
conditions. After the adults mate, cysts begin
to develop in the female’s brood pouch. Once
the cysts are fully formed, they are released
and sink to the vernal pool bottom. The
female may mate again and repeat the
process. A single female can produce several
hundred cysts during one season. The cysts
usually remain dormant until the next year’s
rain, but they can last for decades.

Slide 110

Maxillopoda is a diverse class of crustaceans

including barnacles, copepods and a number
of related animals. It does not appear to be a
monophyletic group, and no single character
unites all the members.

They commonly have shortened bodies, with

a reduced abdomen that typically lacks
appendages. It has been suggested that the
ancestor common to all maxillopoda
developed sexual maturity before it had
completely metamorphosed into the adult
form. If this hypothesis is correct, it would
explain the small size, shortened body plan
and reduced number of appendages typically
found in Maxillopoda.

Slide 111

An acorn barnacle is a conical, sessile animal

whose soft body is contained within a cavity
protected by an outer wall. This wall
comprises an even number of calcareous
plates cemented to the substratum. An
opening at the top can be closed by two pairs
of plates (an operculum) through which
feathery, jointed legs (cirri) can be extended
into the water to capture small drifting plants
and animals (plankton).

Adults are hermaphroditic – they are both

male and female – but they cannot self
fertilize and must mate with other individuals
to successfully reproduce. Like most
crustaceans, this species reproduces via
internal fertilization. For a species that
includes individuals that cannot move, that
can be a difficult process. Fortunately,
individuals of this species have extremely
long penises – the longest penises (relative to
body size) of the animal world. While the
adult body size is typically not larger than a
half inch (1.25 cm), the penis can be three
inches long (7.5 cm), six times the length of
the body. Using this organ, individuals can
pass and receive sperm to and from their
neighbors. Individuals that are more than
three inches away from any neighbor cannot
reproduce. Even more interestingly, the penis
dissolves at the end of the mating season
and grows back each year.

Slide 112

The life cycle of a barnacle has three phases:

1) a pelagic, suspension-feeding nauplius
larva, 2) a pelagic, non-feeding cypris larva,
and 3) a benthic (or attached, drifting)
suspension-feeding adult.

Nauplius stage
A fertilized egg hatches into a nauplius: a one
eyed larva comprising a head and a telson,
without a thorax or abdomen. This undergoes
6 molts before transforming into the bivalved
cyprid stage. Nauplii are typically initially
brooded by the parent, and released as
free-swimming larvae after the first molt.

Cyprid stage
The cyprid stage lasts from days to weeks.
During this part of the life cycle, the barnacle
searches for a place to settle. It explores
potential surfaces with modified antennules
structures; once it has found a potentially
suitable spot, it attaches head-first using its
antennules, and a secreted glycoproteins
substance. Larvae are thought to assess
surfaces based upon their surface texture,
chemistry, relative wettability, colour and the
presence/absence and composition of a
surface biofilm; swarming species are also
more likely to attach near to other barnacles.
As the larva exhausts its finite energy
reserves, it becomes less picky in the sites it
selects. If the spot is to its liking, it is
cementing down permanently with another
proteinaceous compound. This
accomplished, it undergoes metamorphosis
into a juvenile barnacle.

Adult stage
Typical acorn barnacles develop sixhard
calcareous plates to surround and protect
their bodies. For the rest of their lives they
are cemented to the ground, using their
feathery legs (cirri) to capture plankton.

Once metamorphosis is over and they have

reached their adult form, barnacles will
continue to grow by adding new material to
their heavily calcified plates. These plates are
not moulted; however, like all ecdysozoans,
the barnacle itself will still molt its cuticle.

Slide 113

Copepods are a group of small crustaceans

found in nearly every freshwater and
saltwater habitat. Some species are
planktonic (inhabiting sea waters), some are
benthic (living on the ocean floor), a number
of species have parasitic phases, and some
continental species may live in limno
terrestrial habitats and other wet terrestrial
places, such as swamps, under leaf fall in wet
forests, bogs, springs, ephemeral ponds, and
puddles, damp moss, or water-filled recesses
(phytotelmata) of plants such as bromeliads
and pitcher plants. Many live underground in
marine and freshwater caves, sinkholes, or
stream beds. Copepods are sometimes used
as biodiversity indicators.

Calanoids can be distinguished from other

planktonic copepods by having first antennae
at least half the length of the body and
biramous second antennae.However, their
most distinctive anatomical trait is the
presence of a joint between the fifth and sixth
body segments. The largest specimens reach
18 millimetres (0.71 in) long, but most do not
exceed 0.5–2.0 mm (0.02–0.08 in) long.

Slide 114

Copepod bodies are divided into two regions,

the forward region is the prosome and the
back region the urosome. These regions are
separated by the major articulation or flexing
point in the body. Different copepod groups
have different numbers of segments in the
prosome, so no generalization can be made.

Calanoid copepods have enlarged first

antennae which they often use for swimming.
Calanoids can also be distinguished by a
broad prosomes and narrow urosome
whereas harpacticoida prosome and urosome
have similar widths. In both groups all
appendages are found on the proximal
segments except for the spinney appendages
on the last body segment called the caudal
ramus.
The Cyclopoida are an order of small
crustaceans from the subclass Copepoda.
Like many other copepods, members of
Cyclopoida are small, planktonic animals
living both in the sea and in freshwater
habitats. They are capable of rapid
movement. Their larval development is
metamorphic, and the embryos are carried in
paired or single sacs attached to the first
abdominal somite.

Harpacticoida is an order of copepods, in the

subphylum Crustacea. This order comprises
463 genera and about 3,000 species; its
members are benthic copepods found
throughout the world in the marine
environment (most families) and in fresh
water (essentially the Ameiridae,
Parastenocarididae and the
Canthocamptidae). A few of them are
planktonic or live in association with other
organisms. Harpacticoida represents the
second-largest meiofaunal group in marine
sediments, after nematodes
Slide 115

A "copepod" is a type of zooplankton, a

planktonic crustacean distantly related to
shrimp and crabs. Copepods are one of the
most common and easily recognized types of
zooplankton, found in almost every ocean,
sea, and freshwater habitat, even in
underground caverns. Copepods hatch from
eggs, spending the first part of their lives as a
mite-like, larval "nauplius". The nauplii then
molts into a juvenile "copepodite" stage,
which has a form similar to the adult. The
copepodites eventually develop into the adult
form when they sexually mature.

Slide 116 (DON’T INCLUDE)

Slide 117

Isopods are characterized with dorsoventrally

flattened peracarida with sessile compound
eyes and lacking a carapace. Their thorax
has 1 pair of maxillipeds and 7 pairs of
pereopods. Lastly, some of their abdominal
segments may be fused with telson.
Slide 118

The isopod body is typically dorsoventrally

flattened but in Armadillidium and some
others, the body is strongly arched and the
flattening is not striking. The body is
conspicuously segmented.

The isopod cuticle has the same general

construction as that of other arthropods. The
woodlice, as terrestrial animals, might be
expected to have a waxy waterproof layer but
this is not the case. Desiccation, or its
avoidance, is a major problem facing
woodlice but one they have solved
satisfactorily, mostly behaviorally. So
satisfactory are the solutions that some
inhabit deserts.

Like that of all malacostracans, the isopod

body consists of an anterior head, middle
thorax, and posterior abdomen. The head
consists of five segments, the thorax eight,
and the abdomen six. Only one thoracic
segment is fused to the head to form a
cephalothorax.

The small cephalothorax is visible dorsally as

the first region of the body. It bears the
compound eyes, five pairs of head
appendages, and a pair of maxillipeds, which
are the appendages of the first thoracic
segment. The segments making up the
cephalothorax are fused indistinguishably.

Slide 119

The abdomen is composed of six segments

of which the last, or sixth, is fused with the
telson (which, by itself, is not a true segment).
Abdominal appendages are pleopods. The
appendages of the sixth abdominal segment
are uropods.

The medial rami of the biramous pleopods

are very soft with a thin cuticle and are the
gas exchange surfaces, or gills. They are
covered and protected by the lateral rami,
which are more heavily sclerotized and
harder.
Slide 120

Amphipods have laterally compressed

peracarida with sessile compound eyes and
lacking a carapace. Their thorax has 1 pair of
maxillipeds and 7 pairs of pereopods.
Moreover, they have 3 pairs of abdominal
appendages modified as uropods.

Slide 121

Morphologically, amphipods have no

carapace, two pairs of prominent antennae,
and compound sessile eyes, and are
generally laterally compressed. The body
plan of a typical amphipod contains thirteen
segments, which can be divided into three
regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. The
head region is fused to the thorax and has
two pairs of prominent antennae that are
uniramous, with the first pair typically longer,
and one pair of sessile compound eyes. The
first pair of antennae has three basilar joints.
Mouthparts on the head are generally
concealed but are divided into an upper lip, a
pair of mandibles, two pairs of maxillae, one
pair of maxillipeds, and a lower lip. The
thorax and abdomen are very distinct and
possess different kinds of legs. The thorax
contains eight pairs of uniramous
appendages, the first of which are used as
accessory mouthparts while the next four
pairs are projected forward, and the last three
pairs are directed posteriorly. The abdomen
of an amphipod is further divided into two
parts: the pleosome, which contains the
swimming legs, and the urosome, which is
made up of a telson and three pairs of
uropods.
Slide 122

Euphausiacea (krills) are characterized with

thoracic appendages biramous and anterior
ones not modified as maxillipeds. Their gills
are not tightly enclosed by carapace.
Examples are marine, pelagic, and
euphausia.

Slide 123

The crustacean order Stomatopoda

comprises seven superfamilies of mantis
shrimps, found in coastal waters of the tropics
and subtropics. These marine carnivores
bear notable raptorial appendages for
smashing or spearing prey. They use these
appendages to smash through the shells of
bivalve mollusks and other hard-shelled prey
and to stab fish and other soft-bodied
animals.

Slide 124

Decapod, (order Decapoda), any of more

than 8,000 species of crustaceans (phylum
Arthropoda) that include shrimp, lobsters,
crayfish, hermit crabs, and crabs. The first 3
pairs of thoracic appendages are maxillipeds.
They also have gills tightly enclosed by sides
of the carapace.
Slide 125

Adult lobsters are able to live on the seafloor

for 20 years or more. They can lay up to 1M
eggs that can develop on the tail of each
female lobster before being released into the
sea. Eggs hatch into planktonic phyllosoma
larvae. They develop into peurulus which
swims across the continental shelf. Juveniles
are able to spend 1-2 years in the inshore
areas. Sub adults move offshore to mid-shelf
areas. Adults mature at 2 to 3 years. Lastly,
strait adults breed in reef areas.

Slide 126

The basic body plan of all lobsters,

regardless of infraorder and family, consists
of two parts: the cephalothorax which
represents the fusion of the head (or
cephalon) and the thorax, and the abdomen,
which is often misnamed as the tail. Fourteen
fused segments (or somites) comprise the
cephalothorax and each bears a pair of
appendages.

The first segment carries the eyes, which are

movable, stalked, and compound; the second
bears the antennules which are carried on a
three-segmented peduncle (foot). The
antennules are bifurcated (divided into two
flagella) and carry chemosensory organs.
These organs are the functional "nose" of the
lobster. The third segment bears the
antennae which consists of a five-segmented
peduncle and a single flagellum. These are
tactile organs. The last three cephalic (four
through six) and first three thoracic segments
(seven through nine) bear the mouthparts,
which are named, starting with those borne
upon segment four, the mandibles (or jaws),
first maxillae, second maxillae, first
maxillipeds, second maxillipeds, and third
maxillipeds. The first and second maxillae
and first maxillipeds are flat, leaf-like plates
used to pass food back to the jaws for
crushing and ingestion. The second and third
maxillipeds are more leg-like so that they can
grip food. The mouth is covered by upper
(labrum) and lower (paragnath) lips.

The remaining segments (ten through

fourteen) bear the five pairs of thoracic
walking legs, or pereiopods. In the
Nephropidae, the first three legs end in a
chela or pincer, with the first chelae being the
largest (referred to as the claws). These legs
are used in food acquisition and bear many
taste organs. The fourth and fifth legs lack
pincers, ending in a pointed dactyl, and are
mainly used for grooming and walking. In
females, the opening of the oviducts (through
which eggs are released) is located at the
base of the third walking legs, while in males,
the opening of the sperm duct is located on
the base of the fifth walking legs

Slide 127

A lobster consists of two main parts. The first

part, the cephalothorax, which is made up of
the cephalon (the head) and the thorax (the
mid-section), is often called the body of the
lobster and is covered by a hard shell called
the carapace. The second part that makes up
the lobster is the abdomen, which is
commonly called the tail. The 14 segments
that are fused together to make up the
cephalothorax are called somites and each
somite bears a pair of appendages that are
located on different areas of the lobster,
usually on either side of the body or on the
underside of the body.

The eyes of the lobster are found on the first

segment, and are housed at the end of two
individual, movable stalks found on either
side of the rostrum (the very tip of the
cephalon). Each eye is actually made up of
thousands of little lenses joined together,
which is why they are called compound eyes.
You would think that with all these “tiny eyes”
that lobsters would have excellent vision, but
ironically they do not. In fact, in bright light a
lobster is practically blind. Lobsters cannot
really see specific images but they can detect
motion in dim light.

The second segment of the cephalothorax

bears the antennules, which are carried on a
three-segmented peduncle (foot) and contain
the chemosensory organs. The
chemoreceptors found in these short
antennae detect distant odors or chemical
signals that are carried by the seawater.
These messages received by the antennules
help a lobster find food, choose a mate and
decide if danger is near. More than 400
different types of receptors found on the
delicate hairs of the antennules are sensitive
enough to allow a lobster to distinguish
between particular species of mussels. The
antennae, which consist of a five-segmented
peduncle and a single flagellum, are located
on the third segment. These antennas are
much longer than the antennules and are
used as sense organs as well.

The last three segments of the cephalon and

the first three segments of the thorax are
where the mouthparts are located. The many
mouths of the lobster have a variety of
functions and are found on the underside of
the lobster. Some are used to grip food such
as the second and third maxillipeds. Others,
such as the first and second maxillae and the
first maxillipeds are used to pass this food
along to the jaws, also called the mandibles,
for crushing and ingestion. The Jaws are
located on the fourth segment of the
cephalothorax, and the other mouths are
located on segments 5-9.

The remaining segments of the

cephalothorax are where one finds the
walking legs of the lobster and what are
commonly called the claws. These five legs
(including the claws) are located on segments
10-14, and are joined to the lobster on either
side of the body. The first three pairs of legs
end in pincers, which are sharp, small,
scissor-like claws that are used in handling
and tasting food. Tiny hairs that line the inside
of the pincers are sensitive to touch and
taste. The first legs with the largest and
sharpest pincers are called the claws. One
claw is actually called the pincer claw, but the
other is called the crusher claw. The crusher
claw, being the larger of the two, is more
powerful and is used to crush the shells of the
lobster’s prey. The pincer claw is like a razor
and is used to tear the soft flesh of the prey.

Slide 128

The remaining two pairs of appendages are

both sensory antennae. The biramous
second antennae are by far the larger of the
two pairs. The nephridiopore, the external
opening of the kidney, is on the base of the
second antennae. The base of the antennae
includes modified segments.

The remaining five pairs of abdominal

appendages are pleopods 1-5 (counting from
anterior to posterior). Pairs 2-5 are biramous,
narrow, and whiplike. The pleopods of
females are used to carry the eggs. The first
pleopods of males (called gonopods) are
uniramous and are modified for sperm
transfer. Adult male crayfish can be either
first form or second form. The gonopods of
first form (reproductive) males are
sclerotized, hard, and amber-colored; those
of second form (non-reproductive) males are
unsclerotized, soft, and white. Adult crayfish
seasonally cycle between first form and
second form. In females, all pleopods are
similar and there is a flattened ‘donut’ shaped
gonopore between the last pair of walking
legs.

The five segments of the thorax bear five

pairs of pereopods (‘walking legs’) - for a total
of 10 appendages (which accounts for the
name Decapoda = 10 feet). Pereopods are
uniramous.

The space below the carapace is the

branchial chamber and it contains the gills.
The gills are feathery, white, filamentous
processes that are part of the thoracic
appendages.
Slide 129

The carapace has two long lateral spines and

several strong teeth on each anterolateral
margin. The posterior margin of the carapace
is smooth or minutely beaded. The lateral
extensions of the carapace, known as
branchiostegite, enclose large branchial
chambers which house the gills.

On the anterior edge of the carapace, on

each side of the midline are two shallow,
notched excava­tions. These are the orbits,
from which the eyestalks pro­trude. Each has
a compound eye at its distal end. Anteriorly
the cephalothorax bears a small anterior,
median process, the rostrum

Slide 130

On the ventral surface locate the abdomen

flexed beneath the thorax. The abdomen is
also called the pleon, its segments are
pleomeres, and its appendages are pleopods.
In true crabs (i.e. Brachyura, such as
Callinectes and Cancer) the abdomen is a
small segmented structure whose shape
varies with sex and maturity. In mature
females it is broad with convex sides and
covers most of the posterior ventral surface of
the thorax. In immature females the
abdomen is a nearly equilateral triangle
whereas the abdomen of males is very
narrow although it has a broad base.
Determine the sex of your specimen from the
shape of the abdomen.

Extend the abdomen so it is no longer flexed

but points posteriorly from the thorax as it
would in a crayfish or shrimp. In the dorsal
view most of its segments are easily seen
and can be counted, especially in females.
The small, triangular, terminal portion is the
telson, which is not a true segment. Most
malacostracans have six abdominal
segments plus the terminal telson. In female
blue crabs the six segments are independent
of each other and five of them are visible, the
first being hidden by the carapace. In males,
segment 1 is hidden under the edge of the
carapace, segment 2 is visible and wide, and
3, 4, and 5 are visible but fused together and
narrowed posteriorly. Segment 6 is separate,
slender, and has the telson attached to its
end. (The segments differ in other genera).

The transparent, membranous intestine runs

along the ventral midline of the abdomen,
under the thin membranous ventral
exoskeleton, and terminates at the anus on
the telson. It may be filled with dark feces in
which case it is easier to see. Press its
posterior end with a probe to extrude feces
from the anus, thereby confirming its position.

Slide 131

On the ventral surface of the thorax is a

median, longitudinal groove hidden by the
abdomen. The abdomen of the male
occupies this groove and in females the
gonopores are in its walls. The female
gonopores are large triangular openings in
the sternites of the sixth thoracic segment, in
line with the third pair of legs. Male
gonopores are located at the tip of the
inconspicuous penis on the last leg and will
be seen later.

Slide 132

The large, triangular, firm, beige or greyish

mass of gills occupies the branchial chamber
in the space medial to the lateral spine
(mostly posterior to the lateral spine in
Cancer). The gills are sometimes called
"dead man's fingers".

The triangular mass of gills is covered by a

very thin, transparent membrane which you
should avoid damaging. Posterior to each
gill chamber is a heavy endoskeletal plate
called the flanc that covers the powerful
swimming muscles of pereopod 5. These
muscles are the "backfin" crabmeat of the
seafood industry. (In Cancer the skeletal
plate enclosing the muscles of the last leg is
not markedly larger than those of the other
legs). The soft, white or gray heart lies on
the midline posterior to the stomach and
between the flancs.

Slide 133

The opaque white or gray heart lies in a

haemocoelic space known as the pericardial
sinus. This unlined, blood-filled region in the
hemocoel is not a coelom and should not be
called a peri­cardium, although it often is.
The heart has three pairs of large ostia, two
dorsal and one lateral, through which blood
enters the heart. The heart is suspended by
numerous elastic suspensory ligaments that
run to the surrounding tissues. These
ligaments are stretched during systole
(contraction) and then return to their original
length when the heart muscles relax during
diastole. This restores the heart to its
original size and volume and results in the
influx of blood through one-way valves in the
ostia into the heart lumen.

The heart of living specimens may be

beating. Contractions of the heart pump
blood anteriorly, ventrally, and posteriorly via
a set of seven arteries. The arteries are
difficult to observe in fresh specimens but
some, or all, of them are usually visible in
preserved animals. The arteries branch
repeatedly until, by the time they reach the
tissues, their diameter is that of capillaries.

The blood leaves the capillaries and bathes

the tissues. It then flows into the hemocoel,
passes through the gills, and then drains
back into the cardiac hemocoel. When the
heart relaxes, the valves of the ostia open
and admit blood to the heart lumen. Upon
contraction the valves close and blood enters
the arteries.

The blood, or hemolymph, contains the

respiratory pigment hemocyanin, which is
colorless when deoxygenated and pale blue
when oxygenated. The pigment is in solution
in the hemolymph.
Slide 134

Crabs mate oftenly during spring and

summer. The adult male and female come
belly to belly and wrap their jointed limbs
around each other in an armour plated
embrace. Sperm is transferred from the male
to the female. Once fertilized, the eggs are
carried under the wide tail of the female.
Each egg is attached by a fine stem to the tail
of the mother. They are well protected from
predators and damage. Inside each egg there
is a store of yolk for the developing crab to
feed on during the one to two month
incubation period.

Baby or larval crabs called zoea larvae hatch

from their eggs and drift away from their
mother. They have a crusty outer skin and
jointed limbs, are transparent, have a
segmented tail used for swimming and spikes
on their upper body for protection.

Once released the mother never sees her

young again. Along with hundreds of
thousands of brothers and sisters they drift
along with the ocean current. Now part of the
plankton community they filter the water to
find smaller plankton to eat. Life in the
plankton is hazardous.

Their clear colour makes them hard for

predators to see, but this does not stop fish
and invertebrates feeding on them.

These larvae increase in size through a

process called moulting. To grow, the larval
crab sheds its outer skin and forms a larger
one. After moulting 4-5 times the crab
changes into a megalopa larva. This stage
looks more like the parent. It has little nippers
and 4 jointed legs on either side. Its tail is still
visible and is used for swimming. This stage
lasts for a couple of days, then settling to the
bottom and changes into a juvenile crab.

The juvenile is a tiny version of the parent.

The outer skin now has colour to match the
surroundings. The tail is tucked underneath
the crab's body and the legs are developed
for crawling around the rocks. For many
species their diet changes from filtering
plankton to scavenging for dead plant and
animal material or preying on other bottom
dwelling invertebrates.

Slide 135

Hermit crabs are anomuran decapod

crustaceans of the superfamily Paguroidea
that have adapted to occupy empty
scavenged mollusc shells to protect their
fragile exoskeletons.There are over 800
species of hermit crab, most of which
possess an asymmetric abdomen concealed
by a snug-fitting shell. Hermit crabs'
non-calcified abdominal exoskeleton makes
their exogenous shelter system obligatory.
Hermit crabs must occupy shelter produced
by other organisms, or risk being
defenseless.