Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.

R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Lecture no. 5

Structure and functions of insect cuticle and molting (definition &

importance)

Structure of insect cuticle

The insect exoskeleton is usually called a cuticle. The cuticle is the characteristic
feature of arthropods and is to a large extent responsible for the success of insects as
terrestrial animals. The body wall or integument is the outer layer of insect and bends
inwards at various points to form supporting ridges or braces. The body wall of insect is
composed of three principal layers: the cuticle, epidermis and basement membrane.

General structure of the insect cuticle

Cuticle: The cuticle is an outer layer which contains a characteristic chemical

compounds called chitin, proteins and pigments. The cuticle is made up of three
principal layers: epicuticle, exocuticle and endocuticle. The exo- and endo- cuticle
together referred as procuticle.
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

A. Epicuticle: Epicuticle is the outer, thin, delicate layer without any chitin and may
have four sub- layers

I. Cement layer: The cement layer is very thin layer outside most of wax layer and
consists of mucopolysaccharide. It protects underlying wax and not produced by
all insects. It is secreted by dermal glands and protects the body from external
damage.
II. Wax layer: The wax layer contains many different compounds but wax comprises
over 90%. It is consisting of long chain hydrocarbons, esters of fatty acids and
alcohols. It serves as water proof layer preventing water loss from the body.
III. Polyphenol layer or Inner epicuticle: it is the thickest layer of 0.5 to 2.0 µm
immediately outside the procuticle and chemically consists of tanned lipoproteins.
It is a non-static layer containing various types of phenols which are mainly used
in resistant to acids and organic solvents.
IV. Cuticulin layer or outer epicuticle: This is very thin trilaminar layer only of about
15 nm. It is the first formed layer of new cuticle product at each molt protecting
the new procuticle from the molting enzymes. The material forming the outer
epicuticle is highly polymerized lipid is often referred to as cuticulin. It serves the
purpose of permeability and also acts as growth barrier.

B. Exocuticle: It is a thicker layer below epicuticle and is often darker and harder than
the rest.

 It contributes rigidity and toughness to the cuticle. The exocuticle is wanting or

considerably reduced in the regions of integument which are more flexible.
 The exocuticle structurally consists mainly of chitin and protein.
 Chitin is a polymerized nitrogenous polysaccharide linked to protein.
 It is pigmented by a hard brown material as is referred to as tanned.
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

 Other constituents of cuticle include quinones which polymerized to form dark

brown or black pigment known as melanin and in others quinones are utilized in
forming sclerotin.

C. Endocuticle: The inner undifferentiated part below the exocuticle is endocuticle and
is characterized by the presence of chitin. Endoskeleton of insect cuticle provides space
for attachment of muscles of antenna and mouthparts, called as Tentorium.

Epidermis: It is a cellular layer of one cell thick beneath endocuticle. The epidermal
cells are glandular and secrete cuticle and the enzymes for the cuticle formation and
digestion at the time of molting. Some of the epidermal cells have specialized glandular
function.

Basement membrane: The basement membrane is also called basal lamila. It is a

noncellular layer beneath epidermis and serves as stable platform where epidermal
cells are anchored and muscles are attached.

Functions of insect cuticle

Being an interface between a living animal and an environment, the cuticle of an

insect serves many functions.

1. It limits the dimensions of an exoskeleton and is a basis for muscle insertions

(mechanical function and function of locomotion).
2. It is an important element in organism defence against a variety of external
factors, such as mechanical stresses, dry, wet, cold or hot environments.
3. It takes part in the transport of diverse epidermal secretions, and serves as a
chemical reservoir for the storage of metabolic waste products.
4. A variety of cuticular structures are parts of mechano- and chemoreceptors.
5. The cuticle, its coloration pattern, and chemical components are important for
thermoregulation, and are often involved in diverse communication systems.
6. Specialised cuticular protuberances may serve a variety of functions, such as
oxygen retention, food grinding, body cleaning (grooming), etc..
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Molting

The molting process is triggered by hormones released when an insect's growth

reaches the physical limits of its exoskeleton. Each molt represents the end of one
growth stage (instar) and the beginning of another. In some insect species the number
of instars is constant (typically from 3 to 5), but in others it may vary in response to
temperature, food availability, or other environmental factors. An insect is known as an
imago (adult) when it becomes sexually mature. At this point, molting stops and energy
for growth is channeled into production of eggs or sperm.

An insect cannot survive without the support and protection of its exoskeleton, so
a new, larger replacement must be constructed inside the old one -- much like putting
an overcoat under a sweater! The molting process begins when epidermal cells respond
to hormonal changes by increasing their rate of protein synthesis. This quickly leads to
apolysis -- physical separation of the epidermis from the old endocuticle. Epidermal
cells fill the resulting gap with an inactive molting fluid and then secrete a special
lipoprotein (the cuticulin layer) that insulates and protects them from the molting fluid's
digestive action. This cuticulin layer becomes part of the new exoskeleton's epicuticle.

After formation of the cuticulin layer, molting fluid becomes activated and
chemically "digests" the endocuticle of the old exoskeleton. Break-down products
(amino acids and chitin microfibrils) pass through the cuticulin layer where they are
recycled by the epidermal cells and secreted under the cuticulin layer as new procuticle
(soft and wrinkled). Pore canals within the procuticle allow movement of lipids and
proteins toward the new epicuticle where wax and cement layers form.

When the new exoskeleton is ready, muscular contractions and intake of air
cause the insect's body to swell until the old exoskeleton splits open along lines of
weakness (ecdysial sutures). The insect sheds its old exoskeleton (ecdysis) and
continues to fully expand the new one. Over the next few hours, sclerites will harden
and darken as quinone cross-linkages form within the exocuticle. This process (called
sclerotization or tanning) gives the exoskeleton its final texture and appearance.
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

An insect that is actively constructing new exoskeleton is said to be in a pharate

condition. During the days or weeks of this process there may be very little evidence of
change. Ecdysis, however, occurs quickly (in minutes to hours). A newly molted insect
is soft and largely unpigmented (white or ivory). It is said to be in a teneral condition
until the process of tanning is completed (usually a day or two).

Summary of Molting

Step 1
Apolysis -- separation of old exoskeleton from epidermis
Step 2
Secretion of inactive molting fluid by epidermis
Step 3
Production of cuticulin layer for new exoskeleton
Step 4
Activation of molting fluid
Step 5
Digestion and absorption of old endocuticle
Step 6
Epidermis secretes new procuticle
Step 7
Ecdysis -- shedding the old exo- and epicuticle
Step 8
Expansion of new integument
Step 9
Tanning -- sclerotization of new exocuticle
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Lecture no. 6

Body segmentation: Structure of head & its types

Insect have segmented bodies with certain segments fusing to form three usually
well defined regions: head, thorax and abdomen. The grouping of segments into
functional regions is known as tagmosis.

Head consists of 6 segments. Head comprises of mouthparts, compound eyes,

simple eyes (ocelli) and a pair of antennae.

Thorax consists of 3 segments i.e. prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.

Meso and metathorax are together known as pterothorax. All the three thoracic
segments possess a pair of legs and meso and meta-thorax each possess one pair of
wings.

Abdomen has 7-11 segments with genital appendages. The 8 and 9 segments
in female and 8 segment in male insects are modified to bear genital appendices.

The outer parts of every segments of body is hard, colored and complex in nature.
There are hard, colored and complex plates in each segments of insect body which is
called sclerites.

 The sclerites present on dorsal side is called tergides,

 Lateral side is called pleurites and
 Ventral side is called sternites.
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Segments except in head (6 segments fused together to form a capsule) joint

together with a flexible soft and white membrane called inter segmental membrane or
suture.

Insect Head

Insect head is a hard and highly sclerotized compact structure. It is the foremost
part in insect body consisting of 6 segments that are fused to form a head capsule. The
head is connected to the thorax by a flexible neck or cervis strengthened by small
cervical sclerites. The head segments can be divided in to two regions i.e. procephalon
and gnathocephalon (mouth).

Sclerites of Head

I. Vertex: Summit of the head between compound eyes.

II. Frons: Facial area below the vertex and above clypeus.
III. Clypeus: Cranial area below the frons to which labrum is attached.
IV. Gena: Lateral cranial area behind the compound eyes.
V. Occiput : Cranial area between occipital and post occipital suture.
Sutures of Head
The linear invaginations of the exoskeleton between two sclerites are called as
suture (some times referred as sulcus).
I. Epicranial suture/ ecdysial line: Inverted `Y' shaped suture found medially on
the top of head, with a median suture (coronal suture) and lateral sutures
(frontal suture).
II. Epistomal suture/ Fronto clypeal suture: Found between frons and clypeus.
(epi –above; stoma- mouth parts)
III. Clypeo-labral suture: Found between clypeus and labrum (upper lip).
IV. Postoccipital suture: Groove bordering occipital foramen. Line indicating the
fusion of maxillary and labial segment.
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Types of head or orientation of Head

The orientation of head with respect to the rest of the body varies. According to
the position or projection of mouth parts, the head of the insect can be classified as:

A) Hypognathous (Hypo – Below: Gnathous – Jaw) The head remain vertical and
is at right angle to the long axis of the body and mouth parts are ventrally placed
and projected downwards. This is also known as Orthopteroid type. Eg:
Grasshopper, Cockroach

B) Prognathous: (Pro – infront: Gnathous – Jaw) the head remains in the same
axis to body and mouth parts are projected forward. This is also known as
Coleopteroid type. Eg: beetles
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

C) Opisthognathous: (Opistho – behind: Gnathous – Jaw) It is same as

prognathous but mouthparts are directed backward and held in between the fore
legs. .This is also known as Hemipteroid or Opisthorhynchous type. E. g: bugs
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Lecture no. 7

Body segmentation: Structure of thorax and abdomen

Structure of thorax

The thorax is the middle body region between the head and abdomen. The insect
thorax has three segments: the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax.

The anterior segment, closest to the head, is the prothorax; its major features are
the first pair of legs and the pronotum.

The middle segment is the mesothorax; its major features are the second pair of
legs and the anterior wings.

The third, the posterior, thoracic segment, abutting the abdomen, is the
metathorax, which bears the third pair of legs and the posterior wings.

Each segment is delineated by an intersegmental suture.

Thoracic segments are made up of three sclerites namely, dorsal body plate
tergum or nota, ventral body plate sternum and lateral plate pleuron.
Each segment has four basic regions

 One thickened dorsal plate on each segment of the body of an insect is called
the tergum (or notum) to distinguish it from the abdominal terga.
 Two lateral regions are called the pleura (singular: pleuron).
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

 One ventral aspect is called the sternum.

In turn, the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum, the notum for the
mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the
metanotum. Continuing with this logic, there is also the mesopleura and metapleura, as
well as the prosternum, mesosternum and metasternum. The inter-segmental
membrane absent between pronotum and prosternum on prothorax.

The legs arise on pleura and wings articulated between notal and pleural region.

Structure of abdomen

The insects abdomen is the third region of the insect body and is often longer
than head and thorax. Insects abdomen usually consists of six (Collembolas) to ten
segments and terminates in the paraproct, where the anus opens. This paraproct may
form a lobe like epiproct above the anus and a pair of leteral paraprocts around it. The
dorsal and ventral abdominal segments are termed terga (singular tergum) and sterna
(singular sternum), respectively. Spiracles usually can be found in the conjunctive tissue
between the terga and sterna of abdominal segments 1-8. Reproductive structures are
located on the 9th segment in males (including the aedeagus, or penis, and often a pair
of claspers) and on the 8th and 9th abdominal segments in females (female external
genitalia copulatory openings and ovipositor).
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Ovipositor

The ovipositor is the egg-laying device found only in female insects. In some
insects, the ovipositor is highly modified and conspicuous. In others, the apparatus may
be needle or blade-like.

Abdominal Appendages

Abdominal appendages of insects can be grouped as

Pre-genital appendages,

Genital appendages and

Post genital appendages.

Pre-genital appendages: Appendages prior to eight segments

a) Styliform appendages: In primitive apterygotes or in non-insect hexapods, there

are pairs of small, unjointed styli each inserted on a basal sclerite called coxa
along with eversible vesicles
b) Collembolan appendages: On the third abdominal segments, a median lobe
called ventral tube projects and at its tip long and tubular eversible vesicles are
present in pair.
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

c) Cornicles or siphunculi: Paired secretory structures located dorsally on the 5th

abdomen of aphids. It project from the dorsum of 5 or 6 or from between them
and have defensive function in most cases. The cornicles produce substances
that repel predators or elicit care- giving behavior by symbiotic ants.
d) Gills: Respiratory organs found in the nymphs (naiads) of certain aquatic insects.
In Ephemeroptera (mayflies), paired gills are located along the sides of each
abdominal segment. In Odonata (damselflies), the gills are attached to the end of
the abdomen. Many larvae of aquatic insects like mayflies may have 6 or 7 pairs
of plate like or filamentous gills. The gills have direct role in gaseous exchange
and more importantly to maintain a flow of water over the body.
e) Prolegs or pseudolegs: Except to the three pairs of thoracic legs, leg like
outgrowths of the body wall in abdominal region are the feature of many
holometabolous insects and are called prolegs or pseudolegs or non-thoracic
legs or temporary legs. They are fleshy, locomotory appendages found only in
the larvae of certain orders (notably Lepidoptera, but also Mecoptera and some
Hymenoptera).

Genital appendages: The reproductive openings and genitalia are found on the ninth
abdominal segment in male and on eight and ninth abdominal segments in the female
are commonly called genital appendages

The insect's genital opening lies just below the anus: it is surrounded by
specialized sclerites that form the external genitalia.

 In females, paired appendages of the eighth and ninth abdominal segment fit
together to form an egg-laying mechanism called the ovipositor. These
appendages consist of four valvifers (basal sclerites with muscle attachments)
and six valvulae (apical sclerites which guide the egg as it emerges from the
female's body).
 In males, the genital opening is usually enclosed in a tube-like aedeagus which
enters the female's body during copulation (like a penis). The external
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

genitalia may also include other sclerites (e.g. subgenital plate, claspers, styli,
etc.) that facilitate mating or egg-laying.

The structure of these genital sclerites differs from species to species to the
extent that it usually prevents inter-species hybridization and also serves as a valuable
identification tool for insect taxonomists.

Post genital appendages

Cerci: Cerci (singular cercus) are paired appendages on the rear-most segments of
many Arthropoda, including insects and Symphyla. Many forms of cerci serve as
sensory organs, but some serve as pinching weapons or as organs of copulation. In
many insects they simply may be functionless vestigial structures. Most cerci are
segmented and jointed, or filiform (threadlike), but some take very different forms. Some
Diplura, in particular Japyx species, have large, stout forcipate (pincer-like) cerci that
they use in capturing their prey. The cerci of two sexes may differ in many insect
species or have dimorphism. Crickets have particularly long cerci while other insects
have cerci that are too small to be noticeable. However, it is not always obvious that
small cerci are without function; they are rich in sensory cells and may be of importance
in guiding copulation and oviposition.

Median caudal filament: This is a thread like projection arising from the center of the
last abdominal segment between the cerci. Some insects such as mayflies, silverfish
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology 1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

and bristletails have an accompanying third central tail filament which extends from the
tip of the abdomen.

Pseudocerci : In Coleoptera larvae, a pair of outgrowths of the tergum of segment 9 in

the form of short spines or multiarticulate processes also referred as pseudocerci;
corniculi.

Terminal spines: The 10th abdominal segment of hawk moths and jet moths bear spine
like structures Used for defense
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology,1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Lecture no. 8

Structure and modifications of insect antennae

Structure of insect antennae

Antennae are located between or behind the compound eyes. All insect except
Protura possess a pair of antennae. Antennae function almost exclusively in sensory
perception. Some of the information that can be detected by insect antennae includes:
motion and orientation, odor, sound, humidity, and a variety of chemical cues. Antennae
are well developed in adults and poorly developed in immature stages. The antenna is
set in a socket of the cranium called antennal socket. The base of the antenna is
connected to the edge of the socket by an articulatory membrane. This permits free
movement of antennae. Although antennae vary widely in shape and function, all of
them can be divided into three basic parts:
Scape
Pedicel
Flagellum
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology,1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

Scape: It is first segment or basal or proximal segment of antennae are articulate to the
head capsule. It is often conspicuously longer than the other segments.
Pedicel: It is second segment that follows scape. Specialised sensory organ known as
Johnson’s organ situated on pedicel with insect can hear the sound. In honey bee,
wasps pedicel forms the pivot between scape and flagellum.
Flagellum: It is third division formed by a single or many segments. Flagellum is further
divided into three parts. Ring joints: It is basal segment of flagellum are small and ring
like form. Club: It is swollen or enlarged distal segments of the antenna. Funicle:
segments between ring joints and club.
Functions of insect antennae
 Antennae function almost exclusively in sensory perception.
 To serve as secondary sexual characters in male Lepidoptera and male
mosquito.
 To find it’s way.
 To detect the danger.
 To find the food.
 To find the opposite sex.
 To communicate with each other e.g. Ants.
 It bear olfactory organs ( smell) e.g. Housefly.
 It bears chordotonal organs (sound hearing) e.g. Male Mosquito.
 To detect humidity.
 To hold the opposite sex at the time of mating.
 To catch the prey e.g. Mantids.

Modifications of insect antennae

1. Aristate

Aristate antennae are pouch-like with a lateral bristle. Examples: House and shore flies
(order Diptera). The antennae are important sensory structures used to detect air
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology,1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

movement and odors.The antenna is three-segmented with a branched arista projecting

dorsally from the third segment.

2. Capitate or Knobbed or head shaped

Capitate antennae are abruptly clubbed at the end. The antenna starts narrow at the
base and gets bigger toward the tip, but only right near the tip. Examples: Butterflies
(order Lepidoptera), sap beetles (Coleoptera).
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology,1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

3. Clavate or club shaped

Clavate antennae are gradually clubbed at the end. Technically, the capitate antennae of
butterflies are also clavate because they are also clubbed, but they’re a special kind of
club and get their own name (they’re capitate clavate antennae). Examples: Carrion
beetles (order Coleoptera).

4. Filiform

Filiform antennae have a thread-like shape. All the segments are of about the same
thickness and have no prominent constrictions at the joints. Examples: Ground and
longhorned beetles (order Coleoptera), cockroaches (order Blattodia). Grasshoppers
(Orthoptera).
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology,1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

5. Geniculate or Elbow like

Geniculate antennae are hinged or bent like an elbow.Bents abruptly at an angel at
the distal end of scape forming bent like knee or elbow. Examples: Bees and ants
(Hymenoptera), Weevils ( Coleoptera).

geniculate

6. Lamellate or plate like

The last three segments extend in one side forming a leaf like structure. Examples:
Scarab beetles (order: Coleoptera).

8. Pectinate or comb shape

The segments of pectinate antennae are longer on one side, giving each antennae a
comb-like shape. The term pectinate derives from the Latin pectin, meaning comb.
Examples: Fire-colored beetles and fireflies (order: Coleoptera).
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology,1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

9. Plumose or feather like

Segments produce bunch of hairs from each joints. Also called pinnate or Bipectinate
Examples: Moths (order Lepidoptera)and male mosquitoes (order Diptera).

10. Pilose: (Hairy)

Antenna is less feathery with few hairs at the junction of flagellomeres. e.g. Female
mosquito.
Course name: Fundamentals of Entomology,1st Year 2nd Sem.
R.K. Panse, Asstt. Prof. (Entomology), College of Agriculture, Balaghat, MP

11. Serrate
Serrate antennae have a saw-toothed shape. Examples: Click beetles, mango stem
.borers (order Coleoptera).

2. Setaceous or bristle like

The size of segments decrease from the base to apex. Examples: Dragonflies and
damselflies (order Odonata), cicada (Hemiptera), mayflies (order Ephemeroptera).