EE530: ADVANCED & APPLIED EM

LECTURE 02 2023 08 29
LECTURE OUTLINE

The essence of electromagnetism

Some aspects of vector analysis

THE ESSENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM:
WAVES IN GENERAL

 Definition: Waves are oscillatory functions in space and time.

 So, let’s assume a simple corresponding model in 1D:
𝜕2𝐹 𝜕2𝐹
+ 𝜂 2 = 𝑠(𝑧, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡
 It takes this form because it is oscillatory in space and time (2nd order derivatives).
 Let’s start by source free problem (i.e. 𝑠 𝑧, 𝑡 = 0).
 What should be the dimension and sign of 𝜂?
 −𝑢−2
2 𝜕2 𝐹
 To extend it to 3D: ∇ 𝐹 + 𝜂 2 = 𝑠(𝒓, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡
 Now, let’s see what is the equation of EM in homogeneous media?
2 2 2 2
2
𝑛 𝜕 𝑬 1 𝜕𝑱 2
𝑛 𝜕 𝑯
∇ 𝑬 − 2 2 = ∇𝜌𝑣 + 𝜇 , ∇ 𝑯 − 2 2 = −∇ × 𝑱
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝜀 𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝜕𝑡
THE ESSENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM:
WAVES IN GENERAL

 Let’s get back to the 1D case and assume source free. So,
𝜕2𝐸 2
𝜕 2𝐸

2
− 𝑢 2
=0.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧
 The general form is some functions 𝑓 𝑢𝑡 ± 𝑧 .
1 1
 So, 𝐸 = 𝑓 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑧 + 𝑔 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 +𝑔 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽𝑧 .
𝛽 𝛽

 This is for a single frequency field (Harmonic field).

 What is the unit of 𝜔𝑡?
 Radian
 So, the unit of 𝛽𝑧 is also the radian.
 Also, as 𝜔 is temporal frequency (time), 𝛽 is the spatial frequency (space):
2𝜋 2𝜋
 𝜔= →𝛽=
𝑇 𝜆
THE ESSENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM:
WAVES IN GENERAL

 For a monochromatic (single

frequency was), we can represent it
as
𝐸 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧)
 𝐴 is the amplitude of the wave.
 The phase is the argument in the
sinusoidal function: 𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧
 The speed of the wave (group
𝜔
velocity) is .
𝛽
 𝛽 is known as the propagation
constant, wave number, and spatial
frequency.
THE ESSENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM:
CONTINUITY EQUATION & RELAXATION TIME

 If we have a scalar function in space and time 𝑓(𝒓, 𝑡) and its volume integral is conserved in a
closed system.
 Then, ‫𝒓 𝑓 𝑣׬‬, 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜇 ≡ Constant
d 𝑑𝑓 𝒓,𝑡
 Now, let’s take the “full” time derivative of the above equation: ‫𝒓 𝑓 𝑣׬‬, 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = ‫𝑣׬‬ 𝑑𝑣 = 0
dt 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑓 𝒓,𝑡
 For this to be satisfied generally, the integrand must be 0: =0
𝑑𝑡
 We need to break this “full” time derivative using chain rule:
𝑑𝑓 𝒓, 𝑡 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑓
= + + + = + ∇𝑓 ⋅ 𝒖 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝑑𝒓 𝑑 𝑑(3) 𝜕𝑓
 But because ∇ ⋅ 𝒖 = ∇ ⋅ = ∇⋅𝒓 = = 0, + ∇ ⋅ (𝑓𝒖) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
THE ESSENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM:
CONTINUITY EQUATION & RELAXATION TIME

 Now, let’s use 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑓 as the total charge should be conserved!

 The resulted charge continuity equation:
𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑣
+ ∇ ⋅ 𝜌𝑣 𝒖 = +∇⋅𝑱=0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 This the formal form of any continuity equation for any conserved quantity.
 The above equation leads to the Kirchhoff’s current law.
 Now, let’s apply what we learned in EM:
 𝑱 = 𝜎𝑬
 𝜌𝑣 = ∇ ⋅ 𝑫
 𝑫 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 𝑬 = 𝜖𝑬
THE ESSENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM:
CONTINUITY EQUATION & RELAXATION TIME

 Case I: Special case for homogenous and isotropic medium:

 𝜎 and 𝜖 are constant all over the space; i.e.:
 ∇𝜎 = 0,
 ∇𝜖 = 0.
𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜎 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜎
 So, +∇⋅ 𝑱 = + ∇ ⋅ 𝜎𝑬 = + 𝜎∇ ⋅ 𝑬 = + ∇ ⋅ 𝜖𝑬 = + ∇ ⋅ 𝑫 = 0.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜖 𝜕𝑡 𝜖
 The final result is
𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜎
+ 𝜌𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜖
𝜎 𝑡
 The general solution of this ODE is: 𝜌𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣0 exp − 𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣0 exp −
𝜖 𝑇
 𝑇 is then a “time constant”:
 It is the time needed for such quantities to loss 63.2% of its original value. (1/𝑒 = 0.368)
THE ESSENCE OF ELECTROMAGNETISM:
CONTINUITY EQUATION & RELAXATION TIME

 Some examples for the relaxation time 𝑇:

 For copper (a good conductor): 𝜎 = 5.8 × 107 S/m & 𝜖𝑟 = 1
𝜖 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
 𝑇= = = 0.153 atto-second
𝜎 𝜎
 So, the charges inside the copper will vanish in extremely short time and appear at the surface (Sec. 5.4).
 For fused quartz (a good insulator): 𝜎 = 10−17 S/m & 𝜖𝑟 = 5.0
𝜖 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
 𝑇= = = 51.2 days.
𝜎 𝜎
SOME ASPECTS OF VECTOR ANALYSIS:
GENERAL NOTES

 The classical EM is a theory describing interactions in 3D Euclidian space, i.e. 𝒓 ∈ ℝ3 .

 EM is also described by ℝ4 in GRT and by ℝ5 in Kaluza-Klein theory.
 Since we will describe vectors with parameters in ℝ3 , we will continuously use vector analysis.
Thus, such a review is needed.
 3D Euclidian space can be described equivalently using different coordinate systems.
 We should expect that a geometrical differential operation should result in some aspects
independent of the selected coordinate system.
 It is convenient to seek generality and for that, it’s better to consider Curvilinear Coordinates.
 Generally, the selected coordinate system does not change physical quantities.
 So, it is recommended to work with the coordinate system that results in maximum symmetry.
 To present (or proof) EM theories or problems, it may be convenient to start with the Cartesian
system.
SOME ASPECTS OF VECTOR ANALYSIS:
THE GRADIENT OF A SCALAR

 Let’s find the different of some “scalar” vector 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) using the chain rule,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Is this a scalar or vector quantity?
 Scalar
 Can we represent this in a different way as a scalar product of two vectors?
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= 𝒂 + 𝒂 + 𝒂 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 𝒂𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝒂𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
 So, 𝑑𝑉 = ∇𝑉 ⋅ 𝑑𝒍. (directional derivative)
 As the gradient is a vector, where does is direct? (normal to the iso-curve)
 Path independence & energy conservation
SOME ASPECTS OF VECTOR ANALYSIS:
VECTOR DIVERGENCE & DIVERGENCE THEOREM

 Definition: The divergence of some vector 𝑨 at

some point 𝑃 is the outward flux per unit volume as
the volume shrink.

 The divergence theorem:

 It is one of the essential theorems in vector analysis. Known as
 Definition: The total outward flux of a vector field 𝑨 well as the
through a closed surface 𝒮 equals the volume integral Gauss’
of the divergence of 𝑨. theorem
SOME ASPECTS OF VECTOR ANALYSIS:
VECTOR CURL & STOKES’S THEOREM

 Definition: The curl of some vector 𝑨 is the “rotational”

vector whose:
 Magnitude at some point 𝑃 is the maximum circulation
per unit area as the area shrink,
 Direction is normal to the shrinking area at point P.
 The Stokes’s theorem:
 It is also one of the essential theorems in vector
analysis.
 Definition: The circulation of a vector field 𝑨 around
a closed path ℒ equals to the surface integral of ∇ × 𝑨
over the open surface 𝒮 enclosed by ℒ; provided that
𝑨 and 𝛻 × 𝑨 are continuous on 𝒮.
SOME ASPECTS OF VECTOR ANALYSIS:
HELMHOLTZ DECOMPOSITION THEOREM

 This is one of the most important theorem in vector calculus.

 Definitions:
 Irrotational vector: A vector 𝑭𝑖 which has no rotation; so, ∇ × 𝑭𝑖 = 𝟎, ∇ ⋅ 𝑭𝑖 ≠ 0.
 Rotational vector (solenoidal): A vector 𝑭𝑠 with zero divergence is then fully rotational; so,
∇ × 𝑭𝑠 ≠ 𝟎, ∇ ⋅ 𝑭𝑠 = 0.
 Now, let’s use the following vector identities, which are valid for continuous and
differentiable fields:
 ∇ × ∇𝜑 = 0 → 𝑭𝑖 = ∇𝜑
 ∇ ⋅ ∇ × 𝑨 = 0 → 𝑭𝑠 = ∇ × 𝑨
 Helmholtz decomposition theorem: Any smooth vector function 𝑭 that vanishes at
infinities can be decomposed into rotational and irrotational vectors
𝑭 = 𝑭𝑖 + 𝑭𝑠 .