Semester II, 2017-18

Department of Physics, IIT Kanpur

PHY103A: Lecture # 5
(Text Book: Intro to Electrodynamics by Griffiths, 3rd Ed.)

Anand Kumar Jha

12-Jan-2018

1
Summary of Lecture # 4:
• Scalar Potential : if 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁V

• Vector Potential : if 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, 𝐅𝐅 = 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐀𝐀

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Coulomb’s Law: 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = � 2 r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

• Electric Flux Φ𝐸𝐸 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚

𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

• Gauss’s Law 𝑄𝑄enc

� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = (in integral form)
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

𝜌𝜌
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 = (in differential form)
𝜖𝜖0
2
Correction in Lecture # 4:

𝑄𝑄enc This is the Gauss’s law in integral form.

� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

Q: (Griffiths: Ex 2.10): What is the flux through the shaded face of the cube due to the
charge 𝑞𝑞 at the corner
� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 ? ?
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

Answer: 𝑞𝑞
24 � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝜖𝜖0

1 𝑞𝑞
� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 24 𝜖𝜖0
3
Gauss’s Law from Coulomb’s Law:
If Coulomb’s Law and Gauss’s law have the same information
content, can we derive Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s law?

Coulomb’s law gives the electric field

due to a volume charge 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′
1 r̂
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = � 2 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r
Take the divergence of both sides of the equation
1 r̂
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = � 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 2 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r
r̂
We have: 𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 2 = 4𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿(r) = 4𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿(𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫𝐫)
r
1 ′ ′ 𝜌𝜌(𝐫𝐫)
Therefore,𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 = � 4𝜋𝜋 𝛿𝛿 𝐫𝐫 − 𝐫𝐫 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝜖𝜖0

𝜌𝜌 The divergence of electric field is equal

𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 =
𝜖𝜖0 to the charge density divided by 𝜖𝜖0
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Curl of the Electric Field:
Let’s take the simplest electric field:
Electric field due to a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 is:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫) = r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r2
We need to find the curl of it
𝑞𝑞 1
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 = 𝛁𝛁 × 2 r̂
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r
Take the area integral
𝑞𝑞 1
� 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝛁𝛁 × 2 r̂ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 r
Use Stokes’s theorem
𝑞𝑞 1 𝑞𝑞 1 since
� 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 2 r̂ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = � 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �
𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝒓𝒓� + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝜽𝜽
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0 r �
+𝑟𝑟sin𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝝓𝝓
𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞 1
� 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 𝐫𝐫 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = × � =0 implies 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 0 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝑎𝑎

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Curl of the Electric Field (Digression):
Curl of an electric field is zero. We have shown this for the
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 𝟎𝟎 simplest field, which is the field of a point charge. But it can be
shown to be true for any electric field, as long as the field is static.

What if the field is dynamic, that is, what if

the field changes as a function of time?
𝑑𝑑𝐁𝐁
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = − Faraday’s Law in differential
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 form.
Integrate over a surface
𝑑𝑑𝐁𝐁
� 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � − ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

Apply Stokes’ theorem

𝑑𝑑
� 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝐁𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖

𝑑𝑑Φ Magnetic flux Faraday’s Law in integral form.

E=−
EMF 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 6
Maxwell’s Equations (Digression 2):
𝜌𝜌 𝑄𝑄enc Gauss’s Law
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐄𝐄 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 =
𝜖𝜖0 𝜖𝜖0
𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

𝑑𝑑𝐁𝐁 𝑑𝑑
𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝐁𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 Faraday’s Law
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖𝒖

No name; Magnetic
𝛁𝛁 ⋅ 𝐁𝐁 = 0
Monopole does not exist

𝑑𝑑𝐄𝐄 Amperes’s Law with

𝛁𝛁 × 𝐁𝐁 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝐉𝐉 − 𝜇𝜇0 𝜖𝜖0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Maxwell’s correction
When fields do not vary as a function of time, it is called Electrostatics /
Magnetostatics. (before mid-sem)
When fields do vary as a function of time, then the two fields have to be studied
together as an electromagnetic field, and one consequence of a changing electric
and magnetic field is the electromagnetic radiation. (after mid-sem)
When the energy of the field is quantized (photons) then it is called quantum
electrodynamics. (Not for this course). Applications: Quantum computers, Quantum
cryptography, Quantum teleportation 7
Electric Potential:
Recall: If the curl of a vector field 𝐅𝐅 is zero, that is, if 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 = 0 everywhere, then:
b
(1) ∫a 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ d𝐥𝐥 is independent of path.
This is because of Stokes’ theorem
(2) ∮ 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 0 for any closed loop. � 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝐅𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

(3) 𝐅𝐅 is the gradient of a scalar function: 𝐅𝐅 = −𝛁𝛁V

• This is because Curl of a gradient is zero 𝛁𝛁 × 𝛁𝛁V = 𝟎𝟎

The curl of Electric field 𝐄𝐄 is zero, that is,𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 0 everywhere. Therefore:

b
(1) ∫a 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ d𝐥𝐥 is independent of path.
This is because of Stokes’ theorem
(2) ∮ 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = 0 for any closed loop. � 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐚𝐚 = � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥
𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

(3) 𝐄𝐄 is the gradient of a scalar function: 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁V

V is called the electric potential. It is a scalar quantity,

the gradient of which is equal to the electric field
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Electric Potential:
Since 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 0 everywhere, 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁V

How to write electric potential in terms of the electric field?

−𝛁𝛁V = 𝐄𝐄
Take the line integral of the above equation over a path
𝒃𝒃 𝒃𝒃

� 𝛁𝛁V ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥

𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂
𝒃𝒃
Use the fundamental Theorem for Gradient: � 𝛁𝛁V ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = V 𝑏𝑏 − V(𝑎𝑎)
𝒂𝒂 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝒃𝒃

V 𝐛𝐛 − V(𝐚𝐚) = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 • Absolute potential cannot be defined.

• Only potential differences can be defined.
𝒂𝒂

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Electric Potential:
(1) Electric potential is different from electric potential energy. Unit of electric
N⋅m
potential is Newton-meter per Coulomb ( ) or Volt.
C

(2) The potential obeys superposition principle, i.e., the potential due to several
charges is equal to the sum of the potentials due to individual ones: V = V1 + V2 + ⋯

(3) If one knows the electrical potential (a scalar quantity), the electric field (a
vector quantity) can be calculated
(4) The electric field is a vector quantity, but we still get all the information from
the potential (a scalar quantity). This is because different components are
𝜕𝜕Ex 𝜕𝜕Ey 𝜕𝜕Ez 𝜕𝜕Ey 𝜕𝜕Ex 𝜕𝜕Ez
interrelated: 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐄𝐄 = 0, i.e., = ; = ; = ;
𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝒃𝒃
(5) V 𝐛𝐛 − V(𝐚𝐚) = − ∫𝒂𝒂 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 . Absolute potential cannot be defined. In
electrostatics, usually one takes the reference point to infinity and set the
potential at infinity to zero, that is, take V 𝐚𝐚 = V ∞ = 0. Also if V 𝐛𝐛 = V(𝐫𝐫),
𝐫𝐫

V 𝐫𝐫 = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥
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∞
Electric Potential due to a point charge at origin:

Electric field 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 ) at 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 due to

a single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin:
1 𝑞𝑞
𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 ) = 𝐫𝐫�
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟12 𝟏𝟏

Electric potential V 𝐫𝐫 at 𝐫𝐫 due to a

single point charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin:
𝑟𝑟 𝒓𝒓

V 𝐫𝐫 = − � 𝐄𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥 = − � 𝐄𝐄(𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 ) ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝟏𝟏

∞ ∞
�𝟏𝟏
�𝟏𝟏 + 𝑟𝑟1 sin𝜃𝜃1 𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙1 𝝓𝝓
The line element is: 𝑑𝑑𝐥𝐥𝟏𝟏 = 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1 r�𝟏𝟏 + 𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃1 𝛉𝛉
𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓
1 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 1 𝑞𝑞 1
V 𝐫𝐫 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟12 1 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟12 1 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟
∞ ∞

𝑞𝑞 1
V 𝐫𝐫 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 11
Electric Potential due to localized charge distribution:
Potential due to a point 𝑞𝑞 1
charge 𝑞𝑞 at origin: V 𝐫𝐫 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟

Potential due to a point 𝑞𝑞 1

charge 𝑞𝑞 at 𝐫𝐫′: V 𝐫𝐫 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

Potential due to a collection 𝑛𝑛

1 𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖
of point charges V 𝐫𝐫 = �
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 ri
𝑖𝑖=1
Potential due to a a continuous
charge distribution is
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
V(𝐫𝐫) = �
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 r

For a line charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜆𝜆 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For a surface charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜎𝜎 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
For a volume charge 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜌𝜌 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
12
Ease of calculating the Electric Field

• The easiest way to calculate the electric field is using Gauss’s law. But
this is possible only when there is some symmetry in the problem.

• The next best thing: if the electric potential is known, one can calculate
the electric field by just taking the gradient of the potential 𝐄𝐄 = −𝛁𝛁V.
Sometimes, it is very effective to calculate the electric potential first
and then the electric field from there.

• If the above two is not applicable, one has to go back to the Coulomb’s
law and then calculate the electric field.

13