CLASS : II M.

COM
SUBJECT NAME: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Dr V.SELVARASU
Associate Professor
PG Department of Commerce
NKR Govt Arts College for Women-Namakkal
UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
Introduction:
Research in common man‟s language refers to “search for knowledge” Research is an art of scientific
investigation. It is also a systematic design, collection, analysis and reporting the findings & solutions for the
marketing problem of a company. Research is required because of the following reasons:
 To identify and find solution to the problems.
 To help making decisions
 To develop new concepts.
 To find alternative strategies
MEANING OF RESEARCH
Meaning of Research:
The word “Research” is derived from the French word‟ research‟ meaning to „search back‟.
Research is the process of systematic and in depth study or search for any particular topic, subject or area at
investigation backed by collection, compilation, presentation, and interpretation of relevant details or data.
DEFINITION
Definition of Research:
According to Robert Ross “research is essentially on investigation, a recording and an analysis of
evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge”.

According to John W. Best

Research may be defined as the systematic and objective, analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the developments of generalization, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction
and possibly ultimate control of events.

According to Redman and mory “Research as systematized effort to gain new knowledge”
Meaning of business research:
Research in all aspects of business is becoming increasingly important in the major countries of the
world. It is a method of obtaining and evaluating data for the decision process. Business research is both basic
and applied. Basic research is carried on for the purpose of extending the frontiers of knowledge. Applied
research is problem oriented in that the research is carried on to solve the specific problem about which a
decision must be reached.
Characteristics of Research:
 Research is directed towards the solutions of a problem.
 Research emphasizes the development of generation of principles.
 It is based upon observable experience.
 Research demands accurate observation and description.
 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or existing data for new
purpose.
 Research involves the quest for answer to unsolved problems.
 Research requires courage.
 Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.

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OBJECTIVES/ IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
Q. What are the objectives/ Importance of research?
Objectives of Research
1. It develops focus
The research may be to understand or become familiar with some phenomena or to get to know
more in. For example, since the days of steam engine, the research continued to come up with more
powerful locomotive which could be operated with alternative sources of energy like diesel, electricity etc.
2. It reveals characteristics
To clearly reveal the characteristics of an individual or a situation or a group like a society is another
type of research objectives.
3. It determines frequency of occurrence
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else. Only recently, scientific researches have come up with explanation for depletion of ozone
in the air and how it is caused.
4. It tests hypothesis
To test a hypothesis about the causal relationship between variables being studied. This type of
research is undertaken mainly to determine the relationship between various factors so that necessary policy
options could be framed.
Q. What are the criteria for good research?
The purpose of research should be clearly defined.
1. The research procedure should be described in sufficient details.
2. The research procedure of the research design should be carefully planned to yield better result.
3. The researcher should report with complete frankness.
4. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveals its significance.
5. The methods of analysis used should be appropriate and validity and reliability of data should be
checked carefully.
6. Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of research.

MOTIVE TO DO RESEARCH
Q. Explain the Motive to do Research.
1. Desire to gain academic status
2. Desire to find a solution to the given problem
3. Desire to get intellectual enhancement
4. Desire to serve the society
5. Desire to get respectability
Q. What are the qualities of a good research?
1. Good research is systematic
It means specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of
rules.
2. Good research is Logical
It implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction
and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
3. Good Research is Empirical
It reveals that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation.
4. Good Research is Replicable
It allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and building sounds basis for decision.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
Q. Explain different types of research? or Explain various methods of research?
Types of research

Fundamental Descriptive Research Empirical Case study

Action Exploratory Historical Experimental

 Fundamental or Basic Research

It is a research for broad principles and synthesis without any immediate utilization objective. It
otherwise called as pure research.
 Applied or Action Research
It refers gathering knowledge that could aid in the betterment human being is termed applied or action
research.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
 Descriptive Research
It implies a fact finding approach related largely to the present and abstracting generalization by the
cross sectional study of current situation.
Descriptive research aims the following:
 To portray accurately the character of a particular individual situation or group and
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or when it is associated with

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 Exploratory research or Formulative research:
An exploratory research is one which has the purpose of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or for developing hypothesis.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
 Empirical Research:
An empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts
firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired
information.
 Experimental research
It is the basic tool of the physical sciences for tracing cause and effect relationship and for everything
inferences.
Q. What are steps in Experimental Research?
1.Determining the number and identify of variables to be tested.
2.Selecting the range of values.
3.Determining the number of groups of units that are needed in the tests.
4.Determining the number of groups character and inter relations of the data and their method of
measurement.
5. Determining the point at which internal validity may be increased only at the cost of lower external
validity.
Q. Explain various methods of experimental research?
Various methods of experimental research:
1. Classical experimental design
It refers which aim at testing the existence of casual relationship between two or more variables.
2. After only experimental design
It assures that prior to the introduction of the experimental factor, the control and experimental groups
were identical and the nature is same.

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3. Before-After Experimental design
Under this method, the group is observed prior to its exposure to the experimental variable. That means
to have a preliminary observational period so as to measure control behavior and introduce a stimulus.
Q. What are the limitations of experimental research?
1. It is very difficult to measure a single variable
2. The researcher has to face certain difficulties in interviewing control groups.
3. Unlike research in physical sciences

Q. How does basic research differ from applied research?

Pure research Applied research
1. Pure research aims to contribute to theory and Where as applied research aims to solve a problem
techniques of the discipline
2. Pure research studies any kind of problem Applied research studies problems with important
social consequences
3. Pure research studies a problem usually from the It studies one or more discipline
focus of one discipline
4. Pure research requires mainly technical judgment Applied research requires also a sense of situation
5. It restricts to research But it aims to solve in action of administration not only
research.
6. Pure research seeks generalization Applied research often studies only individual cases.
7. Pure research attempts to get all the facts But applied research attempt only to correct facts.
8. Pure research tries to say why things happen It tries to say how things can be changed
9. Reports in technical language of the discipline It reports in common language
10. Pure research aims at publishing a research report It aims at bringing out actionable points quickly in a
series of memoranda and discussion with practitioners.
11. Pure research looks for the basic process Applied research looks for an variable which make
difference
12. Pure research content with small differences if Applied research interested in important differences.
13. 14. statistically significant

HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Q. What is historical research? Explain the conditions of historical research.
Meaning of historical research
It is based on past historical data‟s. In this approach historical data is given importance to undertake
analysis and interpret the results. It refers the induction of principles through research to the past and social
forces which have shaped the present.
Conditions of historical research:
1.Selection of a topic for research: The researcher must be capable and competent to choose a practically
feasible topic for his research.
2.Knowledge of related social sciences: The researcher must have knowledge of related social sciences. This
would enable him to analyze the topic in its proper perspective.
3.Wide Educational background: The researcher should have sound educational background. It would enable
him to understand the topic in an interrelated manner.
4.Familiarity with the topic and its objectives: Knowledge about the researcher topic is very essential. It
enables clarity in regarding the researcher own objectives.
5.Imaginative capacity: The researcher should be capable of understanding the topic discussed by the history
and have sufficient knowledge about imagination.
6.Analyzing and coordinating capacity: A researcher should be competent to analyze the historical material
useful for his study and should be capable to co-ordinate with the present conditions.
7. Knowledge of study field: The researcher must have complete knowledge of the field of his research as he
will not get ready made material in the history for his study work and he will have to search it out.
8. Experimental research: It is the basic tool of the physical sciences for tracing cause and effect relationship
and for everything inferences.

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 CASE STUDY
Q. What is case study method?
The case study method means a careful and complete observation of social units. In this approach the
focus is on a single organization or unit or an institution or a district or a community. As the focus is on a single
unit, it is possible to undertake an in-depth analysis of the single unit. It is basically a problem solving
approach. It is an important tool of social investigation. It has been used extensively in psychology, education,
sociology, economics and political science.

Q. Define case study method?

Define the term Case study.
According to Pauline V. Young “Case study method is a comprehensive study of a social unit, be that unit a
person, a group, a social institution, a district or community”.
Q. What are the characteristics of case study method?
1. Single unit analysis
Under this method one single social unit or more of such units can be studied for the purpose.
2. Intensive study
This study covers a long period of time to know the history of the unit concerned. For instance, if a bank is
studied as the case study then the period of 5 to 10 years is taken for consideration. It gives us historical
evaluation of the bank in question.
3. Integrated study
In this method one has to make a complete study of the social unit covering all facts.
4. Qualitative analysis
In this method we not only study how many crimes a man committed but also investigate the factors which
compelled him to commit a crime when we study a man as a criminal.
5. Mutual relationship can be studied
In case study method an effort is made to know the mutual interrelationship of casual factors.
6. Complementary study
This method stresses the need of complementary study for getting proper solution to the problems.
7. Flexible method
The researcher has complete freedom to change or omit or distort the variables under study.
Q. Explain the process of case study method. Or what are the steps involved in case study method?
1. Identifying the specific problem
The basic issues are defined before enter into research. This step may present only the definition of the
question.
2. Collection of necessary data
The required data should be collected by the researcher to understand the historical background of the given
problem.
3. Analysis of problem
It is the process of breaking down a problem into easily understood division which can be examined
separately.
4. Application of remedial measures.
After analyzing the problem one has to suggest suitable remedies to solve the problem.
5. Evaluating, Finding and establishing conclusion
It should be noted that there cannot be a single answer to a particular problem. Hence different solutions
must be suggested to the problem concerned.
6. Follow up program
Once the treatment is applied and solutions are found, one has to follow up the programme to determine the
effectiveness of the treatment applied.
Q. Explain the merits of case study method. Or What are advantages of case study method?
1. It aims at studying everything about a few units rather than something about several units.
2. Data collection is flexible because the researcher is completely free to approach the problem.
3. It is usually less expensive compare with the other methods.
4. It is useful for generating hypothesis for later full-scale studies.
5. It helps to generalize knowledge.
6. It helps to use to obtain real and enlighted record.
7. It helps to the researcher for formulating relevant hypothesis along with data which is useful to testing

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 the hypothesis.
8. The researcher can use more than one method to solve the problem.
9. It is useful to enrich the ability and skill of the researcher.
10. It is also useful to understand the social change.
Q. What are limitations or demerits of case study method?
Following are the limitations of case study method.
1. It develops overconfidence
The researcher thinks that he knows everything about the unit, but this is not true, because major part of the
information about the unit is hidden from us. So it develops over confidence.
2. False generalization
The researcher should draw the conclusion after careful and intensive study of a unit. Sometime the
conclusion drawn by the researcher based on interested area only. This type of generalization may mislead you.
3. It consumes more time, money and manpower
Under this method the researcher should make deep analysis about the particular unit. For this he should
spent more amount, and time also.
4. Unscientific and unsystematic method.
Under this method we can draw the better result only when the necessary data collected by the
researcher as per scientific method. Otherwise it reveals the unsystematic result.
5. It is difficult to apply
Under this methods most of the personal details given by the candidate are includes false statement.
Hence it is not applicable or suitable to scientific method.
6. Not useful for quantitative studies
This method mainly based on quantitative nature. Hence the researcher may avoid the quantitative
studies in a particular unit.
7. Scope of errors
In case study method we find that there is a scope for errors due to inaccurate observation of case and
misreporting.
8. Objectivity is lost
As the relation between a researcher and the unit studied, develops personal feelings, emotion play their
role, hence objectivity is lost.
9. Limited scope
This method is applicable only to study a single unit or particular unit, hence it is not applicable to the
big society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study method.
Precautions of case study method
 Selection of a typical and representative unit must be made very carefully.
 A researcher should be impartial and unbiased towards the unit selected.
 The researcher should be cautions in identification of the problems.
 Life history of the unit must be studied for intensive investigation of the unit in consideration.
 The researcher must be careful while gathering the data; the data must be reliable and sufficient in number.
 The researcher should not be over confident about his research problem otherwise the conclusion may be
wrong.
Q. How will you identify the research problem? Or what are the sources of research problem?
Sources of research problem

Physical resources monetary resources Library resources

1. Physical resources
It includes personal comforts, travel facilities and also includes clerical assistance, office,
communication facilities and stationary resources play no small role. Time is the foremost factor in
choosing a problem.
2. Monetary resources
A researcher can individually prepare the schedule, collect the data and then write the report. When
studies cover wider area, investigator must be appointed for data collection projects experts must be
employed and expert committee also be needed to guide the project. So availability of the monetary
resources also constitute the major source in identify the research problem.
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3. Library resources
Books, journals, periodicals, research reports, research journals, professional journals, bibliographies,
government bulletins, articles and other documents also constitute flesh and blood for social research.
These are useful sources of selecting a research problem.

Q. Explain the process or steps involved in research problem. Or what are the steps involved in research
problem?
1. Title
2. Statement of the problem
3. Questionnaire
4. Hypothesis
5. Data collection
6. Data processing
7. Time budgeting
8. Cost estimation
9. Organizational frame work
1. Title of the project
While selecting the research problem one should give the relevant title to the project doing by the
researcher. If title is not suitable to the project, it gives irrelevant conclusions. So the researcher has to
introduce the subject and relevant information relating to the topic. It should be as brief as possible.
2. Statement of the problem
A researcher should prepare the statement about his title of the project under the guidance of research
advisor or from research experts. After a brief introduction explaining the genesis of the problem, the
researcher should state the problem. While stating the problem use of clear, simple and concise statement
is preferable.
3. Questionnaire
Prior to formulate the research problem researcher should prepare questionnaire, and it should be filled by
public.
4. Hypothesis
Researcher should analyze the hypothesis regarding his title of the project, if the hypothesis not satisfied it
gives unfavorable result. Usually, hypothesis are formulated to explain observed facts, conditions or
behaviors and to serve as a guide in the research process.
5. Data collection
Next to hypothesis, the researcher should collect the necessary data based on his questionnaire.
6. Data processing
Data collected by the researcher should be processed by the researcher which is concerned to the relevant
table.
7. Time budgeting
While selecting the problem researcher should consider time factor. A researcher should complete his
research work within stipulated period. If required more time ,it may make confusion.
8. Cost estimation
It implies estimation should be prepared by the researcher how much to be needed to complete the project
within time.
9. Organizational frame work
It includes organizational structures. A research problem should content all legal formalities about the
organization.
Q. What are the criteria of research problem?
1. It should be original
The purpose of the research is to fill the gaps in existing knowledge to discover new facts and not to repeat
already known facts.
2. It should be neither very general nor very specific
If the problem is very general, it is usually too vague to be tested. On the other hand if the problem is very
specific, it is usually too narrow to be important.
3. It should be solvable
No problem, however significant, is a good choice if it is unsolvable.
4. It should be feasible

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 The feasibility of carrying out research on the selected problem should be checked against the following
consideration.
 Study design
 Access to organization
 Sample or universe to be studied
 Methods of collecting data
 Types of variables involved
 Selection of scales of measurement
 Treatment of data hand calculation
 Time required for study
 Funds required and their availability

RESEARCH DESIGN MEANING

Q. What is research design? Or what do you understand by research design?
A research design is a plan of action to carry out in connection with a proposed research work. It is the
blue print of the proposed study.
DEFINITION
Q. Define the term research design.
According to Pauline V. Young “a research design is the logical and systematic planning and directing
a piece of research”.
Q. What are the essentials of a good research design?
1. It is a plan that specifies the objective of the study and the hypothesis to be tested.
2. It is an out line that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research question.
3. It is a blue print specifying the method to be adopted for gathering and analyzing the data.
NEED
Q. Explain the need for research design.
Research Design is needed because it facilititates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,
there by marking research as efficiency as possible, yielding maximum information with minimum expenditure
of effort, time and money.
Research design, in fact, stands for advanced planning of the methods to be adopted for colleting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objectives of the research and
the availability of staff, time and money.
FEATURES
Q. What are the Features/characteristics of research design?
1. Objectivity
It means object oriented research. In such research, the investigator generally uses close ended
questionnaires in which multiple choice questions are given and the respondents are asked to choose the
answer given therein. On the other hand, in open ended questionnaires the respondents are allowed to give
free response to each of the items.
2. Reliability
The investigator should frame his items in such a way that the respondent give only one genuine response.
There are different methods of determining the reliability of the responses given out by a respondent.
3. Validity
It means the measuring tools should be used for which it is made. For instance an intelligence test,
constructed for measuring intelligence should measure only intelligence and nothing else.
4. Generalization
It means application of the present to the larger group. When an investigator has undertaken investigation,
after careful collection of data processing, selection of sample and using the appropriate statistical analysis,
he reaches at certain findings and draws certain inferences.
ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Q. What are advantages of research design? Or what are the merits of research design?
1. It saves a lot of researchers time
2. It directs him to prepare himself for executive the various activities systematically
3. It enables resource planning procurement in right time

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4. It ensures project time schedule
5. It builds up confidence in the student
6. It provides satisfaction and sense of success from the beginning to the completion of every stage of the
project.
7. It helps to avoid unnecessary expenses

EVALUATION OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN.

Q. DESCRIBE THE EVALUATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN.
The fundamental questions in evaluating a research design pertain to precision, reliability, and relevance
of the data and their analysis. Before actually carrying out research, it is better if the investigator revaluates his
research design. This can be achieved if the investigator verifies the following aspects for their explicitness.
1. How precise are the observations?
2. Can other investigators repeat the observations?
3. How explicit are the hypotheses?
4. Have the problems and hypotheses been stated in operational terms scientifically?
5. Has the plan of research been presented in detail so that its logic is apparent?
6. Do the data actually satisfy the demands of the problem i.e., do they actually demonstrate the conclusion
7. Does the research design ensure a comparison?

COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Q. EXPLAIN THE COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN. OR WHAT ARE THE CONTENTS OF
RESEARCH DESIGN? AND PROCESS OF RESEARCH DESIGN.
THE COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
↓
Title
Introduction
Statement of the problem
Review
Scope
Objectives
Hypothesis
Operational definition
Geographic area
Reference
Methodology
Sampling
Tools
Plan of analysis
Report
Time schedule
Financial budget
1. Title of the study
While selecting the research problem one should give the relevant title to the project doing by the
researcher. The researcher has to introduce the subject and relevant information relating to the topic of the
research. It should be as brief as possible.
2. Introduction
Under this heading a brief explanation of the genesis of the problem should be given.
3. Statement of the problem
A problem can be analysis from various angles. The researcher must also point out the reasons for choosing
this particular problem for research study. Hence a researcher must analysis the following aspects in the
statement of the problem
 The need to study the problem for research
 What connotation does the problem contain
 Why the particular topic has been choose by the researcher
4. Review of literature

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 The researcher is bringing out research studies on similar topic or related topic. It can also help the
researcher to locate a course of action, for his study based on the earlier studies.
5. Scope of the study
This heading gives an idea about the extent of the study. The scope of the study is dependent on several
factors such as the time and money available with the investigator, availability of sample, etc.
6. Objectives of the study
While framing the objectives, it is better to limit the number of objectives to suit the needs of the topic. It
helps to decide the chapters and analysis of various issues in each chapter.
7. Hypothesis
Hypothesis are formulated to explain observed facts, conditions or behaviors and to serve as a guide in the
research process. Each hypothesis is individually tested to determine whether it is tenable(reasonable) or not.
The researcher has to make his own judgment based on the nature of the study about the desirability of the
inclusion of hypothesis. Through the test, it can be proved or disproved.
8. Operational definition
A clear understanding of the terms used in the study is important. It is necessary to identify and label the
variables. The important concept that appears frequently in the study must be explained. This concept may
relate to the title of the research or the objectives or with the analysis.
9. Geographical area
Under this head, the area to be covered by the study is mentioned.
10. Reference period
The period of the study can be mentioned under the study
11. Methodology
The researcher should first determine the kind of information needed to answer the research questions.
Secondly he must know the sources of data and finally he must know the means by which he will gather
information which is known as methodology.
12. Sampling
Sampling involves taking a portion of population, making observation on this smaller group and then
generalizing the findings to be applied to be a large population. The small group that is observed is called the
sample and the large group is called population.
13. Tools for collection of data
The choice of method for collecting the data is governed by the subject matter, the unit of enquiry and the
scale of study.
14. Plan of analysis
Once the data have been collected, they must be reduced to meaningful results by statistical analysis so that
the conclusion for generalization can be drawn from them.
15. Research report
The results should be communicated. The format consists of three parts namely:
Part I- Preliminary pages
Part II- Body of the report
Part III- Supplementary pages
16. Time schedule
The researcher has to work out a time schedule for his research work. The time required includes
 Preparing theoretical background
 Data collection
 Data processing
 Report writing
 Thesis submission
17. Financial budget
It is desirable to work out the budget which gives an idea about the money needed to complete the project.

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 UNIT- II
CENSUS
Q. WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY CENSUS?
A population or universe may be defined as a set of data that consist of all conceivably possible
observations of a certain phenomenon population which may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Census is complete enumeration work, for example population census. For census each and every unit in
the population frame is to be examined.
SAMPLE
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY SAMPLE AND SAMPLING? DEFINE THE TERM
SAMPLING.
Sample is a part of the universe, which we select for the purpose of investigation. A sample should
exhibit the characteristics of the universe. A sample is a sample specimen or separated part of the whole
population representing its general qualities. A sample is composed of some fraction or part of the total number
of elements or units in a defined population.
SAMPLING
Sampling method is the process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample. Sampling is
a section of population selected from the latter in such a way that they are representative of universe is called as
sampling.
DEFINITION OF SAMPLING
According to Paul L. Erdos and Arthur define a sampling as “a process of selecting a segment of the
universe to obtain information of ascertainable reliability about the population”.
According to Good and Hatt “A sample is a smaller representation of the larger whole”.
BASIS OF SAMPLING
Q. EXPLAIN THE BASIS OF SAMPLING
1. The units of samples selected must have a similarity with other units to make the sampling more
scientific.
2. The sample should be such that it can represent adequately the whole data.
3. Each unit should be free to be included in the sample.
4. Absolute accuracy is not essential in the sample method. The results of the sampling method should
be such that valid generalization can be inferred.
5. The maximum amount of information must be gathered as accurately as possible.
Q. WHAT ARE THE FEATURES OF SAMPLING? (OR) WHAT ARE ESSENTIALS OF
SAMPLING?
The sample should be true representative of the universe from where it has been taken.
 There should remain no bias in selecting a sample
 All the items should be independent of each other
 The regulating conditions should be same
 It should be adequate
 It should be possible to measure the sampling errors.
MERITS OF SAMPLING
Q. EXPLAIN THE MERITS OF SAMPLING [5 MARKS]
1. Organizational facilities: Sampling involves very few organizational problems as it is conducted by
few enumerators.
2. Economy of time: Sampling is less time-consuming than census technique. It involves the study of
smaller number of units which in turn saves time.
3. Economy of Resources: Sample study requires less money. The space and equipment required for this
study are small, for it involves the study of a smaller number of cases.
4. Accuracy: Sampling ensures completeness and a high degree of accuracy due to the sample area of
operation.
5. Reliable inference: The data collected by well-trained investigators on a sample basis are quite reliable.
6. Intensive in nature: Since the area of the study is quite small, detailed and intensive study is possible.

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 7. Vast data : When the number of units is very large, or the units are scattered, sampling technique is
very useful and can be collected in a convenient manner
Q. WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING?
1. Unless sampling method is carefully applied, it may result in misguiding findings.
2. Sampling requires perfect and elaborate planning and execution.
3. Use of sampling method requires the services of experts and specialists. This in turn will reflect on cost
4. Sometimes when the sample size itself is very large, then sampling method would also be time
consuming and costly.
5. Sampling method can never be a substitute for census method.
6. Apart from a detailed process to be followed, sampling also calls for application of a number of tests to
verify the findings and results. This makes the sampling method more complex.
7. While using sampling, the investigators have to be fully trained. This will add to the cost.
8. Personal likes and dislikes of the investigators affect the quality of sampling data.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CENSUS METHOD
Q. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CENSUS METHOD?
ADVANTAGES:
1. Reliability
The data derived through census is highly reliable, the further conclusions derived deductively upon
the basis of census statistics are also very reliable.
2. Detailed Information
The census figures yield much more information than merely the count of heads. It gives detailed
information about the population.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Expensiveness
Census surveys must entail much expense. Because of excessive expense, even government
undertakes such surveys at very long intervals.
2. Excessive time and energy
Besides cost factor, census surveys take too long a time, consume too much energy. It is only in very
special cases that such surveys are undertaken.
3. Instability in certain cases
Some problems range over such a wide area that to study all units under it is almost impossible.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE / RANDOM AND NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
Q. EXPLAIN VARIOUS TECHNIQUES/METHODS OF SAMPLING. (OR) DIFFERENT
TYPES OF SAMPLING. [10 MARKS]
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Systematic Stratified Cluster proportionate Area

Random Sampling Sampling Sampling stratified sampling
Sampling

Snowball Convenience Purposive Quota

I. PROBABILITY SAMPLING/RANDOM SAMPLING

1. Simple random sampling or unrestricted random sampling

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 In this sampling each unit of the universe has been known and has an equal chance of being selected.
The tools used for selection are lots or random numbers.

The selection of the random sample may be based on any of the following methods:
i) Lottery method
ii Use of random number tables
iii) Use of computer
2. Systematic sampling or Quasi-random sampling
This is also known as Quasi random sampling. This method is used when the complete list of
population is available. The researcher first has to arrange the units of the universe on some basis say
alphabetically, chronologically or geographically
3. Stratified random sampling
The process of stratification requires that the population is divided into groups or classes called
strata. Then a sample is taken from each stratum by simple random method and the resulting sample is called
stratified sample.
The steps involved in stratified are the following:
 Decide the basis of stratification
 Decide the number of strata
 Stratify the population according to the criterion
 Decide the size of the sample in each stratum
4. Cluster sampling or Multi stage sampling
In this sampling the various units comprising the population are grouped in clusters and the
sample selection is made in such a way that each cluster has an equal chance of being drawn. It applies to
different units of study such as products, people, geographical areas,etc. That is, it refers to the procedure of
dividing the population into groups called and drawing a sample of cluster to represent the population.
5. Proportionate stratified sampling
The number of units in each stratum is proportionate t its number in the universe, then it is said to
be proportionate stratified sampling
6. Area sampling
In this method, the area to be covered by a survey is divided into a number of smaller areas of
which a sample is selected by random. Within these areas, either a complete enumeration is carried out or a
further sub sample is taken.
II. Non-Random or Non-Probability sampling
This type of random technique gives no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance
of being included. There is no way of calculating the margin of errors and the confidence level.
1. Quota Sampling
A quota sample is one in which the interviewer is instructed to collect information from an
assigned number or question of individuals in each of several group, the group being specified as to age, sex,
income etc. This sampling method is similar to the stratified sampling method. The universe is divided into
strata on the basis of certain characteristics. Then the quota is fixed for each stratum in proportion to the size.
The investigator chooses the units in each stratum in a non random manner.
2. Purposive sampling or judgment sampling
A judgment sample is one which is selected according to some one‟s present judgment. In this
method samples are taken based on the judgment of the researcher.
3. Convenience sampling
This method of sampling involves selecting the sample elements using some convenient method. The
researcher may make use of any convenient base to select the required number of samples such as nearness,
easy availability of data, etc.
4. Snow ball sampling:
Snow ball sampling is building up a sample through informants. Snow ball sampling is the rather
colorful name given to the procedure in which initial respondents are selected randomly where additional
respondents are then obtained from referrals or by other information provided by the initial respondents. In this
way, the investigator accumulates more and more respondents.
Q. EXPLAIN THE FEATURES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING? [5 MARKS]
FEATURES:
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 1. Population and the units must be clearly defined
2. The unit must be approximately equal in size
3. The universe must consist of large number of small units
4. Units must be independent of each other of small units.
5. Unit list or universe list must be ready
6. Method of selection should be completely independent
7. Once selected, the unit cannot be discarded.
Q. EXPLAIN THE STEPS IN SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING? OR WHAT ARE THE PROCESS
OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING? [5 MARKS]
STEPS:
1. First of all the population is given serial number from 1 to N
2 .The sampling interval is determined by dividing the population by the size of the sample
3. Any number is selected at random from the first sampling interval
4. The subsequent samples are selected at equal regular intervals.
Q. EXPLAIN THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING?
[5 MARKS]
Advantages of systematic sampling
1. It is a simple design and easy to execute
2. Randoms and probability features are present which make the sample representation
Disadvantages of systematic sampling
1. It becomes a difficult task when the population huge
2. Any hidden list will adversely affect the representativeness of the sample
3. There is always a temptation to reselect or re-start while making selection
Q. EXPLAIN THE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF CLUSTER SAMPLING? [5 MARKS]
Advantages
1. It provides significant cost gain
2. It is easy and more practical method which facilities the field work
3. More units can be included under this method of sampling
Disadvantages
1. Probability and representativeness of the sample is some times affected.
2. The result is likely to be less precise and accurate.
Q.WHAT IS THE STEPS IN QUOTA SAMPLING? OR WHAT ARE THE PROCESS OF
QUOTA SAMPLING? [5 MARKS]
1. Population is stratified on the basis of characteristics of the population pertaining to the study
2. Determination of the proportion of the population falling in each stratum
3. The quota of sample units is decided and assigned for each stratum
Q. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF QUOTA SAMPLING?
[5 MARKS]
Advantages
1. It is practical as well as convenient method
2. It is economical
3. It is the only useful method when no sample frame is available
Disadvantages
1. It is unreliable and prone to bias
2. It is not possible to estimate the standard error
3. It is not a representative sample
4. Control of field work is difficult.
Q. WHAT ARE CAUSES FOR BIAS? [5 MARKS]
CAUSES:
1. Faulty process of selection
This refers to a situation when the investigator does not apply the randomness in his choice or selection
of the sample elements from the population. Sometimes, while adopting a particular method of sampling, the
investigator may violate the basic rule of selection.
2. Faulty work during the collection of information
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 Adoption of faulty method of collecting information may cause errors. For example, suppose the
population or the scope of the survey is not clear. Then this might lead to collection of information from sample
elements not relevant for the survey.
3. Faulty method of analysis
This is a most frequently committed mistake on the part of the researcher. When the data collection is
completed, the researcher embarks on data analysis. Before this, the data have to be properly classified and
tabulated. If any mistake is committed at this stage then, subsequent analysis will yield only wrong results.
Similarly, in the selection of tools of analysis the researcher should be very careful.
Q.HOW WILL YOU MINIMIZE THE SAMPLING ERROR? OR WHAT ARE MEASURES TO BE
TAKEN TO MINIMIZE THE SAMPLING ERROR? [5 MARKS]
MEASURES:
1. Manageable and specific problem selection
2. Intensive study
3. Verification of methodological biases.
4. Reporting of methodological biases
5. Systematic documentation of related research
6. Greater investment in enumeration
7. Effective pre-testing
8. Use complementary research methods
9. Replication
Q.WHAT IS NON-SAMPLING ERRORS? OR WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR NON-SAMPLING
ERRORS? OR WHAT ARE THE CAUSES FOR NON-SAMPLING ERRORS? [5 MARKS]
MEANING
Non-biased errors are those which caused due to chances not strictly due to any bias on the part of the
investigator. Sometimes, the findings from the selected sample may be different from other elements not
included in the sample. Such errors could be avoided only by specifying the sample elements clearly.
Non-sampling errors are those errors, which are not due to any sampling process. It is due to several
other causes. However, much care is taken to plan and execute a survey for data collection, errors may creep in
due to various reasons.
CAUSES FOR NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
1. Sampling Operations
There may be errors in sample selection.
2. Non interviews
There are often differences between the responses obtain from the study object interviewed
3. Adequacy of respondent
Some respondents could not be interviewed due to many reasons and the study, say obtains information
above them from others.
4. Misunderstanding the concept
It may be the conceptual problem or poor understanding of the issue at the time of interviewing.
5. Lack of knowledge
In some cases respondent have insufficient data. Hence there may be a chance to reduce the knowledge of
the respondent about the research.
6. Loaded question
Due to poor understanding of the question the response may be biased towards some specific direction.
7. Processing error
Biases at times are due to error of observation and recording.
Apart from these, Investigators may collect data without using the complete schedules, or proper definitions
or proper measurement. As a result, data colleted my not be relevant at all. Use of untrained and unskilled
investigators only causes more confusion rather than carrying out the work properly. Such investigators would
often report incomplete or irrelevant data.

Q. WHAT ARE THE CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING NON-SAMPLING ERROR? [5 MARKS]

CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING NON-SAMPLING ERROR
1. Vast data:

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 When the number of units is very large sampling technique must be used as it economizes money.
2. When most accuracy is not required:
The sampling technique is suitable in those situations where 100 percent accuracy is not required.
3. When census is impossible:
If one wants to know the amount of mineral wealth in a country he can not dig all mines to discover and
count.
4. Homogeneity:
If all the units of domain are alike sampling technique is very easy to use.
SIZE OF THE SAMPLE
Q.WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY SIZE OF THE SAMPLE? [5 MARKS]
SAMPLE SIZE
The most important problem which confronts a researcher at the outset is the size of the sample. If a
larger sample than what is required is chosen, it involves more cost and time. If a small sample is chosen the
results obtained will be relatively less accurate. So the size of sample must be optimum in nature. An optimum
sample may be defined as that size of sample which fulfils the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility.
FACTORS DETERMINING THE SIZE OF SAMPLE
Q.WHAT ARE THE FACTORS DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE? [5 MARKS]
 The Nature of Population:
If the composition of the survey population is more homogeneous in nature, fewer cases will
yield reliable results. On the other hand, if the population is more heterogeneous in nature number of
cases may be required to constitute a reliable sample size.
 Complexity of Tabulation:
The size of the sample also depends upon the number of categories and classes into which the
findings are to be grouped and analyzed. If these categories are greater in number large size of the sample
may be needed to yield reliable statistical results.
 Problem relating to collection of data:
The volume of data is affected by the length of the questionnaire or schedule the number of field
workers, the concentration of cases in a geographical area, the refusal rate, the losses of cases, the type of
the sampling method employed and method of data collection.
 Type of sampling:
Smaller sampling will be sufficient when stratification is employed in the sampling technique. If
the population is more heterogeneous the greater will be the possible economy of cases through
stratification.
 Margin of Error:
The researcher may have to decide about the tolerable limit of error in the estimate of the sample
compared to be true value. This is margin of error or limits of accuracy.
Q.WHAT IS SAMPLING ERROR? EXPLAIN THE METHODS OF SAMPLING ERROR. [5 MARKS]
MEANING
The errors which arise due to the use of sampling surveys are known as the sampling error.
SAMPLING ERROR
METHODS OF SAMPLING ERROR
1. Biased errors
Biased errors are those which arise as a result of any bias of the person is selecting a particular
sampling method.
Example: Purposive sampling method may be adopted in place of a simple random sampling method. As a
result of such selection some errors are bound to arise and they are known as biased errors.
2. Unbiased errors
Unbiased errors arise due to chance differences between the members of the population included in the
sample and those not included. It is known as unbiased error.

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 UNIT –III
COLLECTION OF DATA
INTRODUCTION
Data forms the basic for testing the hypotheses formulated in a study. Data also provides the facts and figures
required for constructing measurement scales and tables which are analyzed with statistical techniques.
Collection of data is the process of enumeration together wit the proper recording of results. It is an organized
enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for solving problem. Data‟s collected are of two types
namely primary data and secondary data.
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY DATA AND COLLECTION OF DATA?
MEANING OF DATA
Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials, past or present, serving as base for study and analysis. It
also includes descriptive facts, non-numerical information, qualitative and quantitative information.
COLLECTION OF DATA
Collection of data is the process of enumeration together wit the proper recording of results. It is an
organized enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for solving problem. It is the first step in any
statistical investigation. Data are classified into two groups namely
1. Internal Data
2. External Data
DATA

Internal External

Primary Secondary
TYPES OF DATA
Q. EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF DATA
The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into
1. Data pertaining to human beings
2. data relating to organizations,
3. data pertaining to territorial areas

Q. EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF DATA

The data serves as the basis or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific
inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on imagination or guess work cannot
provide correct answers to research questions. The relevance and reliability of data determine the quality of the
findings of a study.Data forms the basic for testing the hypotheses formulated in a study, Data also provides the
facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables which are analyzed with statistical
techniques.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Q. EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT METHODS /TECHNIQUES (OR) TOOLS OF DATA
COLLECTION
Primary data
It refers to information that is generated to meet the specific requirements of the investigation at hand.
Primary data is known as the data collected for the first time through field survey.
Secondary data
Secondary data refers to the information or facts already collected. Such data are collected with the
objective of understanding the past status of any variable.

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 TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary data Secondary Data

1. Questionnaire or schedule 1.Books

2. Interview 2. Periodicals of journals
3. Observation 3. Research thesis and dissertations
4. Feedback form 4. Bibliographies
5. Sales force opinion 5. Foot notes
6. Pantry audit 6.Encyclopaedia
7. Consumer panels 7.Statistical data source
8. Collection through mechanical devices 8. Directories and year books
9. Project techniques
10. Content analysis

I. Primary data
1. Questionnaire or schedule
In this method, a pre-printed list of questions arranged in sequence is used to elicit response from the
informant.
2. Interview
This is a method in which the investigator and the respondent meet and questions raised are answered
and recorded. This method is adopted when personal opinion or view point are to be gathered as a part of data.
3. Observation
It is a method which requires familiarity and experience. In this method, the observer applies his sense
organs to note down whatever that he could observe in the field and relate these data to explain some
phenomena.
4. Feedback form
In the case of some of the consumer goods, the supplier or the manufacturer sends the product along
with a pre-paid reply cover in which questions on the product and its usage are raised and the customer is
requested to fill it up and send. Based on this, the first hand information about the product from the consuming
public is obtained.
5. Sales force opinion
On several occasions, the manufacturers or distributors collect information about movement of the
product or market size, market share, purchasing pattern, etc.
6. Pantry audit
In this method, the investigators stay at the consuming point and observe the purchasing behaviour of
the people. From this, very valuable information like the price response, quality consciousness, response to
prize and incentive schemes, who takes buying decision, credit facility required,. Etc, are gathered. All these
will influence the marketing strategy of the organization concerned.
7. Consumer panels
The consumer panel refers to an arrangement with select consumers to maintain details of there
consumption behaviour. Based on these recorded information, useful first hand information is collected about
the product and behaviour of the consuming public.
8. Collection through mechanical devices
There are several shopping establishments were hidden video cameras are positioned at vantage points.
These are used for observing the public inside the shop. Apart from helping to eliminate pilferage and theft,
they provide very useful information on the consumers and their preferences of products.
9. Projective techniques:
This technique is adopted to study the consumers through various methods like recalling advertisement,
theme, story completion tests, quizzes, thematic apperception tests, etc.
10. Content analysis

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 In this method, the investigator would listen through various audio visual records to obtain the required
information. On course, in this process, what is already recorded by; somebody for some purpose is used to
cull out useful information.
II. Secondary data
1. Books
This refers to the published documents like text books, reference books, historical books and types of
books containing the printed information about the past events.
2. Periodicals or journals
This is one of the very valuable sources of information. While books may deal with historical
information, periodicals contain articles and abstracts which provide the latest information.
3. Research thesis and dissertations:
This is another useful source of secondary data. But while using this source, the scholar should be
careful to study the objectives of he thesis being referred. It should also be remembered that thesis submitted in
the distant past may be used only for understanding the relationship but not for replication.
4. Indexes and Bibliographies:
These are the main stay of any library because they help you identify and locate a single book or journal
article form among the millions published. The single most important bibliography in any library is its online
catalog.
As with all other information types, there are many specialized indexes and bibliographies unique to
business topics. These can be very useful in a literature search to find authors and titles of prior works on the
topic of interest.
5. Dictionaries
Most of specialized dictionaries include in their words lists information on people, events, or
organizations that shape the discipline. They are also an excellent place to find acronyms. A growing number of
dictionaries and glossaries are now available on the web.
6. Encyclopedias
Use an encyclopedia to find background or historical information on a topic or to find names or terms
that can enhance your search results in other sources. Encyclopedias are also helpful in identifying the experts
in a field and the key writings on any topic.
7. Handbooks
A handbook is a collection of facts unique to a topic. Handbooks often include statistics, directory
information, a glossary of terms, and other data such as laws and regulation essential to a field. The best
handbooks include source references for the facts they present. The statistical Abstract of the United states in
probably the most valuable and frequently used handbook available.
8. Directories
Directories are used for finding names and addresses as well as other data. While many are available and
useful in printed format, directories in digitized for mat that can be searched by certain characteristics or sorted
and then downloaded are far more useful.
An especially useful directory available in most libraries either in print or electronic format is the
Encyclopedia of Association, which provides a list of public and professional organizations plus their locations
and contact numbers.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY QUESTIONNAIRE?
MEANING
It is form, prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain questions. It is a device for securing
answer to questionnaire by using a form, which the respondent fills by himself.
A questionnaire is a sheet or sheets of paper containing questions relating to certain specific aspect,
regarding which the researcher collects the data.
CONSTRUCTION OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Q. EXPLAIN THE STEPS INVOLVED IN QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION.
1. Deciding what information is wanted
2. Deciding what type of questionnaire to use.
3. Deciding on the contents of individual questions.
4. Deciding on the type of questions to use

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 5. Deciding on the sequences of the question
6. Determining the form, layout and method of questionnaire reproduction
7. Making a preliminary draft and protesting it and
8. Revising and preparing the final questionnaire
FORMS OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Q. EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TYPES/FORMS OF QUESTIONNAIRE? OR WHAT ARE THE
METHODS OF QUESTIONNAIRE?
1. Structured and Non-structured
The structured questionnaire contains definite concrete and direct questions. Where as non-structured
questionnaire is often used as the interview guide, which is non directive.
2. Closed form vs. Open form
The questions that call for short check responses are known as restricted or closed form type. They
provide for marking a yes or no, a short response, or checking an item out of a list of given responses.
The open form, open ended or unrestricted type of questionnaire calls free response in the respondents
own word. This type of items is sometimes difficult to interpret, tabulate and summaries in the research report.
3. Mixed questionnaire
It consists of both close and open type of questionnaire for social research, this method is very useful.
Many questionnaires include both open and closed type items.
4. Fact and opinion questionnaire
Questionnaire of fact requires certain information of facts from the respondent without any reference to
his opinion or attitude about them.
In which the informants opinion attitude or preference regarding some phenomena is sought, is called
as opinion questionnaire.
5. Pictorial questionnaire
It implies pictures are used to promote interest in answering questions. it is used extensively in studies of
social attitudes and prejudices in children or illiterate persons. This questionnaire may be very useful for
collecting data in a developing country like India, especially from the rural masses that are mostly illiterate and
less knowledgeable.
PROCESS OF QUESTIONNAIRE TECHNIQUE
Q. WHAT ARE THE PROCESS OF QUESTIONNAIRE TECHNIQUE?
1. Designing or making
2. Issuing
3. Returning while designing, attention should be paid to three important matters
a. Physical appearance of the questionnaire
b. contents of questionnaire
c. subject-mater.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES QUESTIONNAIRE TECHNIQUE
Q. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES/MERITS OF QUESTIONNAIRE TECHNIQUE?
ADVANTAGES
1. Economical
Since the questionnaire approach makes it possible to cover, at the same time, a large number of
people spread over a large territory, it is decidedly more economical in terms of money, time, and energy.
2. Time saving
Besides saving money, the mailed questionnaire also saves time. Simultaneously, hurdles of persons
are approached through it where as if they are to be interviewed it may take a very long time.
3. Ensure Anonymity
Under this method the respondents are not required to indicate their names on the questionnaire.
They feed free to express their views and opinions.
4. Less pressure on the respondents
This method places less pressure on the subject for immediate response, and gives more time to the
respondent for properly answering questions.
5. Uniformity
Uniformity from one measurement situation to another is provided virtue of its standardized wording
of questions standard sequence of question.

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DISADVANTAGES
Q.WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRE TECHNIQUE?
1. Illiterate and less educated: One of the major limitations of the questionnaire is that it can be administered
only on subjects with a considerable amount of education.
2. Proportions of returns is usually low: In a mailed questionnaire, the proportion of returns is usually low. It
many times is as low as 10 percent.
3. Misinterpretation: In a questionnaire, if the respondent misinterprets a question or writes his reply
unintelligibly, there is very little that can be done to correct this. In this approach there is no facility for
repeating questions, explaining them of a particular response.

SCALING TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION OF SCALING TECHNIQUES
In research we quite often face measurement problem especially when the concepts to be measured are
complex and abstract and we do not possess the standardized measurement tools. Alternatively, we can say that
while measuring attitudes and opinions , we face the problem may be faced by the researcher , of course in a
lesser such we should study some procedures which may enable us to the study of scaling techniques.
MEANING
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY SCALING?
Scaling describes the procedure of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
concepts. Scaling can be classified on the basis of:
1. Subject orientation 4. Scale properties
2. Response form 5. Number of dimensions
3. Degree of subjectivity 6. Scale construction technique

CLASSIFICATION
Q. EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES (OR) BASES OF SCALE
CLASSIFICATION
1. Subject orientation
Under it a scale may be designed to measure characteristics of the respondent who completes it or to
judge the stimulus object which is presented to the respondent. In respect of the former, we presume that the
stimuli presented are sufficiently homogeneous so that the between stimuli variation is small as compared to
the variation among respondents.
2. Response form
Under this we may classify the scales as categorical and comparative. Categorical scales are also known
as rating scales. These scales are used when a respondent scores some object without direct reference to
other objects. Under comparative scales, which are also known as ranking scales, the respondent is asked to
compare two or more objects.
3. Degree of subjectivity
With this basis the scale data may be based on whether we measure subjective personal preference or
simply make non-preference judgments. In the former case, the respondent is asked to choose which person
he favours or which solution he would like to see employed, whereas in the latter case he is simply asked to
judge which person is more effective in some aspect or which solution will take fewer resources without
reflecting any personal preference.
4. Scale properties
Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
Nominal scales merely classify without indicating order, distance or unique origin. Ordinal scales indicate
magnitude relationships of „more than „or „less than‟, but indicate no distance or unique origin. Interval
scales have both order and distance values, but no unique origin. Ratio scales possess all these features.
5. Number of dimensions
In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as „one-dimensional‟ and multidimensional scales.
Under the former we measure only one attribute of the respondent or object whereas multidimensional
scaling recognizes that an object might be described better by using the concept of an attribute space of „n‟
dimensions, rather than a single-dimension continuum.
6. Scale construction technique
Following are the five main techniques by which scales can be developed.

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 a. Arbitrary approach
It is an approach where scale is developed on ad hoc basis. This is most widely used approach.
It is presumed that such scales measure the concepts for which they have been designed, although there
is little evidence to support such an assumption.
b. Consensus approach
Here a panel of judges evaluates the items chosen for inclusion in the instrument in terms of
whether they are relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in implication.
c. Item analysis approach
Under it a number of individual items are developed into a test which is given to a group to a
group of respondents. After administering the test, the total scores are calculated for every one.
Individual items are then analyzed to determine which items discriminate between persons or objects
with high total scores and those with low scores.
d. Cumulative scales
Cumulative scales are chosen on the basis of their confronting to some ranking of items with
ascending and descending discriminating power. For instance, in such a scale the endorsement of an
item representing an extreme position should also result in the endorsement of all items indicating a less
extreme position.
e. Factor scales
It may be constructed on the basis of intercorrelations of items which indicate that a common
factor accounts for the relationship between items. This relationship is typically measured through factor
analysis method.
IMPORTANCES
Q. WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANCES OF THE SCALING TECHNIQUES?
RATING SCALES
Rating scale method is a widely adopted technique. In this for each statement alternative are given in such a
way that the entire range of response is presented. The rater is asked to indicate his option. Then based on this,
he is rated. There are different types of rating scales used. They are graphic rating scale, itemized rating scale,
comparative rating scale and rank order rating scale.
a. Graphic Rating Scale.
In this type of rating scale, a statement is given alternatives. These alternatives are specific and
unambiguous. The rater is asked to mark one of them. As the marking is clear, the category of response is easily
understood and applied.
b. The Itemized Rating Scale
It is also known as numerical scale. It presents a series of statements from which a respondent selects one as
best reflecting his evaluation. These statements are ordered progressively in terms of more or less of some property.
RANKING SCALES
Under ranking scales (or comparative scales) we make relative judgments against other similar objects.
The respondents under this method directly compare two or more objects and make choices among them. There
are two generally used approaches of ranking scales
(a). Method of paired comparisons
Under it the respondent can express his attitude by making a choice between two objects, say between a
new flavour of soft drink and an established brand of drink. But when there are more than two stimuli to judge,
the number of judgments required in a paired comparison is given by the formula
N= n (n-1) / 2
Where N= number of judgments
N= number of stimuli or object to be judged
(b) Method of rank order
In this the rater is asked to rank the given alternatives according to his view point, From this, it is easy to
identify the most preferred and least preferred alternatives. For example, suppose a rater is asked to rank the
detergent available in the market. Then he might rank them from the most preferred to the least preferred.
This may be –
Surf, Henko Mr.White Nirma,
This means that Nirma detergent is least preferred and surf is most preferred.

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SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Q. EXPLAIN THE SCALE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
TECHNIQUES:
In social science studies, while measuring attitudes of the people we generally follow the technique of
preparing the opinionnaires in such a way that the score of the individual responses assigns him a place on a
scale. Under this approach, the respondent expresses relevant to the issue.
While developing such statements, the researcher must note the following two points:
 Researchers must as well as aware that inferring attitude from what has been recorded in opinionnaires
has several limitations.
 People may conceal their attitudes and express socially acceptable opinions. They may not really know
how they feel about a social issue.
PERSONAL INTERVIEW MEANING
Q. WHAT IS PERSONAL INTERVIEW? OR WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY
INTERVIEW?
The interview technique is a verbal method of securing data especially in the field research connected
with the social problems. Interview method involves direct or indirect meeting of the respondent by the
researcher. The researcher determines the questions to be raised at the time of interview and then elicit the
response for them. The reply given is either written down in a note-book or recorded in audio or video cassette.
DEFINITION
Q. DEFINE THE TERM INTERVIEW AND EXPLAIN ITS OBJECTIVES?
According to C. William Emory, “Personal interviewing is a two-way purposeful conversation initiated
by an interviewer to obtain information that is relevant to some research purpose.
OBJECTIVES
The main purpose of interview as a tool of data collection, field procedure is to gather data extensively
and intensively.
The objectives of interview are two fold namely:
1. To exchange of ideas and experience and
2. To elicit information
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
Q. EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF INTERVIEW TECHNIQUE?
TYPES OF INTERVIEW

Formality Number Purpose Period Subject

Formal Informal Short Prolonged

Personal Group

Quantitative Qualitative

Diagnostic Treatment Research curiosity

1. Classification according to Formality

a. Formal interview
Under this method of interview the interviewer presents a set of well-defined questions and notes down
the answer of informant in accordance with prescribed rules.
b. Informal Interview
Under this method of interview, the interviewer has full freedom to make suitable alterations in the
questions to suit a particular situation.

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2. Classifications according to the Number
a. Personal Interview
In personal interview single individual is interviewed. Attitudes and changes in them may best be
secured by the personal method.
b. Group Interview
The group interview means two or more persons are interviewees. The group interview in suited for
gathering routine information.
3. Classification according to purpose
a. Diagnostic interview
In this type of interview, the interviewers try to understand the cause or causes of a malady.
b. Treatment Interview
Interviewers are held to bring to ford- conscious of the patient that his malady is due to his or that
mental complex or faulty style of life.
c. Research Interview
These interviews are held to gather information pertaining to a certain problem.
d. Interviews to fulfils curiosity
This interview as the name implies, are held to satisfy some questions trucking in the mind of a scientist.
4. Classification according to the period of contact.
a. Short contact interview
For filling up schedules etc., a singe sitting of small duration suffices.
b. Prolonged interview
In contrast to research by schedule, the case history method required prolonged interviews.
5. Classification according to subject matter
a. Qualitative Interview
The qualitative interviews are about complex and non quantifiable subject matter.
b. Quantitative Interview
It takes place when the interviewers are in a special concrete situation. For example when they
have seen a particular film or heard a particular radio broadcast of a social situation.
Q. WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS (OR) DISADVANTAGES OR DEMERITS OF INTERVIEW
METHOD?
1. Un economical
The transportation cost and the time required to cover addresses in a large area as also possibility
of non availability or no at home, may make the interview method uneconomical and often feasible.
2. Emotionalism
The interview is liable to cease being objective and becoming emotional. In the current of
emotionalism all objectivity is swept aside.
3. Personal bias
Under this the data may be distorted, resulting in wrong generalization. In spite of the best efforts
the personal bias cannot be totally eliminated in this method.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERVIEW AND QUESTIONNAIRE
Q. HOW DOES INTERVIEW DIFFER FROM QUESTIONNAIRE?
INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
1) It involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli Questionnaire method involves presentation of written
and returns of oral verbal response. verbal stimuli and return of written verbal response
2) Under interview method the interviewer has In a questionnaire method the questions are arranged
also the opportunity to observe both the to get information.
subjects and the total situation to which he or
she is responding

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTERVIEW AND OBSERVATION:

Q. HOW DOES INTERVIEW DIFFER FROM OBSERVATION?
1. The observational techniques are not quite effective in giving information about persons, perceptions,
beliefs, feelings, motivations, anticipations, future plans, past and private behaviors whereas the
interview technique effectively gives information about all these.
2. The observation technique involves non verbal stimuli whereas interview technique involves verbal
stimuli.

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Q. EXPLAIN THE PRE-CAUTIONS OF INTERVIEW? OR WHAT ARE THE PRE-CAUTIONS TO
BE TAKEN TO AVOID THE ERRORS IN INTERVIEW? [5 MARKS]
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The interviewer must examine the cause and effect of the relevant aspects of the interview.
2. The researcher should examine data from other sources also.
3. The interviewer must know about the relations of the respondent and their attitudes towards him.
4. Resorting group interview
5. The interviewer must cross check the statement that he might have secured earlier
6. The interviewer must try to collect extensive facts about the important aspects.
SCHEDULE
Q. WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY SCHEDULE? AND DEFINE IT. [5 MARKS]
MEANING:
The schedule is the form containing some questions or blank tables which are to be filled by the
research workers after getting information from the informants.
DEFINITION:
According to Goode and Hatt, “schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions which are
asked and filled by an interviewer, in face-to-face situation with another”.
Q. EXPLAIN THE FEATURES AND IMPORTANCE OF SCHEDULE. [5 MARKS]
FEATURES:
1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers are noted down
by him.
2. The list of questions is a more format document, it need not be attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research
IMPORTANCE OR PURPOSE OF SCHEDULE
1. To provide a standardized tool for observation or interview in order to attain objectivity.
2. To act as memory tickler, the schedule keeps the memory of the interview
3. To facilitate the work of tabulation and analysis.
PROCESSES OF SCHEDULE
Q. WHAT ARE THE PROCESSES OF SCHEDULE? (OR) EXPLAIN THE STEPS INVOLVED IN
FRAMING A SCHEDULE?
1. Study the different aspects of the problem
The problem under study should first of all be split up into various aspects. The determinations of
these aspects will depend upon clear understanding of the problem under study.
2. Sub-divide the problem to get necessary information
Each aspect has again to be broken up into a number of sub-parts. These subparts should complete
picture of the aspects under study.
3. The framing of actual questions
Proper care should be taken to see that the questions convey the exact sense, are easily followed by
the respondents and they will be willing to supply information without any hesitation, bias of facts.
4. Serialization of questions.
In order to obtain well-organized information, it is necessary that the questions should be
presented to the respondents in a well order serial.
5. Testing the validity of schedule
Whatever may be the degree of pre-caution taken, some steps are bound to be left out and cannot be
located unless the schedule has been put into operation
Q. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF SCHEDULE? [5 MARKS]
ADVANTAGES:
 It is the only method, which permits the investigator to go deep into the feeling of the respondents.
 It is the only method from which one can get first hand information.
 In this method, there is a possibility for the exchange of ideas between the investigators and the
respondents.
 Unlike questionnaire and observation, there will not be any scope for missing the information.
 It allows the investigator to test the authority of the information he got through cross-examination.
 The interview method is flexible when compared to other methods of data collection.
 It is highly suitable to collect information on sensitive and personal matters.
 Delay or Non-return in case of questionnaire is avoided under this method.

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  The data gathered through interview have been found to be fairly reliable and accurate.
 The interview method increases response rate and also facilitates exchange of views in the language of
the respondent.
 Through this method the reaction of the respondent can also be observed
Q. WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF SCHEDULE? [5 MARKS]
DISADVANTAGES:
 This method is expensive, as each and every respondent needs to be approached personally.
 This method is termed unscientific, as it does not stand for verification.
 This method depends too much on the memory of the interviewee; this may lead to submission of
incorrect data.
 The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the
extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
 Interview is an art. Those that have good qualities of interviewing achieve the desired success and those
who lack the art fail.
 In this method, the difference in perception levels of the interviewer and interviewee may affect the
interview process.
 Under interview, the forget-fullness on the part of both interviewer and respondent can be seen
commonly.
 Interview is a time consuming one.
 Some respondents, who are of high value, may not be approached easily. Interviewer has to fix the
appointment previously in hands of the respondents.
 Under this method selection, training and supervising of the field staff in big studies are difficult.
Q. EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SCHEDULE? OR EXPLAIN DIFFERENT METHODS OF
SCHEDULE? [5 MARKS]
1. Rating schedule
Rating schedule is used to access the attitudes, opinions, preferences and other like element. As
evident from the term rating in these schedules, the value and trend of the above mentioned qualities are
measured.
2. Document schedule
In this schedule, those terms are included which are occurring frequently in documents and are to
be generally found in case histories. i.e., the questions are asked in the document format, which containing
the repeated technical terms.
3. Institutional survey forms
The use of these schedules as is evident from the name, is made to gather data about specialized
institutions or agencies.
4. Observational schedule:
In this schedule, the observer records the activities and responses of an individual or a group under
specific conditions.
5. Interview schedule
In an interview schedule, an interviewer presents the questions of the schedule to the interviewees
and records their responses on blank spaces.
OBSERVATION
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY OBSERVATION? [5 MARKS]
MEANING:
It refers accurate watching and noting of phenomena a they occur on nature with regard to cause and
effect or mutual relation
DEFINITION:
In the words of P.V. Young “it is a systematic viewing coupled with consideration of the seen phenomena”.
Q. WHAT ARE CHARACTERISTICS OF OBSERVATION? [5 MARKS]
CHARACTERISTICS
. 1 It is physical as well as mental activity
2. It should not observe anything and everything
3. It should be purposive
4. It should be efficient
5. It is a classical and scientific method
6. It is possible to establish relationship with cause and effect of the happiness in social phenomena

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Q. WHAT ARE THE PROCESS OF OBSERVATION? [5 MARKS]
PROCESS OF OBSERVATION
1. Preparation
2. Training
3. Entry in to the study environment
4. Initial interaction
5. Termination of fieldwork.
To make the observation process effective, one must decide what, where and how to observe the thing. For
example, the researcher in interested in observing the morale and commitment of the workers in a factory. The
next step for the researcher would be to start his work of observation and note down the points which he was
able to observe.
Q. EXPLAIN VARIOUS TYPES OF OBSERVATION [5 MARKS]
1. Casual and scientific observation
Casual observation occurs without any previous preparation. On the other hand scientific observation
is carried out with the help of tools of measurement. Hence all observation is not scientific observation.
2. Simple and systematic observation
Observation is found in almost all research studies at least in the exploratory stage. Such data collection is
often known as simple observation. On the other hand systematic observation employs standardized procedures,
training of observers, schedules for recording and other devices for control the observer and some times even
the subject.
Thus, systematic observation employs standard procedure whereas simple observation does not employ
any procedure.
3. Direct and indirect observation
The direct method describes the situation in which the observer is physically present monitors what takes
place. Indirect observation is the term used to describe studies in which the recording is done by mechanical
photographic or electronic means.
4. Behavioral and non behavioral observation
Behavioral Observation includes the full range of monitoring behavioral and non behavioral activities and
conditions. Non behavioral observation includes records, analysis; physical conditions of analysis and physical
process analysis are the three major categories of non observational study of person.
5. Participant and non participant observation
When the observer participates with the activities of this group under study it is known as participant
observation whereas if the observer not participant with the activities of this group under study is known as non
participant observation.
6. Structured and unstructured observation
Structured observation indicates definition of the units to be observed, information to be recorded, the
selection of pertinent data for observation and standardization of conditions of observation. Unstructured
observation refers to the observers understanding of the situation is likely to change as he goes along.
7. Controlled and non controlled observation
When the observation is made in the natural surroundings and the activities are performed in their usual
cause without being influenced or guided by any external force it is known as simple or unstructured or natural
observation. If the observation is not made in the natural surroundings, and the activities are performed not in
their usual cause. It is called as controlled observation.
Q. WHAT IS PILOT STUDY? [5 MARKS]
MEANING:
It is a preliminary study conducted on a limited scale before the original studies are carried out in
order to gain some primary information, on the basis of which the main project would be planned and
formulated.
DEFINITION:
“It is a pre study conducted by the researcher to obtain some primary data‟s which would guide the main
project”.
Q. EXPLAIN THE NEED FOR PILOT STUDY [5 MARKS]
NEED FOR PILOT STUDY
 The pilot study is undertaken without formulating any hypothesis about the problem. It is made on a
small sample, but it is necessary that the individuals of the sample should form the actual group to be
studied.

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  That is, there should be respondents who should act as representatives of the entire group of
respondents. At this stage all that can be formulated is an interview guide.
 Thus, the researcher studies the field in a very non-directive fashion. The questions are structured very
little and controllable only by dealing with these general areas which he has reason to think are
important.
Q. WHAT ARE ADVANTAGES OR MERITS OF PILOT STUDY? [5 MARKS]
ADVANTAGES OF PILOT STUDY
1. Helps in the respondent selection procedure
It helps in bringing out the inadequacies of the draft questionnaire. It throws light on several difficult,
ambiguous, partial, irrelevant and do not know question and provides clues of dealing with them.
2. Provides training and motivation to interviewer
It unfolds how effective the training has been ridding the interviewer from their prejudices and in
motivating them, what are the deficiencies of training curricula, staff incentive, etc.
3. Inculcates seriousness and honesty in interviewer
It also helps in finding out the type of person most likely to be a good interviewer in the study.
4. Provides opportunities
The interviewers learn a variety of tactics and codes of conduct, which they should follow to build
rapport with the respondent.
5. Provides a trial or rehearsal to test interviewers work
It tests the interviewer‟s stamina to work under conditions of personal discomfort, stress and fatigue.
6. Improves the efficiency of the survey organization
It tests the efficiency of survey organization in the field, in the office and in the communication between
the two.
7. Identifies the needs of tools and equipments
It helps in identifying the needs for different kinds of equipment and vehicles. Conditions for local terrain
will decide the need for different types of transport.
8. Facilitates to estimates the project cost and time
It provides data for making estimates of time and cost for completing various phases of the project and
shows ways to effect savings.
PRE-TESTING
Q. WHAT IS PRE TESTING? STATE THE OBJECT OF PRE-TESTING [5 MARKS]
MEANING:
It implies sending out trial forms by way of preparing for the main survey, and such informal trial and
error is as much part of the preliminary study as are talks with experts and study of the literature.
OBJECT OF PRE-TESTING:
1. To detect the discrepancies that have crept in and to remove them after necessary modification
2. There is no amount of craftsmanship
3. To avoid ultimate loss of failure.
Q. WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PRE-TESTING? [5/10 MARKS]
SIGNIFICANCE OF PRE-TESTING
Pre-testing helps in enriching the design of the schedule/ questionnaire and assists in testing the validity
and reliability of statistical technique to be adopted for data processing and analysis.
Thus, the pre-test is the proving group for the sample design and it is a preview of how well
interviewers perform, respondents behave and procedure work in practice. During pre-test, an overlooked area
may be discovered; problems of space and typography may be seen.
In short, interplay is created between preliminary field data and later research operations.
1. The adequacy of sampling frame from which it is proposed to select the sample
2. The variability within the population to be surveyed
3. The non-response rate to be expected
4. The suitability of the method of collecting the data
5. The adequacy of the questionnaire, accuracy, efficiency and clarity, the kind of interviewer and
respondent
6. The efficiency of the instruction and general bringing of interviewers
7. The codes chosen for pre-coded questions
8. The probable cost and duration of the main survey

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Q. EXPLAIN THE ADVANTAGES /MERITS OF PRE-TESTING? [5 MARKS]
ADVANTAGES
1. Reveals the strength and weakness of the questionnaire
This is an indication of weakness of the questionnaire, which should be removed
2. Helps to decide questionnaire form and structure
It helps to decide the proper form and structure of each question whether it should be multiple choices,
open-ended or some other combination.
3. Resolves many problems of measurement
It helps to resolve many mechanical problem of measurement, if a question gives offence, it should be
changed. It will show how to develop lines of enquiry as logically as possible in term or respondents
progression of thinking.
4. Improves the design and effectiveness of the questionnaire
It helps to improve questionnaire design in terms of format, quality of instruction needs for filter or
screening question, amount of spacing required on the page, and the use of the special symbols for colour coded
pages for directing the interviewer physically through the questionnaire.
5. Provides estimates of required resources for the survey
It gives firm estimates of the amount of time, money personal and equipment required to process the main
study data efficiently and successfully.

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 UNIT –IV
ANALYSISAND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Q. WHAT IS ANALYSIS OF DATA? [5 MARKS]
MEANING
It means studying the tabulated material in order to determine inherent facts or meanings. It involves
breaking down existing complex factors into simpler parts and putting the parts together in new arrangements
for the purposes of interpretation.

DEFINITION
According to Prof. Wilkinso and Bhandaskar,” Analysis of data involves a number of closely related
operations that are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in such
manner that they will yield answer to the research questions or suggest hypothesis or questions if no such
questions or hypothesis had initiated the study”.
Q. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ANALYSIS OF DATA? [5 MARKS]
CHARACTERISTICS
1. It demands a deep and intensive knowledge on the part of the researcher about the data to be analyzed.
2. It is only by organizing, analyzing and interpreting the research data
3. We can know their important features
4. Their inter relationship is known.
5. The function of systematic analysis is to build an intellectual edifice in which properly sorted
6. Sorted and sighted facts and figures are place in their appropriate settings.
7. The data to be interpreted should
(i) be producible
(ii) be readily disposed to quantitative treatment
(iii) Have significance for some systematic theory.
8. The more specific the hypothesis, the more specific is the action.
9. Since analysis the interpretation should more properly be conceived of as a special aspect of analysis
10. It should be designed before the data are actually collected with the exception of formulative studies.

Q. EXPLAIN THE STEPS INVOLVED IN ANALYSIS OF DATA. [5 MARKS]

PROCESS OR STEPS:
1. Data must be collected
2. The collected data are similarly tabulated
3. Tabulation must be categorized as each sub group.
4. Provided statistical descriptions
5. Finding the results
6. To improve the evaluation of the findings
7. Interpretation of data
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY INTERPRETATION? [5 MARKS]
MEANING:
It means drawing inferences from the collected facts after the analytical study. It means application of
logical thinking and derivation to the facts to understand and explain the link between variables. Interpretation
is the rare potential.
DEFINITION:
According to C.William Emory, Interpretation has two major aspects namely establishing continuity in
research through linking the results of a given study with those of another and the establishment of some
relationship with the collected data.
Q. EXPLAIN ESSENTIAL AND PRE-REQUISITES OF INTERPRETATION. [5 MARKS]
PRE-REQUISITES OF INTERPRETATION

Accurate data
Sufficient data
Proper type of classification and Tabulation
Absence of Heterogeneous data

30
 Possibility of Statistical Treatment
Consistency of Information
1. Accurate data
In the absence of accurate data, the investigator fails to interpret the data in a proper and required form.
Accuracy of data provides all the benefits of consistency and help, one to arrive at a true conclusion.
2. Sufficient data
Unless we have sufficient data, we may never achieve the objectives of proper interpretation and
analysis.
3. Proper type of classification and Tabulation
The investigator are required to base their calculations estimations and judgments on data represented in
a properly classified and tabulated form.
4. Absence of Heterogeneous data
If the data are non homogeneous or heterogeneous, it may fails to yield the desired results. For a uniform and
accurate result, the data must be homogenous.
5. Possibility of Statistical Treatment
While dealing with the important and useful aspect of the nature of enquiry as well as on availability of
data conductive to statistical treatment for this we have to keep a vigilant eye on the nature of enquiry.
6. Consistency of Information
Inconsistent information and data are always subject to inaccurate results. In mathematical and
statistical treatment, however emphasis is always laid on having stable and accurate results.
Q. WHAT ARE THE PRE-CAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION? [5 MARKS]
PRE-CAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION:
1. Failure to see the problem in proper perspective
Sometimes the investigator may have on inadequate grasp of the problem in its board sense and to close
a focus on its immediate aspect.
2. Failure to appreciate the relevance of various elements.
The investigation may fails to see the relevance of the various elements of the situation due to an
inadequate grasp of the problem, to rigid a mind – set or even a lack of imagination.

3. Failure to Recognize Limitations in Research Evidence

These limitations may be of many types such as non-representative ness in sampling basis in the data,
inadequacies in the research design, defective data gathering instruments and inaccurate statistical analysis.
4. Misinterpretation Due to unstudied factors
In some instances the interpretation is difficult with other result, because on has conceived of his
problem in to narrow a sense.
5. Difficulties of Interpretative Evaluation
Factual interpretation and personal interpretation of their implication should never be confused. They
should be kept apart in a research report.
PROCESS OF DATA
Q. WHAT IS DATA PROCESSING? [5 MARKS]
MEANING:
Data processing refers to subjecting the data collected to a process in which the accuracy, completeness,
uniformity of entries and consistency of information gathered are examined.
Data processing involves classification and summarization of data in order to make them amenable for
analysis.
Q. WHAT ARE THE STAGES INVOLVED IN THE PROCESS OF DATA? OR WHAT ARE THE
OBJECIVES OF DATA PROCESSING? [5 MARKS]
STAGES OR OBJECIVES OF DATA PROCESSING:
1. Checking field questionnaire / schedule i.e., editing
2. Reducing the mass of data into manageable proportions i.e., coding
3. Grouping of data on some basis i.e., classification and
4. Summarizing the data into tabular form.

EDITING
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY EDITING? EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF EDITING? [5 MARKS]
31
MEANING:
It is the process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these
error and omissions.
TYPES OF EDITING:
There are two types of editing:
 Field editing
 Central editing

Field editing
If the editing begins in the field itself, it will be called as field editing . Field editing consists of review
of reporting forms by the investigator for completing abbreviated responses, rewrite illegible responses and
correct the omissions.
Centralized editing
In this type of editing, editing is done by a person or a team after all the recorded questionnaires or
schedules are collected. They are checked in the office for completeness, accuracy and uniformity. This editing
is done at central place when all the forms are completed and return to the central office.

Q. EXPLAIN THE GUIDELINES FOR EDITING (OR) WHAT ARE THE FACTORS
CONSIDER FOR EFFECTIVE EDITING WORKS? [5 MARKS]
GUIDELINES FOR EDITING
1. The editor should understand the instructions for editing
2. The editor must find whether there is an answer to every question
3. The editor must try to check whether the answers are accurate.
4. The editing process should be free from any personal bias.
5. The editor must see whether the interviewers have interpreted questions and instructions in a uniform
manner.
6. Editor‟s knowledge of the subject matter will help to perform the job better and so the background
information about the data should be provided to him.
7. Wrong entries must be marked and scored off, but not defaced
8. Editorial notes on the work done is important as it would indicate the basis of rectifying wrong entries
9. Colour pencil or pen should be used for editing
10. Editor‟s signature and date of editing should be clearly noted.

CODING
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY CODING? [5 MARKS]
MEANING
Coding is a practice which simplifies recording of answers. When standard answers for a question could
be indicated, each answer is assigned a code. So, instead of writing the answers in full, the investigator simply
writes the code.
Coding is a process in which the data is divided into a limited number of classes. In this process all the
answers are assigned in any symbol or numeral order. This is done with the help of set rules.

CLASSIFICATION
Q. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY CLASSIFICATION? [5 MARKS]
MEANING
Classification of data means grouping the data on the basis of some common characteristics. In other
words, when some homogeneity could be established in the data collected, when each group with similar
characteristics.
1. Classification as per attributes
The data which is required to classified as per attributes. It can be either descriptive or numerical. If the data
is collected in qualitative means in descriptive form that it cannot be measure in quantitative form.
2. Classification as per class intervals

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 The numerical data collected refers to quantitative form; it can be measured through some statistical
unit, data related to production, income, age come under this category. This type of data is classified on the
basis of class interval.
TABULATION
Q. WHAT IS TABULATION? [5 MARKS]
MEANING
Tabulation is the arrangement of classified data in an orderly manner. This involves creating tables for
recording the data. The process of presenting in an orderly manner the classified data in a table is called
tabulation.
Thus, it is the summarization of results in the form of statistical tables. The tabulation may be done
entirely by manual methods or through electronic devices or by both methods.

TYPES OF TABULATION:
Tabulation can be classified into:
1. Simple tabulation
It gives information about one or more groups of independent questions. This results, in one way
table, provides information of one characteristics of data.
2. Complex tabulation
In this type of tabulation, the data is divided in two or more categories which give information
regarding more sets of inter-related question. It results in two way or three way tables which gives
information about several inter related characteristics of data. This complex table is describe as cross
tabulation.
Q. WHAT IS ANALYSIS OF DATA? EXPLAIN ITS CHARACTERISTICS [5 MARKS]
ANALYSIS OF DATA
It means studying the tabulated material in order to determine inherent facts or meanings. It involves
breaking down existing complex factors into simpler parts and putting the parts together in new arrangements
for the purposes of interpretation.

Q. WHAT IS ANALYSIS OF DATA? EXPLAIN ITS CHARACTERISTICS [5 MARKS] cont…

CHARACTERISTICS
 It demands a deep and intensive knowledge on the part of the researcher about the data to be
analyzed.
 It is only by organizing, analyzing and interpreting the research data
 We can know their important features
 Their inter relationship is known.
 The function of systematic analysis is to build an intellectual edifice in which properly sorted
 Sorted and sighted facts and figures are place in their appropriate settings.
 The data to be interpreted should be producible and be readily disposed to quantitative treatment
 Have significance for some systematic theory.
 The more specific the hypothesis, the more specific is the action.
 Since analysis the interpretation should more properly be conceived of as a special aspect of analysis
 It should be designed before the data are actually collected with the exception of formulative studies

Q. EXPLAIN THE TYPES OF ANALYSIS [5 MARKS]

Analysis involves in dividing the existing difficult factors into simpler parts and putting them mutually in new
arrangements for the purposes of interpretation.
Analysis may be categorized as:
1. Descriptive analysis and
2. Inferential analysis
1. Descriptive analysis
This analysis reveals the nature of an object under the study. This sort of analysis may describe the
data of one variable. It consists of
a. Multiple regression analysis
b. Multiple discriminate analysis
c. Canonical analysis

33
2. Inferential analysis
The inferential analysis are undertaken to draw the inferences under the study. This analysis may
describe the data of more than one variable. i.e., two or more variables. It consists of
 Factor analysis
 Cluster analysis
 ANOVA
 T-test
 F-test

Q. EXPLAIN THE PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS [5 MARKS]

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
1. An intensive review must be performed if the collected data are to be used in the analysis
2. These data analysis can be done with the help of statistical techniques.
3. The results emerging should be related to the study‟s hypothesis and objects.

Q. WHAT ARE THE FORMS OF INTERPRETATION? [5 MARKS]

FORMS OF INTERPRETATION
1. Relationships
Unless comparative analysis, true form of relationship between the subject and the object can net be
determined on the contrary, unless true and proper relationship are established amongst different aspects
interpretation may never be considered as complete.
2. Proportion
In particular, if the object of study is to much variable over a period, then proportions are ascertained to
interpret the data or information in a true form.
3. Percentages
Some times the basis of interpretation is the percentage. In this regard we must keeping in mind that although
the method of percentage is somewhat crude and approximate. Yet it is often used in the sphere of absolute
figures.
4. Averages or other measures of comparison
It is a matter of common experience that is a long statistical table is to be analyzed and interpreted; we
have to take the help of various forms of measuring the control or other tendencies relating to them. In the
absence of these comparative measurements cut result may not be arrived at.

Q. WHAT ARE THE SOURCEOF ERRORS IN INTERPRETATION? [5 MARKS]

SOURCEOF ERRORS IN INTERPRETATION
1. Failure to see the problem in the proper form
2. Failure to appreciate the relevance of various elements
3. Failure to recognize limitations in the research evidence
4. Misinterpretation of unstudied factors.
HYPOTHESIS
Q. WHAT IS HYPOTHESIS? [5 MARKS]

MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is the proposed assumption, explanation, supposition or solutions to be proved or disproved.
Hypothesis is productive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods that are related to independent
variable to some dependent variable.
DEFINITION
According to good and Hatt “hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to test to determine validity”.
According to Rummel & Balline Say “A hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and thereby
verified or rejected”.

Q. EXPLAIN THE NEED FOR HYPOTHESIS [5 MARKS]

NEED FOR HYPOTHESIS:
1. Hypothesis constitute a body of knowledge
2. It helps to draw inferences

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 3. It determines the validity of the research work
4. It relates dependent and independent variables

Q. EXPLAIN THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD HYPOTHESIS [5 MARKS]

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD HYPOTHESIS

Clarity
Scope for verification
Specific
Testable
Linked to theory
1. Clarity
When a hypothesis is conceptually clear it provided clear direction to the researcher.
2. Scope for verification
In simple terms, any hypothesis, which lends itself for rigorous with related data could be considered as
a unable hypothesis.
3. Specific
The hypothesis should be very specific and not a general statement. It is miser to construct a hypothesis
in simple language than resorting to flowery and confusing terminology.
4. Testable
Formulated hypothesis should be testable with the available technique of analysis. Even while
formulating, a researcher should ascertain the relevant techniques with which it could be tested.
5. Linked to theory
When the hypothesis is formulated the researcher should conform whether it is related to any existing
theory or net. This will help them to relate his finding to existing body of knowledge.

Q. EXPLAIN THE FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS [5 MARKS]

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS:
Hypothesis formulation is one of the difficult exercises undergone by every researcher. As hypothesis
provides the necessary direction to the researcher, it assumes significance.
STAGES IN FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
 A researcher may form hypothesis based on the assumptions, observation, and profound hunch.
 After this stage, when the hypothesis has to be tested.
 Based on his observation, a researcher develops an opinion and due to his interest he may collect data
and analyze the same to draw conclusions.
 After testing, if the conclusions are accepted, then they constitute a body of knowledge. If rejected, even
then it is valuable.
 It is often said that if a researcher succeeds in formulating hypothesis, he succeeds in his research.

Q. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES/ KINDS OF HYPOTHESIS? [5 MARKS]

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Crude hypothesis
Refined hypothesis
Working hypothesis
Statistical hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
1. Crude Hypothesis
It is formed to initiate the process of research. When the researcher is commencing his research work,
he needs some guidelines or focus. For this purpose, he might develop a hypothesis based on the available
evidence or data.
2. Refined hypothesis
Refined hypothesis is one, which is more significant in research and the degree of significance depends
on the level of abstraction.
3. Working hypothesis
35
 Working hypothesis is usually in the process of verifying the relationship among various variables
included in research.
4. Statistical hypothesis
Statistical hypothesis are those, which are formulated based on the sample data. Once these hypotheses
are tested or verified, the conclusion about the population is drawn.

5. Null hypothesis
Null hypothesis is formulated only to test whether there is any relationship between variables related to
the problem being studied. Usually the null hypothesis is formed as a negative statement.
Alternate hypothesis (Ha) is a statement, which is accepted, after the null hypothesis is rejected based on
the test result.

Q.EXPLAIN THE TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS [5 MARKS]

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
Test of hypothesis could be explained through the following stages:
1. In the first stage, based on hunch or sample data a null hypothesis is formed
2. The relevant technique for testing the null hypothesis is selected.
3. The level of significance is determined
4. After subjecting the data to be selected statistical technique the calculated value would be obtained.

Q.WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS IN TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS [5 MARKS]

PROBLEMS IN TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

1. A hypothesis developed with a given sample data cannot be tested against the sample.
2. Statistical evidence need net always be taken as conclusive indene.
3. A researcher should be good at interpretation of results. Otherwise the result of test of hypothesis is
likely to be wrongly understood.
4. The availability of reliable data will determine the reliability of the results of testing hypothesis.
5. There is every scope for a researcher to manipulate the hypothesis to suit his belief or faiths.
Q.WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS [5 MARKS]
SOURCES OF HYPOTHESES
1. Life history of a person decides his perception and this factor will direct researcher to form
certain hypothesis. Individual intention is a source of hypothesis.
2. Similarities are often considered as source of valuable hypothesis. These similarities suffer with certain
limitations, but they provide insights for formulation of hypothesis.
3. Hypothesis is also arises form the findings of other studies.
4. The theoretical concept with logical deduction can be a source of hypothesis.
5. The value orientation of the culture may provide the base for the hypothesis.

Q.EXPLAIN THE VARIOUS METHODS OF TESTING HYPOTHESIS (OR) EXPLAIN IMPORTANT

PARAMETRIC TEST WHILE TESTING HYPOTHESIS. [5 MARKS]

METHODS OF TESTING HYPOTHESIS

Parametric Tests
The following are the important parametric test
1. t-test
2. X2-test
3. F-test

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1. t-test
This test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of a
sample mean or for judging the significance of difference between the means of two samples.
(i) In case of small samples (3) when population variance is not known (in which case we use several of the
sample as on estimate of the population variance).
(ii) In case two samples are related we use paired t-test for judging the significance of the mean of
difference between the two related samples.
The relevant test statistic is calculated from the sample data and then compared with its probable value based on
t-distribution at a specified level of significance for concerning degree of freedom for accepting or rejecting null
hypothesis. It may be needed that t-test applies only in case of small sample when population variance is *

F-test
It is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two independent samples. This
test is also used in the contact of analysis of variance for judging the significance of more than two sample
means at one and the same time. It is also used for judging the significance of multiple correlations co-
efficient.
X2-test- (chi-square)
This test is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for comparing a sample
variance to a theoretical population variance.

Hypothesis Testing of Correlation co-efficient

(a) In case of simple correlation co-efficient we use t-test and calculate
The test statistic as under
t = ryx n-2
1-r2yx
With (n-2) degrees of freedom
ryx being co-efficient of simple correlation between x and y.

This calculated value of t is they compared with its table value and if he calculated value is less than the table
value, we accept the null hypothesis at the given level of significance and may inter that there is no relationship
of statistical significance between two variables.

(b) In case of partial correlation co-efficient

We t-test and calculate the test statistic as under
t = rp n-k
1-r2p
With (n-k) degrees of freedom, n being the number of paired observation and k being the number of
variables involved, rp happens to be the co-efficient of partial correlation.
If the value of t in the table is greater than the calculated value, we may accept null hypothesis and infer
that there is no correlation.
(c) In case of multiple correlation co-efficient
We use f-test and work at the test statistic as under
R2 / (k-1)
F=
(1-R2) / (n-k)
Where
R – is any multiple co-efficient of correlation
K – being the number of variables involved
N – being the number of paired observation
The test is performed by entering tables of the
F – Destitution with
37
V1 = k-1 = degrees of freedom for variance in memo ration
V2 = n-k = degrees of freedom for variance in denominator
Of the calculated value of F is than the table value, and then we may infer that there is no statistical
evidence of significant correlation.
Analysis of variance
The test we use for comparing a sample variance to some theoretical variance of population is different
than 2-test or the t-test the test we use for this purpose is concern as chi-square test and the test statistic
symbolized as X2, known as the chi-square test and the test statistic symbolized as X2, known as chi-square
value, is worked out. The chi-square value to test the null hypothesis HO: S2 = P2 worked at as under.
S2
X2 = (n-1)
P 2

Where,
S2 = Variance of the sample
P 2
= Variance of the population
(n-1) = Degree of freedom
n = being the number of items in the sample
Then by comparing the calculated value of X2 with its table value for (n-1) degree of freedom at a given
level of significance, we may either accept Ho or reject it. If the calculated value of X2 is equal to less than the
table value the null hypothesis is accepted other wise the null hypothesis is rejected.

Q.EXPLAIN THE PROCEDURE FOR TESTING HYPOTHESIS?(OR) EXPLAIN THE STEPS

INVOLVED IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING [5 MARKS]
1. Making a formal statement
This step involves making a formal statement of the null hypothesis Ho and also of the alternative
hypothesis. This means that hypothesis should be clearly stated, considering the nature of the research problem.
2. Selecting a significance level
The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same schedule
specified generally in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect
the level of significance are:
(a) The magnitude of difference between sample means
(b) The file of the sample
(c) Variability of the measurement
(d) Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional
(iii) Deciding the distribution to use
Hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. This choice generally remains
between normal distribution and the t-distribution.
(iv) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value
Another step is to select a random sample (s) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data
concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution.
(v) Calculation of probability
One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge(deviate) as widely as it
has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fort time.
(vi)Comparing the probability
Yet another step consist in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified value for a, the
significant level of the calculated probability is equal t or smaller than the a value in case of one tailed test (and

38
Eq/2 in case of two tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis i.e., accept the alternative hypothesis, but if the
calculated probability is greater, then accept the null hypothesis.

Q. WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS OF THE TEST OF HYPOTHESIS? [5 MARKS]

1. The test should not be used in a mechanical fashion
2. It should be kept in view that testing is not decision making itself.
3. Tests do not explain the reasons as to why do the difference exist say between the means of the two
samples.
4. Result of significance tests is based on probabilities and as such cannot be expressed with full certainty.
5. Statistical inferences based on the significance tests cannot be said t be entirely correct evidence concerning
the truth of the hypothesis.

UNIT-V
RESEARCH REPORT

Q. WHAT IS MEAN BY RESEARCH REPORT AND REPORT WRITING? [5 MARKS]

MEANING
The research report is the final stages to be completed in the process of the research. It is an important part of
the research study. In research report, researcher will have to make complete account of the research activity
conducted.
REPORT WRITING
It is the oral or written presentation of the evidence and the findings in such detail and from as to be
readily understood and assessed by the reader and as to enable him to verify the validity of the conclusions.

Q. WHAT ARE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF GOOD REPORT (OR) WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIALS OF
GOOD REPORT? [5 MARKS]
SIGNIFICANCE OF GOOD REPORT

Clarity and coherence

Writing correctly
Readability
Styled to the Reader’s Taste
Effective Arrangement
1. Clarity and coherence
Clarity is the first essential requirement of a good research report. The researcher should be first clear in
his writing. In any case one does not really find out what one wants to say until the writing is completed.
2. Writing correctly
Another requirement of a good research report is that it should be written correctly. In fact, correctness
is important in achieving clarity.
3. Styled to the Reader’s Taste
A good report is one that is written in a style that the audience can follow. Depending on the focus
group, the researcher has to change the style of presenting the results.
4. Readability
Readability is yet another requirement of a good report. Clarity and coherence usually provide
readability to a text.
5. Effective Arrangement
Proper organization of the report is the important ingredient in the whole process; a technical editor can
correct a technically inaccurate statement.

39
Q. EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TYPES OF REPORT WRITING? OR WHAT ARE THE METHODS OF
THESIS WRITING? [10 MARKS]
Before the preparation of the report, the researcher has to consider the background of the potential
audience, their total research situation and their technical language and knowledge. The report may be a short
report or a long report.
TYPES OF REPORT

Short report Long report

Technical Popular

I. SHORT REPORT
At the beginning of the short report, there should be some brief statement concerning he authorization of
the study, the problem to be examined and its breadth and depth.
Short reports are appropriate for studies in which the problem is well defined. Such studies of limited
scope require only limited time, personnel and money, and for it methodologies are simple and straight forward.
II. LONG REPORT
The long report may be a technical report or a popular report.
1. Technical report: It is prepared for specialists who are interested in understanding the technical procedure
and terminology used in he research project. The report will be in technical language.
The technical report contains the following information:
 Summary of details: Under this stage a brief view of the main findings just in two or three pages.
 Nature of the study: It includes description of the general objective study, formulation of the problem
in operational terms, the working hypothesis, type of analysis and data required etc.
 Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance in sampling
studies we should give details of sample design, sample size, sample selection etc.,
 Data: Data collected should be fully described.
 Analysis of data and presentation of findings.: If supporting data in the forms of tables and charts
were fully narrated. This in fact, happens to be main body of the report usually extending over several
chapters.
 Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from results is
explained.
 Bibliography
 Bibliography of various sources collected be prepared and attached.
 Technical appendices: Appendices are given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire,
mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
 Index: It must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
2. Popular report
The popular report is intended for persons who have limited interest in the technical aspects of the
research methodology and research findings. It gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
It includes the following key points:
 The findings and their implications
Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most practical interest and on the implications of these
findings.
 Recommendation for action
It is on the basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the reports.

40
  Objective of the study
A general view of how the problem arises is presented along with the specific objectives of the project
under study.
 Methods employed
A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used, including a short review of
the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report.
 Results
This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the result of the study are presented in clear
and non technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagram‟s and the like
ones.
 Technical appendices
More detailed information on methods used, forms etc., is presented in the forms of appendices. But the
appendices are often not detailed of the report is entirely meant for general public.

Q. WHAT ARE THE STEPS TO BE INVOLVED WHILE DRAFTING RESEARCH

REPORTS? OR WHAT ARE THE PRE-REQUISITES OF THESIS WRITING? OR EXPLAIN
THE PROCESS /MECHANICS OF RESEARCH REPORT. [10 MARKS]

STEPS IN DRAFTING A RESEARCH REPORT

Preparation of draft
Space for correction
Paper size and quality
Chapt
erisation
Size of thesis
Presentation
Foot notes and bibliography
Heading and subheadings
Use of tables, figures
Quality of diagram’s
Pagination
1. Preparation of draft
The researcher should prepare two or three drafts of thesis before the final version is prepared.
The draft could be either written manuscripts or typed scripts or computer prints out.
2. Space for correction
The draft should have sufficient space for noting down the changes and corrections in the subject
matter.
3. Paper size and quality
The final draft should be printed on A4 bond paper, preferably executive bond paper.
4. Chapterisation
Depending upon the objectives and methodology of thesis, the layout of the thesis to be given on
any aspect of thesis, it is better to place it in a separate chapter.
4. Size of thesis
As records the size of the thesis and the number of pages in a thesis, the stipulation universities
suggest that the body of the thesis should not exceed 200 pages.
5. Presentation

41
 The thesis should be neatly cloth bound and the outer cover should contain all the details on the
title page of the thesis. Here also universities specify the format for the title page.
6. Foot notes and bibliography
As regards the footnotes and bibliographical entries, some universities suggest the format and this
should be closely followed. It should given at the end of the page or at the back side of the thesis.
7. Heading and subheadings
It is good practice to use the number of main headings and subheadings in thesis. While using them
appropriate distinction should be given. For example if the main heading is in bold capital letters, the
side heading may be bold, italic and underscored.

8. Use of tables, figures:

Tables should all be numbered and placed before the discussion. On no account the tables should be
split.
9. Quality of diagram’s
Diagrams should be neatly drawn either with black Indian ink or computer printed. Colour graphs
would add to clarity and presentation. But the graphs or diagrams should fit in a-4 size paper. Sufficient
margin should be given around the presentation. Each figure should be numbered and titled.
10. Pagination
Recording the assignment of pages, it should be noted that all graphs and diagrams should bear page
number. Appendix should also be numbered in continuation of the body of the thesis only the
preliminary pages are to be numbered in lower case roman letter.

Q. EXPLAIN THE CONTENTS/LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT? OR EXPLAIN

THE BODY (OR) STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT. [10 MARKS]
LAYOUT MACHANICS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT:
I. Preliminary section
The preliminary section usually consist of the following pages
a) Title page
In this page the title of the thesis is printed in bold letters. The title should clearly reflect the
focus of the study.
b) Certificate from the guide/supervisor
Normally this is issued and signed by the guide stating that the thesis is the contribution
made by the scholar and the guide has provided only general guidance in shaping the work.
c) Declaration by the candidate
This is the certificate submitted by the scholar in whom he states, that the thesis is the result
of his own effort and is not a copy of any thesis or publication already submitted or published to any
agency.
d) Acknowledgement
In this page, the scholar express his grateful to all those who have helped him in the course
of his research work.
e) Table contents
In this page, the scholar clearly spells out the contents of the thesis. He specified the title for
each chapter and the page number. It should be noted that in this page, the page number of the guide
certificate, scholar declaration and acknowledgement should also be included.
f) List of tables
In this page, the scholar provides the tables that are used in the body of the thesis. The table
number is given continuously in Roman numerals right from the first chapter of the thesis, though
there is no standard pattern recommended.
g) List of figures

42
 This is a page in which the scholar would present the list of figures or diagrams used in the
thesis. As regards the numbering of the figures, different pattern are followed.
h) List of appendices
In this part of the content, the scholar would specify items included under the appendixes. He
would indicate the items in serial order, its title and the page number where it is found.

CONTENTS

Preliminary pages Body of text Reference material

Title Introduction Bibliography

Certificate Review of literature Appendix
Declaration Methodology Index
Acknowledgement Period
Table contents Area
List of tables Sources of data
List of figures Sample design
List of appendices Main text
Limitations

II. Body of the thesis

1. Introduction
In this opening section of a thesis, the scholar would explain the background necessary for the study.
This is followed by the objectives of the study. Scholar should avoid using subjective terms while laying down
the terms. The number of objectives should be limited to four or five.
The scholar may mention the hypothesis taken up for the study. It is necessary that the limitations of the
study be also spelt out in the introduction.
2. Review of literature
In this chapter, the scholar will present the review of all the previous studies, articles published, books
published. The scholar would normally classify this chapter in three or four parts
a. Review of journal articles
b. Review of books
c. Review of thesis
d. Review of reports.
3. Methodology
Any evaluator of a thesis would attach maximum importance to this section. Unless the methodology
adopted for the study is satisfactory and rigorous, the evaluator is likely to develop a poor impression of the
thesis. In this context, the following points are to taken in to account.
 Justification of the study should be stated
 Problem focus must be spelt out
 Objectives of study should be clearly stated.
4. Period of study
This refers to the duration of the study, that is whether the study is analyzing the fact for a period of 10 years or
is it focusing on the current status alone must be indicated.
5. Area of the study
What is the area of study should specify. This would also be supported by the reasons why this specifies
area was taken up for the research.

43
 6. Sources of data
The scholar indicates where from he has collected the data for the study, if it is primary data, how it was
collected, was it a census or sample study, what was the method of collecting data, the scholar should specify
what were the sources like RBI Bulletin, monthly abstracts of statistics, Agriculture situation in India, Indian
Investment Center Publication. These details would add authenticity to the study.
7. Sample design
Sample design refers to the method of sampling adopted for data collection. Some times, the scholar
collects the data from sample respondent. Thus he should explain how the sample characteristic was
established, how the sample size was determined and how the data was collected.
8. Limitation of the study
In this section, the scholar should be honest to state the limitation of the data used, analysis applied,
validity of conclusions etc.
9. Main body of the report
The chapters‟ constituting the main body of the report will vary in number and length according to the
nature of the evidence to be presented. The arguments or findings should be presented in a logical or orderly
way. Every bit of evidence should be supported by logical reasoning and empirical facts.
Materials should be organized systematically and presented under appropriate headings. Because of the
diversity of research topics, it is not possible to specify directions for organizing he main body of a thesis.
10. Conclusions
In this chapter first a brief of objectives and methodology should be stated. Then the results of the
analysis along with their conclusions should be presented in the same order in which they were discussed in the
chapter of discussion. This will facilitate any reader to understand and place the conclusion in right perspective.

III. Reference material

1. Bibliography
It includes the details of journal and books used and referred in the course of the study, the details of the
sources like, name of the journal, its volume number, issue number and date are mentioned. In the casebooks,
name of the author, title of the books, publishers name, year of publication, place of publication and edition are
all provided.
The bibliography follows the main body of the text and is separate but integral part of a thesis. In
compiling a bibliography the researcher may wish to subdivide primary and secondary sources or texts and
journal articles and so on.
2. Appendix
The appendix usually includes such matters as original data, tables that present supporting evidence,
tests that have been constructed by the research students, parts of document or any supportive evidence that
would detract from the major line of argument and would make the body of the thesis unduly large and may
extract from official document.
Usually it contains four or five sections Bibliography, Index, Additional information, questionnaire and
schedule used in the study, supporting data, explanation of models etc.
3. Index
If a thesis is subsequently published as a book, monograph or bulletin, an index is necessary.

Q. EXPLAIN THE PRECAUTION TO BE OBSERVED WHILE PREPARING EFFECTIVE

REPORT? [10 MARKS]
PRECAUTION
1. The research and report should be enough to maintain the interest of readers.
2. The use of technical jargons is to be avoided. The research report should convey the matter as simply as
possible.
3. The reader often is interested in acquiring the quick knowledge of the main finding. Therefore, for this
purpose, the researcher can use the graphs, charts, statistical diagram to be used which will be given in

44
 the brief summary of findings.
4. The layout of research should be well thought out and must be appropriated in accordance with the
objectives of the research problem.
5. The research report should be free from grammatical mistakes, and spelling mistakes.
6. The report should present logical analysis of the subject matter.
7. The report should show its originality, and should make an attempt to solve the problem.
8. Towards the end, the research report should state the policy implications for solving the problem.
9. It is also desirable to indicate or explain the scope for further research or researches in the same
particular period.
10. The researcher should enlist necessary appendices in respect of technical data in the research report
namely questionnaire or schedule or any other additional information.
11. Bibliography of the sources must be necessarily given in the proper order with all details.
12. The index may also be considered as an essential part which should be listed at the end.
13. The report should be attractive and neat, whether typed or printed.
14. The constrains in conducting the surveys or study should be given in the report.
15. The objectives, the nature of the problem, and the methods employed in analysis must also be clear
which should be presented at the beginning of the report.

Q. WHAT ARE THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR REPORT WRITING? [10
MARKS]
1. Languages:
The language which is used to communicate the results of a research study should be free from
bias. The language used should reach the reader without any difficulty. The grammatical presentation is
also an important part in writing a report. The problem of designation occurs when the writer makes
reference to one or more people.
3. Abbreviations:
Abbreviations are to be used sparingly. Abbreviation word should be used only when they are
conventional and familiar to the reader or only when it is necessary to abbreviate to save space and
avoid cumbersome repetition.
4. Physical Measurement:
All physical measurement is to be stated in metric units. If the measurement is expressed in non
metric units it must be accompanied by its metric equipment in parentheses.
5. Appendices:
More detailed information on methods used, forms etc is presented in the form of appendices.
But the appendices are often not detail if the report is entirely meant for general public. The appendices
may be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical derivations, and
elaboration on particular technique of analysis etc.
6. Objective of the study:
A general view of how the problem arises and the main aim of such project work along with
specific objective of the study are mentioned under this heading.
6. Recommendation for action:
Recommendation for action on the basis of the findings of the study is made to the reader of the
report.
7. Conclusion:
The conclusion of report consists of a summary of basic points uncovered by the study and policy
implication drawn from the results is explained here.
8. Typing :
In typing the manuscript, double-space all materials. The rule is to set the typewriter on double
spacing and leave it there. There should be ½ -inch margins at the top, bottom, right and left of every
page. Words should not be divided at the end of the page and each page should contain not more than 25

45
 lines of text.
QUALITIES RESEARCH REPORT
Q. BRIEFLY EXPLAIN THE QUALITIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD OR ESSENTIAL
RESEARCH REPORT.
1. Suitable Title:
A suitable title has to be provided to each report according to the nature of contents. It should
also highlight upon its origin and the person for whom it is being prepared.
2. Simple:
A report should be readable by an ordinary layman and in known language. Such type of simple
style of language is used in the report preparation. As far as possible, scientific or technical language is
best left out of reports, unless it becomes unavoidable. In case the reports are of regular nature, it is
preferable to get language more or less standardized.
3. Promptness:
A report should be prepared and submitted within short span of time or time stipulated by
the request letter. Information delayed is information denied. At the same time, accuracy of information
should not be given up at the cost of achieving objective of promptness. The following steps may be
taken to collect the information as early as possible.
 Accounting records should be kept in such a way that fulfill the requirements of submission of
different reports.
 Mechanical devices can be used for record keeping at the maximum to avoid clerical errors and
increase productivity.
 Accounting work should be departmentalized in order to prevent bottle necks in reporting.
 In the case of prevailing abnormal or extra-ordinary situation, the employees are asked to report the
same immediately.
4. Comparability:
Sometimes a report is prepared with some comparative information. In this case, a standard
information is compared with actual information. If not so, current year information is compared with
last year information. In certain cases, the prospective information is prepared well in advance and the
actual information is compared. The main objective of comparability is to highlight significant
variations.
5. Consistency:
A report should be prepared for many years from the same type of information and
statistical data. If so, there is a possibility of preparing a report in consistency. It is possible if same
accounting principles and concepts are used for collecting, classifying, tabulating and presenting the
information. The usage of report is increased through consistency.
6. Precise and Accurate:
A report should be precise, accurate and specific. It can be just a bad reporting practice to supply
too much information which over whelms the order; as too little which leaves him guessing. If report is
quite long or detailed, then a synopsis should be prepared to cover all significant facts and conclusions.
7. Relevant Information:
Relevant accurate data is alone included in the report. If not so, it will involve unnecessary
expenditure and the reports will be a waste.
8. Presented to Required Person or Group or Department:
The reports should be specific and presented only to the person in need. Sometimes, reports
are sent to various departments in a routine way, if so, the reports are prepared in such a way that
includes common information.
9. Routine Details:
Every report should contain the routine details like the period of time of preparing report, the
period covered in the report, date of presentation of report, the units of information, the name of the
person preparing and presenting it, names of persons to whom it is being submitted. etc.
10. Timeliness:
A report should be prepared and presented within the stipulated time. If a report is received
late, there is no meaning of preparing such report and no use for management. If the report is presented
in time, necessary actions may be taken. Obviously financial data are more valuable when the events are
fresh in the minds of users. The element of time elapsing between the events and the report determines

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 to a large extent, the value of financial reports. Timeliness is generally more important than a high
degree of accuracy in the figures.
11. Adaptability:
The format and contents of the report should be suitable to the person or group of persons
who are going to use the report and the purpose for which it is required. A report can be adoptable if it is
prepared and presented according to the needs of the different levels of management (top, middle and
lower).
12. Ability to Control:
The reports should give full details of variances such favorable and unfavorable. In the case of
unfavorable variances, the report should contain a massage about the unfavorable variances which are
controllable at that point. If so, corrective controllable actions may be taken by the appropriate level of
authority. Moreover, some unfavorable variances which are beyond the control of the executive
receiving the report should be mentioned separately or highlighted in the report.
13. Economy or Cost Consciousness:
This cost of preparing and presenting the report should also be considered. This cost should also
be considered. This cost should not be more than the advantage derived from such reports. The cost of
preparing the report should be reasonable so that reporting may be used by all types of concerns.
14. Effective Communications:
If the management executives have taken the action on the basis of report and the report
influence decisions, there is an effective communication.
In order to be useful to management, accounting information must be communicated to
managerial personal. Communication implies that a person receiving the information understands the
nature and significance of material contained in the reports he receives when communication is
genuinely effective, management‟s actions and decisions are likely to be based on the facts which they
receive rather than on untested impressions and guesses.
However, there is a reason to believe that accounting reports to management have not always
achieved their intended purpose because the reports were not understood, recipients lacked time required
to grasp the meaning or contents of reports was not relevant to problems facing the persons who
received them.
15. Principle of Exception:
The principle of exception should be followed while preparing and presenting the reports. If
so, trouble spots and/or illuminating priority areas are calling for management attention and action. In
this case, some benefits are derived such as essential matters only included in the report to the user of
the report, more concentration is possible and minimum data is included in the report. Even though, this
principle has limited use.
16. Frequency of Reports:
The frequency of reports should be decided, well in advance according to the nature of
information and its purpose. It means that the reports should be sent regularly when they are
demanded or required. Therefore, some reports may be sent daily, some weekly, some once in ten days,
some fortnightly, some monthly and so on.
17. Media of Presentation:
A report may be prepared for presenting the same in several medias. Therefore, a report may be
in written form or oral form or graphic form. An ideal report is presented in the form which carries
successful blending of different media.
18. Attractiveness:
The style of presenting the report should attract the attention of the user of the report. In meeting
this broad requirement for attractiveness in reporting, the accountant assumes the role of an artist. His
task is to print a picture that will appeal to the eyes. His report should serve as panorama which is
attractive in an artistic sense and therefore one that will be regarded and studied by the potential viewer.
19. Co-ordination of Data:
All type of information are collected from various departments including accounting data while
preparing the report. In this case, there is a need of coordination of data. It means that data used by
different departments should not be unrelated, otherwise a lot of misunderstandings and confusions
may arise which would defeat the very purpose of reporting.
20. Up to Date:

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 A report should contain only latest information. Even though, excessive information cannot
be included in the report. It means that report should be kept up to date which are necessitated by the
changing conditions.
21. Number of Reports:
There is no ideal number of reports to be used in an organization. At the same time, a report
should be an additional one and should not give birth to be a duplication. Therefore, reports should be
prepared and used only for selective areas. The number of reports should be kept as minimum as
possible.
22. Good Form and Content:
The following points are to be considered while drafting a report.
 A report is prepared in well classified paragraph with suitable heading and sub-heading if possible.
 The title of the report explains the purpose for which the report is prepared and the period covered
by the report. For example: Report of the Performance of Sales Representatives of January 2011.
 The title also enables to point out the persons who need the report.
 If statistical figures are to be given only significant figures given in the body of the report and
other detailed figures should be given in appendix.
 The reports should contain facts and not opinions. The opinions are given if necessary.
 The report must contain the date of its preparation and date of submission.
 Sometimes a report is prepared on the basis of request made by the management. If so, the report
should bear the reference numberof such request or letter.
 A report is prepared to satisfy only one purpose. Separate reports be prepared for different
subjects.
 The contents of the report should be in a logical sequence.

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