General Paper U-2

UNIT-II RESEARCH APTITUDE
As Per Updated Syllabus

RESEARCH APTITUDE
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RESEARCH
MEANING AND DEFINITION
Research is a scientific and systematic search for various information about a specific topic. It
is just like a search for truth and knowledge. The English Dictionary meaning of Research is “a
careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.” information about a subject can be collected by deliberate effort and it is
presented in a new form after analyzing thoroughly in research work.
Research is an academic activity. It is a movement from the known to the unknown, which
may be called a discovery. Different definitions of research are given by the experts.
According to Redman and Mory, “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
D. Slesinger and M Stephenson define research as, “the manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend correct or verify knowledge whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art ”
According to P.M. Cook, “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and
their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem.”
J.M. Francis Rumel defines, “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify
knowledge.”
Clifford Woody, defines “Research is a careful enquiry or examination in seeking facts or
principles a diligent investigation to ascertain something.”
Objectives:
The main purpose of research is to discover answers to the meaningful questions through
scientific procedures and systematic attempt. The hidden truths which are not discovered yet,
can easily come to light by research.
The main objectives of Research are:
1. To gain familiarity or to achieve new insights into a phenomenon. This is known as
Exploratory or Formulative Research studies.
2. To describe the accurate characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
This is known as Descriptive Research studies.
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with other things. This is known as Diagnostic Research studies.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. Such studies are known
as Hypothesis-testing Research studies.
Characteristics of Research
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as
far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
Controlled– in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study
in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is
done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely
difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where
such controls are not possible. Therefore, in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control
external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.
Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real-life experiences or observations.
Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.
1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
2. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary sources.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or experimental evidence.
4. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data collected
and the procedures employed.
5. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation.
6. Research demands accurate observation and description.
7. Research requires patience and courage. The researcher should courageously face the
unpleasant consequences of his finding if any.
8. Research is highly purposive. It deals with a significant problem which must be solved.
9. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Everything must be carefully defined and
described in detail.
10. Research activity is characterized by carefully designed procedures which are to be
analysed thoroughly.
Research Methods
All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research
problems are called as Research Methods. Methods of research may be classified from
different points of view.
These are:
1. The fields to which applied-Education, Philosophy, Psychology.
2. Purpose-Description, Prediction. Determination of status and causes.
3. Place where it is to be conducted-in the field or in the laboratory.
4. Application-Pure research or applied research
5. Data gathering devices employed-Testing, rating scales, questionnaires etc.
6. Character of the data collected-Objective, Subjective, Quantitative, and Qualitative.
7. Forms of thinking-Deductive and Inductive.

8. Control of factors-Controlled and Uncontrolled.
Types of Research
Research can be classified from three perspectives:
1. Application of research study
2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry Mode employed
Based on Application:
From the point of view of the application, there are two broad categories of research:
1. Pure Research
2. Applied Research,
Pure research (Fundamental) involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that
are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have a practical application
at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is
sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods.
Applied research (Action Research) is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy
formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory but is
usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research.
Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic
institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an
industrial partner interested in that program.
Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. This type refers to the
study that helps solve practical problems using scientific methods. Studies play an important
role in solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans. For example: finding a
specific cure for a disease.
Based on Objectives:
From the viewpoint of objectives, research can be classified as
1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Explanatory
4. Exploratory
Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,
service or programme, or provides information about, say, the living condition of a
community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.
Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/
interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or
more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate
the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study pilot study).
In practice, most studies are a combination of the first three categories.
Based on Inquiry Mode:

From the process adopted to find the answer to research questions; the two approaches are:
1. Structured approach
2. Unstructured approach
Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative
research. Everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the
questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to
determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation.
e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular
attitude?
Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified
as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.
It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without
quantifying it. The main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or
attitude.
e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of
different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a
particular industry.
Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.
In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine/accommodation available in a city
and the extent of their popularity.
Types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails a
description of the culture and cuisine
The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of
people who visit a restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that
reflect the extent of popularity.
Basic research: A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge. The main
motivation is knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial research that doesn’t facilitate in
creating or inventing anything. For example: an experiment to determine a simple fact.
Problem oriented research: As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted to
understand the exact nature of a problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem”
refers to multiple choices or issues when analyzing a situation.
For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following
could be the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no
advertising, or economic conditions.
Problem solving research: This type of research is conducted by companies to understand and
resolve their own problems. The problem-solving method uses applied research to find
solutions to the existing problems.
Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry. It helps create in-
depth understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non-statistical
method.

Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the
questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10
people. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages answers that lead to
another question or group of questions. The purpose of asking open-ended questions is to
gather as much information as possible from the sample.
The following are the methods used for qualitative research:
1. One-to-one interview
2. Focus groups
3. Ethnographic research
4. Content/Text Analysis
5. Case study research
Quantitative research: Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and
analyzing it to draw conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a
computational and statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about
numbers.
Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people means more data. With
more data to analyze, we can obtain more accurate results. This method uses close-ended
questions because the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data.
Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection tools used in
quantitative research. There are various methods of deploying surveys or questionnaires.
Online surveys allow survey creators to reach large amounts of people or smaller focus groups
for different types of research that meet different goals. Survey respondents can receive
surveys on mobile phones, in emails, or can simply use the internet to access surveys.
Purpose of Research
There are three purposes of research:
1. Exploratory: As the name suggests, exploratory research is conducted to explore a
group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a final conclusion to the
perceived problem. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t been
explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive
research and data collection.
2. Descriptive: Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues
through a process of data collection. Descriptive studies are used to describe the
behavior of a sample population. In a descriptive study, only one variable is required to
conduct the study. The three main purposes of descriptive research are describing,
explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-
level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a huge
sum of money from the company profit.
3. Explanatory: Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to understand the
impact of certain changes in existing standard procedures. Conducting experiments is
the most popular form of casual research. For example, a study conducted to
understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

To understand the characteristic of research design using research purpose here is a
comparative analysis:
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
Research Research Research
Research Unstructured Structured Highly structured
approach
used
Research Asking research Asking research By using research
conducted questions questions hypotheses.
through
When is it Early stages of Later stages of Later stages of
conducted? decision making decision making decision making
Research method is defined as the tools or instruments used to accomplish the goals and
attributes of a study. Think of the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or
instruments will be employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.
Research begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to
investigate the problem. After collecting answers to our questions, we can analyze the findings
or observations to draw appropriate conclusions.
When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough our questions, the better.
By thoroughly collecting data from customers through surveys and questionnaires, we get
important insights into brand perception and product needs. We can use this data to make
smart decisions about our marketing strategies to position our business effectively.
Types of research methods and research example
Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.
Positivism and Post-Positivism Approach
POSITIVISM

Positivism argues for the existence of a true and objective reality that can be studied by
applying the methods and principles of natural sciences and scientific inquiry. It maintains that
“the object of study is independent of researchers; knowledge is discovered and verified
through direct observations or measurements of phenomena; facts are established by taking
apart a phenomenon to examine its component parts.” According to this paradigm, the role of
the researcher is to provide material for the development of laws by testing theories.
Positivists believe in five principles which include
 Phenomenalism (knowledge confirmed by the senses can be regarded as
knowledge),
 Deductivism (the purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested to
make laws),
 Inductivism (the gathering of facts provides the basis for laws and knowledge),
 Objectivism (science should be value-free) and
 Scientific statements
POST POSITIVISM
Post Positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed as a result of the
criticism of positivism. Like positivists, post positivists also believe in the existence of a single
reality, however, they acknowledge that reality can never be fully known and efforts to
understand reality are limited owing to the human beings’ sensory and intellectual limitations.
The aim of post positivist research is also a prediction and explanation. Like positivists, post
positivists also strive to be objective, neutral and ensure that the findings fit with the existing
knowledge base. However, unlike positivists, they acknowledge and spell out any
predispositions that may affect the objectivity
Positivism and post positivism was precluded from use in this study for several reasons. Firstly,
research conducted under both of these paradigms is usually quantitative where a hypothesis
is tested while the researcher remains objective and separate from the area of investigation.
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METHODS OF RESEARCH: EXPERIMENTAL, DESCRIPTIVE, HISTORICAL, QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Definition:
Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of
variables. The first set acts as a constant, which we use to measure the differences of the
second set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental.
If we don’t have enough data to support our decisions, we must first determine the facts.
Experimental research gathers the data necessary to help us make better decisions.
Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses experimental methods.
The success of experimental studies hinges on researchers confirming the change of a variable

is based solely on the manipulation of the constant variable. The research should establish a
notable cause and effect.
The term experiment may seem to be associated with the image of a chemist surrounded by
bubbling tubes and other related items. Traditionally, experiments have been used by physical
and behavioural researchers to a greater extent compared to business scientists. Nevertheless,
experiments research can be effectively used in businesses in order to analyse cause and
affect relationships. Deductive approach is mainly used for experiments research in order to
test hypotheses.
Experiments are usually used in causal studies. Specifically, experiment researches involve
manipulation with an independent variable in order to assess its impacts on dependent
variables. Changes in price levels on volume of sales can be mentioned as a basic example for
experiment. In this specific example, price can be specified as independent variable, whereas
sales would be dependent variable.
We can conduct experimental research in the following situations:
 Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.
 Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
 We wish to understand the importance of the cause and effect.
Types of experimental research design
The classic experimental design definition is, “The methods used to collect data in
experimental studies.”
There are three primary types of experimental design:
 Pre-experimental research design
 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design
The way we classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups, determines the type of
design.
1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under observation
after implementing factors of cause and effect. We’ll conduct this research to understand
whether further investigation is necessary for these particular groups.
We can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:
 One-shot Case Study Research Design
 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
 Static-group Comparison
2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical analysis
to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research. Of the types
of experimental design, only true design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a
group. In a true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:
 There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental
Group, which will experience the changed variables.
 A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution

This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical sciences.
3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-
experimental design is similar to experimental, but it is not the same. The difference between
the two is the assignment of a control group. In this research, an independent variable is
manipulated, but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-research is
used in field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.
The nature of relationships between two variables in causal experimental researches may be
divided into three categories: symmetrical, reciprocal and asymmetrical.
Symmetrical relationship can be observed when two variables fluctuate at the same time.
However, in symmetrical relationship change in one variable is not caused by change in
another variable. In other words, symmetrical relationships of two individual variables usually
would be the cause of another factor.
For example, decrease in the levels of consumption of luxury products and decrease on the
levels of consumer trust on financial institutions may occur at the same time as a result of a
third factor – increasing level of uncertainty of perspectives of national economy.
Reciprocal relationship between two variables occurs when there is a mutual influence and
reinforcement between two variables. For example, impacted by a marketing message a
consumer purchases a car from a particular brand for the first time. Consequently, the
consumer becomes loyal to the brand considering more purchases from the same brand in the
future. Hence, the mutual influence between the consumer and company.
Asymmetrical relationship relates to change in one variable (independent variable) causing
changes in another variable (dependent variable). There are four major forms of asymmetric
relationships:
1. Stimulus response relationship marks occurrence of an event as a response to certain
changes. For example, effective re-branding initiatives may have positive implications on the
volume of sales.
2. Property-disposition relationship. Property is associated with enduring nature of a
subject, whereas disposition can be explained as tendency to respond in certain ways in
certain circumstances. For example, personal properties include gender, religion, heritage etc,
while personal disposition opinions, values, attitudes etc.
3. Disposition-behaviour relationship relates to a specific type of relationship where human
behaviour is impacted in certain ways. For example, impact of management style on the levels
of employee motivation and consumer perception about the brand after the purchase relate
to disposition-behaviour relationship.
4. Property-behaviour relationship. This type of relationship relates to the impact of
property to human behaviour. For example, effects of cultural background on consumer
behaviour, implications of family life-cycle on human tendency to shop online etc.
Experiments aim to answer ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions and they tend to be used in
exploratory and explanatory studies. Experiments can be divided into two categories: field and
laboratory. The following table illustrates the main differences between these alternative
types of experiments:
Laboratory experiments Field experiments
Artificial – low realism Natural – high realism
Few extraneous variables Many extraneous variables
High control Low control
Low cost High cost
Short duration Long duration
Subjects aware of participation Subjects unaware of participation
Advantages of experimental research
It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into something that
may not work?
Experimental research allows we to test our idea in a controlled environment before taking it
to market. It also provides the best method to test our theory, thanks to the following
advantages:
 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.
 The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research.
Any industry can implement it for research purposes.
 The results are specific.
 After analyzing the results, we can apply our findings to similar ideas or situations.
 We can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze
this relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.
 Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data we collect is a
foundation on which to build more ideas and conduct more research.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research definition: Descriptive research is defined as a research method that
describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology
focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.
The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it
“describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.
For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among
New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and
then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover
details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not cover any
investigative information about “why” the patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying
to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s objective.
Descriptive research can be explained as a statement of affairs as they are at present with the
researcher having no control over variable. Moreover, “descriptive studies may be
characterised as simply the attempt to determine, describe or identify what is, while analytical
research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be”.
Descriptive research is “aimed at casting light on current issues or problems through a process
of data collection that enables them to describe the situation more completely than was
possible without employing this method.”
In its essence, descriptive studies are used to describe various aspects of the phenomenon. In
its popular format, descriptive research is used to describe characteristics and/or behaviour of
sample population.
An important characteristic of descriptive research relates to the fact that while descriptive
research can employ a number of variables, only one variable is required to conduct a
descriptive study. Three main purposes of descriptive studies can be explained as describing,
explaining and validating research findings.
Descriptive studies are closely associated with observational studies, but they are not limited
with observation data collection method. Case studies and surveys can also be specified as
popular data collection methods used with descriptive studies.
Examples of Descriptive Research
Research questions in descriptive studies typically start with ‘What is…”. Examples of research
questions in descriptive studies may include the following:
 What are the most effective intangible employee motivation tools in hospitality
industry in the 21stcentury?
 What is the impact of viral marketing on consumer behaviour in consumer amongst
university students in Canada?
 Do corporate leaders of multinational companies in the 21 stcentury possess moral
rights to receive multi-million bonuses?
 What are the main distinctive traits of organisational culture of McDonald’s USA?
 What is the impact of the global financial crisis of 2007 – 2009 on fitness industry in
the UK?
Characteristics of descriptive research
The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design of the study, and data
analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of
the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.
Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:
1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that
attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population
sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the
demographic segment’s nature.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in
any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of
the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where
different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and
analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can
also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent
research.
Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before
getting into any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite
following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to
use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some
ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:
 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw
concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns,
traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a
respondent, their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example,
understanding from millenials the hours per week they spend on browsing the internet.
All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business
decisions.
 Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive
research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches
different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of
autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides
insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and
apparel that customers don’t like.
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research design to
understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example,
an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s
image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender,
geographical location, etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand
what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also
helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high
growth potential groups.
 Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive research to help
ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the
non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some
aspects of qualitative observation, researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-
depth analysis. Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be
prevalent in a population.
 Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at different
periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of
variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be
repeated to draw trends.
Descriptive research methods
There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:
 Observational method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and
researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is primarily focused on
numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.”
Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis
methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age,
shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers
will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score question.
Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since
the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural
and effective. In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a
complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full
participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the
customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the
purchasing experience of the customer.
 Case study method
Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to
a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies
should not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions
because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are
not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical
respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away
from external validity.
 Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls. They are a
popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful
data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended
questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline,
making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.
Examples of descriptive research
Some examples of descriptive research are:
1. A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to
understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the
preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various
methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while
collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of
different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various
preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the
organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
2. Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to
evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting
surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational
methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged

implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students
are impacted in any way with this change.
Some other problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:
 Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.
 A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
 A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather
than textbooks.
 To understand if its wellness programs enhance the overall health of the employees.
Advantages of descriptive research
Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:
 Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific
methods like observational method, case study method, and survey method.
Between these three, all primary data collection methods are covered, which
provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even
developing a hypothesis of your research object.
 Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic
understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted
in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest
data is collected.
 Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive
research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
1. Descriptive studies cannot test or verify the research problem statistically
2. Research results may reflect certain level of bias due to the absence of statistical
tests
3. The majority of descriptive studies are not ‘repeatable’ due to their observational
nature
4. Descriptive studies are not helpful in identifying cause behind described
phenomenon
HISTORICAL APPROACH
Historical research or historiography, "attempts to systematically recapture the complex
nuances, the people,meanings,events,and even ideas of the past that have influenced and
shaped the present". (Berg & Lure, 2012, p. 305 )
Historical research involves studying, understanding and interpreting past events. The
purpose of historical research is to reach insights or conclusions about past persons or
occurrences. Historical research entails more than simply compiling and presenting factual
information; it also requires interpretation of the information.
Typically, histories focuses on particular individuals, social issues and links between the old
and the new. Some historical research is aimed at reinterpreting prior historical works by
revising existing understandings and replacing them with new, often politically charged ones.

The main emphasis in historical research is on interpretation of documents, diaries and the
like. Historical data are categorized into primary or secondary sources. Primary
sources include first hand information, such as eyewitness reposts and original
documents. Secondary sources include secondhand information, such as a description of an
event by someone other than an eyewitness, or a textbook author’s explanation of an event or
theory. Primary sources may be harder to find but are generally more accurate and preferred
by historical researchers. A major problem with much historical research is excessive reliance
on secondary sources.
Researches cannot accept historical data at face value, since many diaries memoirs, reposts
and testimonies are written to enhance the writer’s position, stature, or importance. Because
of this possibility, historical data has to be examined for its authenticity and truthfulness. Such
examination is done through criticism; by asking and researching to help determine
truthfulness, bias, omissions and consistency in data.
Theorists who developed this political approach focused on the historical factors like the age,
place and the situation in which it is evolved are taken into consideration. This approach is
related to history and it emphasizes on the study of history of every political reality to analyse
any situation. Political thinkers such as Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning considered that
politics and history are closely related and the study of politics always should have a historical
standpoint. Sabine stated that Political Science should include all those subjects which have
been discussed in the writings of different political thinkers from the time of Plato. This
approach strongly maintains the belief that the thinking or the dogma of every political thinker
is formed by the surrounding environment. Furthermore, history provide details of the past as
well as it also links it with the present events. History gives the chronological order of every
political event and thereby helps in future estimation of events also. Therefore, without
studying the past political events, institutions and political environment it would be erroneous
to analyse the present political events. But critics of historical approach designated that it is
not possible to understand the idea of the past ages in terms of contemporary ideas and
concepts.
Historical research relies on a wide variety of sources, both primary &
secondary including unpublished material.
Primary Sources
 Eyewitness accounts of events
 Can be oral or written testimony
 Found in public records & legal documents, minutes of meetings, corporate records,
recordings, letters, diaries, journals, drawings.
 Located in university archives, libraries or privately run collections such as local
historical society.
Secondary Sources
 Can be oral or written
 Secondhand accounts of events
 Found in textbooks, encyclopedias, journal articles, newspapers, biographies and
other media such as films or tape recordings.

Steps in Historical Research
Historical research involves the following steps:
1. Identify an idea, topic or research question
2. Conduct a background literature review
3. Refine the research idea and questions
4. Determine that historical methods will be the method used
5. Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources
6. Evaluate the authenticity and accuarcy of source materials
7. Analyze the date and develop a narrative exposition of the findings.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It is used to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships
with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.
Quantitative research collects information from existing and potential customers using
sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc., the
results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After careful understanding of these
numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make changes accordingly.
An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount of
time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient
satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did a
doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other such
questions.
Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social sciences using the statistical
methods used above to collect quantitative data from the research study. In this research
method, researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks and theories that
pertain to the quantity under question.
Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even
investigational. The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical, and
unbiased. Data collection happened using a structured method and conducted on larger
samples that represent the entire population.
As mentioned above, quantitative research is data-oriented. There are two methods to
conduct quantitative research. They are:
 Primary quantitative research methods
 Secondary quantitative research methods
Primary quantitative research methods
There are four different types of quantitative research methods:
Primary quantitative research is the most widely used method of conducting market research.
The distinct feature of primary research is that the researcher focuses on collecting data
directly rather than depending on data collected from previously done research. Primary

quantitative research design can be broken down into three further distinctive tracks, as well
as the process flow. They are:
A. Techniques and Types of Studies
There are multiple types of primary quantitative research. They can be distinguished into the
four following distinctive methods, which are:
1. Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome research
methodologies and studies. Surveys used to ask questions to a sample of respondents, using
various types such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-intercept
surveys, etc. Every small and big organization intends to understand what their customers
think about their products and services, how well are new features faring in the market and
other such details.
By conducting survey research, an organization can ask multiple survey questions, collect data
from a pool of customers, and analyze this collected data to produce numerical results. It is
the first step towards collecting data for any research.
This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group and also can be
conducted across multiple groups along with comparative analysis. A prerequisite for this type
of research is that the sample of respondents must have randomly selected members. This
way, a researcher can easily maintain the accuracy of the obtained results as a huge variety of
respondents will be addressed using random selection. Traditionally, survey research was
conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the progress made by online mediums such
as email or social media, survey research has spread to online mediums as well.
Traditionally, survey research was conducted face-to-face or via phone calls but with the
progress made by online mediums such as email or social media, survey research has spread
to online mediums as well.
There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on the time in-hand and
the kind of data required:
Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys conducted in
situations where the researcher intends to collect data from a sample of the target population
at a given point in time. Researchers can evaluate various variables at a particular time. Data
gathered using this type of survey is from people who depict similarity in all variables except
the variables which are considered for research. Throughout the survey, this one variable will
stay constant.
 Cross-sectional surveys are popular with retail, SMEs, healthcare industries.
Information is garnered without modifying any parameters in the variable
ecosystem.
 Using a cross-sectional survey research method, multiple samples can be analyzed
and compared.
 Multiple variables can be evaluated using this type of survey research.
 The only disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys is that the cause-effect relationship
of variables cannot be established as it usually evaluates variables at a particular
time and not across a continuous time frame.

Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-
sectional surveys, longitudinal surveys are conducted across various time durations to observe
a change in respondent behavior and thought-processes. This time can be days, months, years,
or even decades. For instance, a researcher planning to analyze the change in buying habits of
teenagers over 5 years will conduct longitudinal surveys.
 In cross-sectional surveys, the same variables were evaluated at a given point in
time, and in longitudinal surveys, different variables can be analyzed at different
intervals of time.
 Longitudinal surveys are extensively used in the field of medicine and applied
sciences. Apart from these two fields, they are also used to observe a change in the
market trend, analyze customer satisfaction, or gain feedback on products/services.
 In situations where the sequence of events is highly essential, longitudinal surveys
are used.
 Researchers say that when there are research subjects that need to be thoroughly
inspected before concluding, they rely on longitudinal surveys.
2. Correlational research:
A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is conducted to
establish a relationship between two closely-knit entities and how one impacts the other and
what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research method is carried out to give
value to naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two different groups are required
to conduct this quantitative research method successfully. Without assuming various aspects,
a relationship between two groups or entities must be established.
Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or more variables using
mathematical analysis methods. Patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are
concluded as they exist in their original set up. The impact of one of these variables on the
other is observed along with how it changes the relationship between the two variables.
Researchers tend to manipulate one of the variables to attain the desired results.
Ideally, it is advised not to make conclusions merely based on correlational research. This is
because it is not mandatory that if two variables are in sync that they are interrelated.
Example of Correlational Research Questions:
 The relationship between stress and depression.
The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.
3. Causal-comparative research:
This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called quasi-
experimental research, this quantitative research method is used by researchers to conclude
the cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is dependent on
the other independent variable. The independent variable is established but not manipulated,
and its impact on the dependent variable is observed. These variables or groups must be
formed as they exist in the natural set up. As the dependent and independent variables will
always exist in a group, it is advised that the conclusions are carefully established by keeping
all the factors in mind.

Causal-comparative research is not restricted to the statistical analysis of two variables but
extends to analyzing how various variables or groups change under the influence of the same
changes. This research is conducted irrespective of the type of relation that exists between
two or more variables. Statistical analysis is used to distinctly present the outcome obtained
using this quantitative research method.
Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:
 The impact of drugs on a teenager.
 The effect of good education on a freshman.
 The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.
4. Experimental research:
Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a theory. Experimental
research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories. This theory has not
been proven in the past and is merely a supposition. In experimental research, an analysis is
done around proving or disproving the statement. This research method is used in natural
sciences.Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.
There can be multiple theories in experimental research. A theory is a statement that can be
verified or refuted.
After establishing the statement, efforts are made to understand whether it is valid or invalid.
This type of quantitative research method is mainly used in natural or social sciences as there
are various statements which need to be proved right or wrong.
 Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.
 Systematic teaching schedules help children who find it hard to cope up with the
course.
 It is a boon to have responsible nursing staff for ailing parents.
B. Data collection methodologies
The second major step in primary quantitative research is data collection. Data collection can
be divided into sampling methods and data collection with the use of surveys and polls.
Data collection methodologies: Sampling methods
There are two main sampling methods for quantitative research: Probability and Non-
probability sampling.
Probability sampling: A theory of probability is used to filter individuals from a population and
create samples in probability sampling. Participants of a sample are chosen random selection
processes. Each member of the target audience has an equal opportunity to be selected in the
sample.
There are four main types of probability sampling:
 Simple random sampling: As the name indicates, simple random sampling is nothing
but a random selection of elements for a sample. This sampling technique is
implemented where the target population is considerably large.
 Stratified random sampling: In the stratified random sampling method, a large
population is divided into groups (strata), and members of a sample are chosen

randomly from these strata. The various segregated strata should ideally not overlap
one another.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method using which the
main segment is divided into clusters, usually using geographic and demographic
segmentation parameters.
 Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling is a technique where the starting point of the
sample is chosen randomly, and all the other elements are chosen using a fixed interval.
This interval is calculated by dividing the population size by the target sample size.
Non-probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is where the researcher’s knowledge and
experience are used to create samples. Because of the involvement of the researcher, not all
the members of a target population have an equal probability of being selected to be a part of
a sample.
There are five non-probability sampling models:
 Convenience sampling: In convenience sampling, elements of a sample are chosen only
due to one prime reason: their proximity to the researcher. These samples are quick and
easy to implement as there is no other parameter of selection involved.
 Consecutive sampling: Consecutive sampling is quite similar to convenience sampling,
except for the fact that researchers can choose a single element or a group of samples
and conduct research consecutively over a significant period and then perform the same
process with other samples.
 Quota sampling: Using quota sampling, researchers can select elements using their
knowledge of target traits and personalities to form strata. Members of various strata
can then be chosen to be a part of the sample as per the researcher’s understanding.
 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is conducted with target audiences, which are
difficult to contact and get information. It is popular in cases where the target audience
for research is rare to put together.
 Judgmental sampling: Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling method
where samples are created only based on the researcher’s experience and skill.
Data collection methodologies: Using surveys & polls
Once the sample is determined, then either surveys or polls can be distributed to collect the
data for quantitative research.
 Using surveys for primary quantitative research
A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined group of
respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest. The ease of survey
distribution and the wide number of people it can be reached depending on the research time
and research objective make it one of the most important aspects of conducting quantitative
outcome research.
Fundamental levels of measurement – nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales
There are four measurement scales that are fundamental to creating a multiple-choice
question in a survey. They are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio measurement scales
without the fundamentals of which, no multiple-choice questions can be created. Hence, it is
crucial to understand these levels of measurement to be able to develop a robust survey.
Use of different question types
To conduct quantitative research, close-ended questions have to be used in a survey. They can
be a mix of multiple question types including multiple-choice questions like semantic
differential scale questions, rating scale questions, etc.
Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection
In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with the survey design to
conduct primary quantitative research. Survey distribution to collect data is the other
important aspect of the survey process. There are different ways of survey distribution. Some
of the most commonly used methods are:
 Email: Sending a survey via email is the most widely used and most effective method of
survey distribution. The response rate is high in this method because the respondents
are aware of your brand. You can use the QuestionPro email management feature to
send out and collect survey responses.
 Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and conduct primary
quantitative research is to use a sample. Since the respondents are knowledgeable and
are on the panel by their own will, responses are much higher.
 Embed survey on a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases a high number
of responses as the respondent is already in close proximity to the brand when the
survey pops up.
 Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in collecting a higher
number of responses from the people that are aware of the brand.
 QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can print/publish this
code in magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just about any object/medium.
 SMS survey: A quick and time-effective way of conducting a survey to collect a high
number of responses is the SMS survey.
 QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows users to circulate surveys quickly, and
the responses can be collected both online and offline.
Survey example
An example of a survey is short customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey template that can quickly
be built and deployed to collect feedback about what the customer thinks about a brand and
how satisfied and referenceable the brand is.
 Using polls for primary quantitative research
Polls are a method to collect feedback with the use of close-ended questions from a sample.
The most commonly used types of polls are election polls and exit polls. Both of these are used
to collect data from a large sample size but using basic question types like a multiple-choice
question.
C. Data analysis techniques
The third aspect of primary quantitative research design is data analysis. After the collection of
raw data, there has to be an analysis of this data to derive statistical inferences from this
research. It is important to relate the results to the objective of research and establish the
statistical relevance of results.

It is important to consider aspects of research which were not considered for the data
collection process and report the difference between what was planned vs. what was actually
executed.
It is then required to select precise statistical analysis methods such as SWOT, Conjoint, Cross-
tabulation, etc. to analyze the quantitative data.
 SWOT analysis: SWOT Analysis stands for the acronym of Strengths, Weakness,
Opportunities, and Threat analysis. Organizations use this statistical analysis technique
to evaluate their performance internally and externally to develop effective strategies
for improvement.
 Conjoint Analysis: Conjoint Analysis is a market analysis method to learn how
individuals make complicated purchasing decisions. Trade-offs are involved in the daily
activities of an individual, and these reflect their ability to decide from a complex list of
product/service options.
 Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is one of the preliminary statistical market analysis
methods which establishes relationships, patterns, and trends within the various
parameters of the research study.
 TURF Analysis: TURF Analysis, an acronym for Totally Unduplicated Reach and
Frequency Analysis, is executed in situations where the reach of a favorable
communication source is to be analyzed along with the frequency of this
communication. It is used for understanding the potential of a target market.
Inferential statistics methods such as confidence interval, margin of error, etc. can then be
used to provide results.
Secondary quantitative research methods
Secondary quantitative research or desk research is a research method that involves using
already existing data or secondary data. Existing data is summarized and collated to increase
the overall effectiveness of research.
This research method involves the collection of quantitative data from existing data sources
like the internet, government resources, libraries, research reports, etc. Secondary
quantitative research helps to validate the data that is collected from primary quantitative
research as well as aid in strengthening or proving or disproving previously collected data.
Following are five popularly used secondary quantitative research methods:
1. Data available on the internet: With the high penetration of internet and mobile
devices, it has become increasingly easy to conduct quantitative research using the
internet. Information about most research topics is available online, and this aids in
boosting the validity of primary quantitative data as well as proving the relevance of
previously collected data.
2. Government and non-government sources: Secondary quantitative research can also
be conducted with the help of government and non-government sources that deal with
market research reports. This data is highly reliable and in-depth and hence, can be used
to increase the validity of quantitative research design.
3. Public libraries: Now a sparingly used method of conducting quantitative research, it is
still a reliable source of information though. Public libraries have copies of important
research that were conducted earlier. They are a storehouse of valuable information
and documents from which information can be extracted.
4. Educational institutions: Educational institutions conduct in-depth research on multiple
topics, and hence, the reports that they publish are an important source of validation in
quantitative research.
5. Commercial information sources: Local newspapers, journals, magazines, radio, and TV
stations are a great source to obtain data for secondary quantitative research. These
commercial information sources have in-depth, first-hand information on economic
developments, political agenda, market research, demographic segmentation, and
similar subjects.
Quantitative research characteristics
Some distinctive characteristics of quantitative research are:
 Structured tools: Structured tools such as surveys, polls, or questionnaires are used to
gather quantitative data. Using such structure methods helps in collecting in-depth and
actionable data from the survey respondents.
 Sample size: Quantitative research is conducted on a significant sample size that
represents the target market. Appropriate sampling methods have to be used when
deriving the sample to fortify the research objective
 Close-ended questions: Closed-ended questions are created per the objective of the
research. These questions help collect quantitative data and hence, are extensively used
in quantitative research.
 Prior studies: Various factors related to the research topic are studied before collecting
feedback from respondents.
 Quantitative data: Usually, quantitative data is represented by tables, charts, graphs, or
any other non-numerical form. This makes it easy to understand the data that has been
collected as well as prove the validity of the market research.
 Generalization of results: Results of this research method can be generalized to an
entire population to take appropriate actions for improvement.
Quantitative research examples
Some examples of quantitative research are:
1. If any organization would like to conduct a customer satisfaction (CSAT) survey, a
customer satisfaction survey template can be used. Through this survey, an organization
can collect quantitative data and metrics on the goodwill of the brand or organization in
the mind of the customer based on multiple parameters such as product quality, pricing,
customer experience, etc. This data can be collected by asking a net promoter score
(NPS) question, matrix table questions, etc. that provide data in the form of numbers
that can be analyzed and worked upon.
2. Another example of quantitative research is an organization that conducts an event,
collecting feedback from the event attendees about the value that they see from the
event. By using an event survey template, the organization can collect actionable
feedback about satisfaction levels of customers during various phases of the event such
as the sales, pre and post-event, the likelihood of recommending the organization to
their friends and colleagues, hotel preferences for the future events and other such
questions.
Advantages of quantitative research
There are many advantages of quantitative research. Some of the major advantages of why
researchers use this method in market research are:
 Collect reliable and accurate data: As data is collected, analyzed, and presented in
numbers, the results obtained will be extremely reliable. Numbers do not lie. They
offer an honest picture of the conducted research without discrepancies and is also
extremely accurate. In situations where a researcher predicts conflict, quantitative
research is conducted.
 Quick data collection: A quantitative research is carried out with a group of
respondents who represent a population. A survey or any other quantitative
research method applied to these respondents and the involvement of statistics,
conducting, and analyzing results is quite straightforward and less time-consuming.
 Wider scope of data analysis: Due to the statistics, this research method provides a
wide scope of data collection.
 Eliminate bias: This research method offers no scope for personal comments or
biasing of results. The results achieved are numerical and are thus, fair in most cases.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods. Participants
are asked open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This
method not only helps a researcher understand what participants think but also why they
think in a particular way.
Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data
through open-ended and conversational communication.
This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For example,
consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation
concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One good method to
determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview of
potential customers in the category.
For example, on successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby stores and
malls, and selecting them through random sampling, it was known that the store doesn’t have
enough items for women and so there were fewer women visiting the store, which was
understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit
the store, because there were more male products than female ones.
Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology,
and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further
probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses, where the
interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding
how your audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research.
Types of qualitative research methods with examples

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that help reveal the behavior and
perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are different types
of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic
research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.
The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite
easily from the data that is obtained.
Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences. Today our world
is more complicated and it is difficult to understand what people think and perceive. Online
qualitative research methods make it easier to understand that as it is more communicative
and descriptive.
The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used. Also, read about
qualitative research examples:
1. One-on-one interview:
Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is
a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely a
conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the respondent.
One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to gather precise data
about what people believe and what their motivations are. If the researcher is well
experienced asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they
should need more information the researchers should ask such follow up questions that will
help them collect more information.
These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and usually can last between half
an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is conducted face to face it
gives a better opportunity to read the body language of the respondents and match the
responses.
This interview is conducted with one participant at a given point in time. One-to-one
interviews need a researcher to prepare questions in advance. The researcher asks only the
most important questions to the participant. This type of interview lasts anywhere between 20
minutes to half an hour. During this time the researcher collects as many meaningful answers
as possible from the participants to draw inferences.
2. Focus groups: A focus group is also one of the commonly used qualitative research
methods, used in data collection. A focus group usually includes a limited number of
respondents (6-10) from within your target market.
The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why” “what” and “how” questions.
One advantage of focus groups is, you don’t necessarily need to interact with the group in
person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent an online survey on various devices and responses
can be collected at the click of a button.
Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other online qualitative research
methods. Typically they are used to explain complex processes. This method is very useful
when it comes to market research on new products and testing new concepts.
Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants who are usually experts
in the subject matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus group who facilitates the discussion

amongst the group members. A moderator’s experience in conducting the focus group plays
an important role. An experienced moderator can probe the participants by asking the correct
questions that will help them collect a sizable amount of information related to the research.
3. Ethnographic research: Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method
that studies people in their naturally occurring environment.
This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments which
could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here geographical
constraints can be an issue while collecting data.
This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings
that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the natural
settings first hand.
This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-depth
observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a challenging and a time-consuming
method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to be able to analyze, observe
and infer the data.
Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where people are observed in their
natural environment without This method is demanding due to the necessity of a researcher
entering a natural environment of other people. Geographic locations can be a constraint as
well. Instead of conducting interviews, a researcher experiences the normal setting and daily
life of a group of people.
Text Analysis: Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative methods as it is used to
analyze social constructs by decoding words through any available form of documentation.
The researcher studies and understands the context in which the documents are written and
then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. Researchers today follow activities on a
social media platform to try and understand patterns of thoughts.
4. Case study research: The case study method has evolved over the past few years and
developed into a valuable qua. research method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining
an organization or an entity.
This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences
and similar. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways
of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data
collection methods and inferring the data.
Case study research is used to study an organization or an entity. This method is one of the
most valuable options for modern This type of research is used in fields like the education
sector, philosophical studies, and psychological studies. This method involves a deep dive into
ongoing research and collecting data.
5. Record keeping: This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and
similar sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in new research. This
is similar to going to a library. There one can go over books and other reference material to
collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.
6. Process of observation:

Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather
systematic information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the research
process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative
observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.
Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight,
smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead
characteristics.
Qualitative research: data collection and analysis
A. Qualitative data collection
Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to explore
how decisions are made and provide us with detailed insight. For reaching such conclusions
the data that is collected should be holistic, rich, and nuanced and findings to emerge through
careful analysis.
1. Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data, one aspect is
very clear the process will generate a large amount of data. In addition to the variety of
methods available, there are also different methods of collecting and recording the
data.
For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group or one-to-one
discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video recorded tapes. If there are recording
they should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can begin.
2. As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe the
recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues. Many
researchers also like to maintain separate folders to maintain the recording collected from the
different focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data collected.
3. In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes, they are
helpful in maintaining comments, environmental contexts, nonverbal cues etc. These
filed notes are helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded data.
Such notes are usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the video
recordings or the audio tapes.
B. Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text documents.
One of the most used methods for qualitative data analysis is text analysis.
Text analysis is a data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other qualitative
research methods, where researchers analyze the social life of the participants in the research
study and decode the words, actions, etc.
There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze the
context in which the images are used and draw inferences from them. In the last decade, text
analysis through what is shared on social media platforms has gained supreme popularity.
Characteristics of qualitative research methods
1. Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants
are experiencing issues or problems. These are real-time data and rarely bring the
participants out of the geographic locations to collect information.
2. Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews,
observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source.
3. This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down
into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and understood by all.
4. Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher
and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.
Qualitative research method case study
The example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and
customer outreach. An online community of members who were the loyal patrons of the
bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were
answered by them.
At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable
for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.
By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings
were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research now the bookstore
owner can now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales and
customer outreach.
Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in further
quantitative research, which provides remedies.
When to use qualitative research
Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they need to capture accurate,
in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture “factual data”. Here are some examples of when
to use qualitative research.
 Developing a new product or generating an idea.
 Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
 To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
 Understanding purchase behavior.
 To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other
communications.
 Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer groups.
 Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.
Qualitative research methods vs quantitative research methods
The basic differences between qualitative research methods and quantitative research
methods are simple and straightforward. They differ in:
 Their analytical objectives
 Types of questions asked
 Types of data collection instruments
 Forms of data they produce
 Degree of flexibility
Attributes Qualitative research Quantitative research methods
methods

Analytical This research method Quantitative research method
objectives focuses on describing focuses on describing the
individual experiences and characteristics of a population.
beliefs.
Types of Open-ended questions Closed-ended questions
questions
asked
Data Use semi-structured Use highly structured methods
collection methods such as in-depth such as structured observation
Instrument interviews, focus groups, using questionnaires and surveys
and participant
observation
Form of data Descriptive data Numerical data
produced
Degree of Participant responses Participant responses do not
flexibility affect how and which influence or determine how and
questions researchers ask which questions researchers ask
next next
STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of
whether it is applied research or basic research. Each particular research study will be unique
in some ways because of the particular time, setting, environment, and place in which it is
being undertaken.
Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal of furthering our understanding of
the problem and thus all traverse through certain basic stages, forming a process called
the research process.
An understanding of the research process is necessary to effectively carry out research and
sequencing of the stages inherent in the process.
Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering
a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This
process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method
(scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on
testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this
process, the study is documented in such a way that another individual can conduct the same
study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any research done without
documenting the study so that others can review the process and results is not an
investigation using the scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-
step process where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are
made in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that
the changes are reflected throughout the process. Parks and recreation professionals are often
involved in conducting research or evaluation projects within the agency. These professionals
need to understand the eight steps of the research process as they apply to conducting a
study.
The research process outlined above is, in essence, part and parcel of a research proposal. It is
an outline of your commitment that you intend to follow in executing a research study.
A close examination of the above stages reveals that each of these stages, by and large, is
dependent upon the others.
One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has collected data (step 6). It is also true that one
cannot write a report (step 8) unless he has collected and analyzed data (step 7).
Research then is a system of interdependent related stages. Violation of this sequence can
cause irreparable harm to the study.
It is also true that several alternatives are available to the researcher during each of the stages
stated above. A research process can be compared with a route map.
The map analogy is useful for the researcher because at each stage of the research process,
and there are several alternatives to follow.
Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money, and human resources in our
research decision is our primary goal.
Before explaining the stages of the research process, we explain the term ‘iterative’ appearing
within the oval-shaped diagram at the center of the schematic diagram. The key to a
successful research project ultimately lies in iteration: the process of returning again and again
to the identification of the research problems, methodology, data collection, etc. which lead to
new ideas, revisions and improvements.
Often, by discussing the research project with advisers and peers, one will find that new
research questions need to be added, variables to be omitted, added or redefined, and other
changes to be made. As a proposed study is examined and reexamined from different
perspectives, it may begin to transform and take a different shape.
This is to be expected and is an essential component of a good research study.
Besides, it is important to examine study methods and data to be collected from different
viewpoints to ensure a comprehensive approach to the research question.
In conclusion, there is seldom any single strategy or formula for developing a successful
research study, but it is important to realize that the research process is cyclical and iterative.
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or
information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend
nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood
obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus
of the study.
The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research
problem.

A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the
research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research
methodology.
But the core question is: whether all problems require research.
We have countless problems around us, but all that we encounter do not qualify as research
problems, and thus, these do not need to be researched.
Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem and a non-
research problem.
Intuitively, researchable problems are those who have a possibility of thorough verification
investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and collection of data, while the non-
research problems do not need to go through these processes.
Researcher need to identify both;
1. Non-research Problem, and
2. Research Problem.
Non-Research Problem
A non-research problem is one that does not require any research to arrive at a solution.
Intuitively, a non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved
through research.
It is a managerial or built-in problem that may be solved at the administrative or management
level. The answer to any question raised in a non- research setting is almost always obvious.
The outbreak of cholera, for example, following a severe flood, is a common phenomenon in
many communities. The reason for this is known. It is thus not a research problem.
Similarly, reasons for the sudden rise in prices of many essential commodities following the
announcement of the budget by the Finance Minister need no investigation. Hence it is not a
problem that needs research.
Example #1
A recent survey in District A found that 1000 women were continuous users of contraceptive
pills.
But last month’s service statistics indicate that none of these women were using contraceptive
pills (Fisher et al. 1991:4).
The discrepancy is that ‘all 1000 women should have been using a pill, but in fact, none is
doing so. The question is: why the discrepancy exists?
Well, the fact is, a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills reaching
District A, and all old supplies have been exhausted. Thus, although the problem situation
exists, the reason for the problem is already known.
Therefore, assuming that all the facts are correct, there is no reason to research the factors
associated with pill discontinuation among women. This is thus a non-research problem.
Example #2
A pilot survey by Dhaka University revealed that in Raipura Upazila, the goiter prevalence
among the school children is as high as 80%, while in the neighboring Upazila, it is only to the
extent of 30%. Why is this discrepancy?

Upon inquiry, it was seen that some three years back, UNICEF launched a lipiodol injection
program in the neighboring Upazila.
This attempt acted as a preventive measure against goiter. The reason for the discrepancy is
known, and hence we do not consider the problem as a research problem.
Example #3
A hospital treated a large number of cholera cases with penicillin, but the treatment with
penicillin was not found to be effective. Do we need research to know the reason?
Here again, there is one single reason that Vibrio cholera is not sensitive to penicillin, and
therefore, this is not the drug of choice for this disease.
In this case, too, as the reasons are known, it is unwise to undertake any study to find out why
penicillin does not improve the condition of cholera patients. This is also a non-research
problem.
Example #4
In the tea marketing system, buying and selling tea starts from bidders. Blenders purchase
open tea from the bidders. It is observed over the years that marketing cost is the highest for
bidders, while it is the lowest for the blenders. What makes this difference?
The fact is that the bidders pay exorbitantly higher transport costs, which constitutes about
30% of their total cost.
Blenders have significantly fewer marketing functions involving transportation, and hence
their marketing cost remains at a minimum.
Hence no research is needed to identify the factors that make this difference.
Here are some of the problems we frequently encounter, which may well be considered as
non-research problems:
 Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;
 Preferring admission in public universities over private universities;
 Crisis of accommodations in sea resorts during summer
 Traffic jam in the city street after office hours;
 High sales in department stores after an offer of a discount.
Research Problem
In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of primary concern to a
researcher.
A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort, or a discrepancy between
the common belief and reality.
As noted by Fisher et al. (1993), a problem will qualify as a potential research problem when
the following three conditions exist:
1. There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “what it should have
been.” This implies that there should be a difference between “what exists” and the
“ideal or planned situation”;
2. A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the reason(s) for this
discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to develop a research
question); and

3. There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the questions or problems.
The third point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible answer to the question
about the discrepancy, then a research situation does not exist.
It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the managerial or administrative level.
Example #1
While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some villages have female school
attendance rates as high as 75%, while some have as low as 10%, although all villages should
have a nearly equal rate of attendance. What factors are associated with this discrepancy?
We may enumerate several reasons for this:
1. Villages differ in their socio-economic background.
2. In some villages, the Muslim population constitutes a large proportion of the total
population. Religion might play a vital role.
3. Schools are far away from some villages. The distance thus may make this difference.
Because there is more than one answer to the problem, it is considered a research problem,
and a study can be undertaken to find a solution.
Example#2
The Government of Bangladesh has been making all-out efforts to ensure regular flow of credit
in rural areas at a concession rate through liberal lending policy and establishing a large
number of bank branches in rural areas.
Knowledgeable sources indicate that expected development in rural areas has not yet been
achieved mainly because of improper utilization of the credit.
More than one reason is suspected of such misuse or misdirection.
These include, among others:
 Diversion of credit money to some unproductive sectors
 Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders, who exploit the rural
people with this money
 Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.
Here too, reasons for misuse of loans are more than one. We thus consider this problem as a
researchable problem.
Example #3
On the 20th day of December 2010, almost all the locals came up with a news headline of the
form:
Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) observes the steepest ever fall in stock prices: several injured as
retail investors clash with police, vehicles ransacked’.
Investors’ demonstration, protest and clash with police pause a problem, but it is certainly not
a research problem since there is only one known reason for the problem: DSE experiences
the steepest fall in stock prices. But what causes this unprecedented fall in the share market?
Experts felt that no single reason could be attributed to the problem. It is a mix of several
factors, and hence it is a research problem. The following were assumed to be some of the
possible reasons:
 The merchant banking system;
 Liquidity shortage because of the hike in the rate of cash reserve requirement (CRR);
 IMF’s warnings and prescriptions on the commercial banks’ exposure to the stock
market;
 Increase in supply of new shares;
 Manipulation of share prices;
 Lack of knowledge of the investors on the company’s fundamentals.
The choice of a research problem is not as easy as it appears. It is generally guided by the
researchers;
1. own intellectual orientation,
2. level of training,
3. experience,
4. knowledge on the subject matter, and
5. intellectual curiosity.
Theoretical and practical considerations also play a vital role in choosing a research problem.
Societal needs also guide to choose a research problem.
Once we have chosen a research problem, a few more related steps are required to be
followed before a decision is taken to undertake a research study.
These include, among others, the following:
 Statement of the problem.
 Justifying the problem.
 Analyzing the problem.
A detailed exposition of these issues is undertaken in chapter ten while discussing the
proposal development.
Statement of the Problem
A clear and well-defined statement of the problem is considered as the foundation for the
development of the research proposal.
It enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the
problem should be undertaken and what he hopes to achieve with the findings of the study.
A well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher to formulate the research
objectives, to understand the background of the study, and to choose a proper research
methodology.
Justifying the Problem
Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is important to justify the
importance of the problem.
In justifying the problems, we ask such questions as to why the problem of the study is
important, how large and widespread is the problem, can others be convinced about the
importance of the problem and the like.
Answers to the above questions should be reviewed and presented in one or two paragraphs
that justify the importance of the problem.
Analyzing the Problem

As a first step of analyzing the problem, critical attention should be given to accommodate the
viewpoints of the managers, users, and the researchers to the problem through threadbare
discussions.
The next step is to identify the factors that may have contributed to the perceived problems.
Other Issues of Problem Identification
To identifying, defining, and analyzing a problem, there are several ways of obtaining insights
and getting a clearer idea about these issues.
Exploratory research is one of the ways of accomplishing this. The purpose of the exploratory
research process is to progressively narrow the scope of the topic and to transform the
undefined problems into defined ones, incorporating specific research objectives.
The exploratory study entails a few basic strategies in gaining insights into the problem. It is
accomplished through such efforts as:
 Pilot survey
 Case studies
 Focus group interview and
 Experience survey
Pilot Survey
A pilot survey collects proxy data from the ultimate subjects of the study to serve as a guide
for the large study. A pilot study generates primary data, usually for qualitative analysis.
This characteristic distinguishes a pilot survey from secondary data analysis, which gathers
background information.
Case Studies
Case studies are quite helpful in the diagnosis of a problem and paving the way to defining the
problem.
Case studies intensively investigate one or a few situations identical to the researcher’s
problem situation.
Focus Group Interviews
Focus group interviews, an unstructured free-flowing interview with a small group of people,
may also be conducted to understand and define a research problem.
Experience Survey
Experience survey is another strategy to deal with the problem of identifying and defining the
research problem. It is an exploratory research endeavor, in which individuals who are
knowledgeable and experienced about a particular research problem are intimately consulted
in an attempt to understand the problem.
These persons are sometimes known as key informants, and an interview with them is
popularly known as the Key Informant Interview (KII).
Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic
under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the
research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The
review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in

the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the
obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying statistics
related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death rates, and
projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and information
from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of walking
10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps the programmer fully
understand the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and
identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).
A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been so far researched.
Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of knowledge but also equips
him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process.
Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence between
the results of his study and those of the others.
A review of previous documents to similar or related phenomena is essential even for the
beginning researchers.
To ignore the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.
Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already done?
If the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he will be in a much
better position to assess the significance of his work and to convince others that it is
important.
A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in his questioning of the others’
methodology, the choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study
results.
In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the literature:
 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the
problem.
 It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed
by others.
 It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his
area of investigation.
 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies,
contradictions, and inconsistencies in findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research
questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables in his research that
he might not otherwise have thought about.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of
the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained
through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research
project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and
the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on genetics,
family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health issues. All of
these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and purpose of
the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the purpose of the
study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the
individual's health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original
problem.
After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.
An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of information
that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The best
expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.
A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by
empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study.
Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To
minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically
define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual's health” can be
defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this
study, the individual's health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may
also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides to more
narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and
cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more
manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study.
This also makes the concepts more understandable to the reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group
of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females,
people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of
options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the group to study. The research
problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying the group to involve
in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called the
population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways. First, it narrows the
scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second, the
population identifies the group that the researcher's efforts will be focused on within the
study. This helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally,
by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group that the results will apply to at
the conclusion of the study. In the example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the
population of the study as children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the
study more manageable in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan
serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how,
when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is
composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this
text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the children participate in a
walking program for six months. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a
smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study cannot possibly
include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to
represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking program,
indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will
collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the
steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully
thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in
the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of
data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the
research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is
from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected
in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the
literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data on the defined
variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the
person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program.
These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on
weight, body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the
researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any
defined population. There are many ways to collect data.
The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the
availability of time, money, and personnel.
With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the method
of data collection also varies.
The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be
collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing is another way
in which data may be collected.
Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources, such as the census, vital
registration records, official documents, previous surveys, etc.
Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions,
KII, and observational studies.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data
will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of
this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to
the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data
will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and
the second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed
to determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically
significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the
study also provide valuable information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the
community.
As we have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires we to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. We cannot
conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done
at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false
conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.
Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to
ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.
In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear
and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.
Because it is impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to
reduce the responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.
This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer offers an excellent
opportunity in data editing and coding processes.
Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing
summaries, searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and
interpreting the findings in the light of the research questions.
Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his findings are consistent with
the formulated hypotheses and theories.

The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to
very complex multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design
employed, and the nature of data collected.
As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in one
situation may not be appropriate for another.
THESIS AND ARTICLE WRITING: FORMAT AND STYLES OF REFERENCING
Thesis and Article writing: The thesis is a treatise that represents the fulfillment of the
scholarly aspiration of the student. A good thesis should be clear and unambiguous and have a
logical structure that should assist the reader’s understanding of the argument being
presented and not obscure it. In order to achieve this objective, the layout and physical
appearance of the thesis should conform to a set pattern.
Note: The following format of thesis writing is the general standard and accepted format. But,
universities and institutions have their own prescribed formats with this core structure of
thesis writing. Please consider the specific format suggested by your institutions,
organisations, and universities.
Thesis and Article Writing
The generally accepted format of thesis or report writing tend to be produced in the
following way:
Title Page
 Title of the Research Project,
 Name of the researcher,
 Purpose of the research project, e.g., “A research project submitted in partial
fulfilment of the requirements of National Council for Hotel Management and
Catering Technology, New Delhi for the degree of PhD in Hospitality and Hotel
Administration”
 Date of Publication
Table of Contents
This section consists of the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings.
List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables
List of Figures
This section contains the title and page number of all graphs, pie charts, etc.
Acknowledgements
Here, the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide, both research guide
and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.
Introduction
This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives. It includes a rationale for
the research.
Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature
This section is included all your background research, which may be obtained from the
literature review. You must indicate where all the information has come, so remember to keep
a complete record of everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused of
plagiarism which is a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring to a particular book or
journal article, use the Harvard system.
Research design
This section includes all practical details followed for research. After reading this, any
interested party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods used for data
collection, how many people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data
collection, how the data was analysed etc.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie
charts, and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research, this
section may be descriptive prose.
Summary and Conclusion
In this section, you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation
to other research or literature.
Recommendation
If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this
section could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations that
have been developed from the research is included. Sometimes, this section is included at the
beginning of the report.
Suggestion for Further Research
It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section that shows
how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the
research has thrown up many more research questions that need to be addressed. It is useful
to include this section because it shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you
are not trying to cover up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.
List of References/Bibliography
 List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.
 A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text, but which are relevant to the
subject. (larger dissertations or thesis)
 Small research projects will need only a reference section. It includes all the
literature to which you have referred in your report.
Annexures
List of publications: List of publications obtained by the student from the PhD work should be
included in the Thesis. Students are strongly encouraged to place the accepted versions of the
manuscripts (maximum two), which were an integral part of thesis work.
Curriculum vitae (optional): Provide one-page giving academic qualifications, academic
achievements and list of publications.
Appendices (optional): Appendices may include the formulas, diagrams, protocols, or any
similar data that are not contained in the body of the thesis. The number can be given as A-1,
A-2 and listed as such in the table of contents.

FORMAT OF CITATIONS/REFERENCES
Citations or in-text citations are similar to references but occur in the body of the text with
direct quotes and paraphrases to identify the author/publication for the material you have
used. Citations are used:
 to show which reference supports a particular statement
 for direct quotes – when you repeat a passage from a text (or speech, video, etc.) in
your assignment without changing any words
 when you paraphrase – this is when you use your own words to restate the meaning
of a text in your assignment.
One of the most important things to remember is that every citation should also have a
corresponding entry in your reference list.
A reference list is a list of the resources that you used when writing your assignment or
doing your research.
These resources may include:
 books, including electronic books, journals (online and paper-based)
 online sources including websites, blogs, and forums
 speeches
 conference papers, proceedings, and theses
 other sources of information such as film, television, video, etc.
Reference lists come at the end of an assignment and are arranged in alphabetical order,
usually by author or editor. If there is not an author or an editor, the title is used.
Comparison Between Citation and Reference
BASIS FOR CITATION REFERENCE
COMPARISON
Meaning Citation is a way of disclosing Reference is a list that
within the main body, that contains all the sources which
the quote, image, chart, have been sought or cited
statistics, etc. are taken from while writing the article or
an outside source. assignment.
Use It informs the readers, the It informs the reader, the
basic source of information. complete source of
information.
Purpose To indicate the source of the To support or criticize an
material taken. argument or point.
Placement Presented in the bracket. Presented as endnote or end
of the document.
Information It contains information like It contains information like
publication year and last publication date, title of
name of the author. book/journal, author’s name,
page number.

Types of Citation/ References Styles (Thesis Article Writing)
The followings are a few important styles of citation or referencing during thesis and article
writing:
MLA (Modern Language Association) style:
It is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and
humanities.
Book – Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology: Methods and
techniques. New Age International, 2004.
Journal – Ghosh, Madhusudan. “Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme.” Journal of Rural Development 31.3 (2012): 347-363.
APA (American Psychological Association):
It is most commonly used to cite sources within the health sciences and social sciences fields.
Book – Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age
International.
Journal – Ghosh, M. (2012). Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3), 347-363.
Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation
systems.
Book – Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology: Methods and
techniques. New Age International, 2004.
Journal – Ghosh, Madhusudan. “Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme.” Journal of Rural Development 31, no. 3 (2012): 347-363.
Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing:
It is a citation style in which partial citations—for example, “(Smith 2010, p. 1)”—are enclosed
within parentheses and embedded in the text, either within or after a sentence.
Book – Kothari, C.R., 2004. Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age
International.
Journal – Ghosh, M., 2012. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage
Programme. Journal of Rural Development, 31(3), pp.347-363.
The Vancouver system:
It is also known as Vancouver reference style or the author–number system, is a citation style
that uses numbers within the text that refer to numbered entries in the reference list.
Book – Kothari CR. Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International;
2004.
Journal – Ghosh M. Micro-Finance and Rural Poverty in India SHG-Bank Linkage Programme.
Journal of Rural Development. 2012 Sep 1;31(3):347-63.
Standard Format for Printing a report:
Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)
Size: 8.5inches X 11inches

Margin: Left – 1.5inch
Top – 1inch
Bottom – 1inch
Right – 1inch
Font: Times New Roman
Font Size: 12
Spacing: Double
Binding: BlackRexin
Gold Embossing on Research Title
Cover: Student Name
Name of Institute
Year of Submission
Note: The format of Thesis and Article writing, mentioned above, is a general and standard
format. Please follow your universities or institutions guidelines for writing a thesis and
articles.
APPLICATION OF ICT IN RESEARCH

Application of ICT in Research: Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) refers to
technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar to
Information Technology (IT) but focuses primarily on communication technologies. This
includes the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication mediums.
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have provided society with a vast array of
new communication capabilities. For example, people can communicate in real-time with
others in different countries using technologies such as instant messaging, voice over IP
(VoIP), and video-conferencing. Social networking websites like Facebook allow users from all
over the world to remain in contact and communicate on a regular basis.
ICT, or information and communications technology (or technologies), is the
infrastructure and components that enable modern computing.
Although there is no single, universal definition of ICT, the term is generally accepted to mean
all devices, networking components, applications and systems that combined allow people and
organizations (i.e., businesses, nonprofit agencies, governments and criminal enterprises) to
interact in the digital world.
Components of an ICT system
ICT encompasses both the internet-enabled sphere as well as the mobile one powered by
wireless networks. It also includes antiquated technologies, such as landline telephones, radio
and television broadcast – all of which are still widely used today alongside cutting-edge ICT
pieces such as artificial intelligence and robotics.

The list of ICT components is exhaustive, and it continues to grow. Some components, such as
computers and telephones, have existed for decades. Others, such as smartphones, digital TVs
and robots, are more recent entries.
Application of ICT in Research

Applications of ICT are mainly used by researchers for its ability to ease the knowledge-
gathering process and to enhance resource development. Researcher in general value
creativity and originality, thus the ICT tools which provide with the most open situations with
great autonomy to the researcher can really help in identifying and solving research problems
in the most creative ways. The use of ICT is based on the individual’s logical assessment of how
various applications increase his/her effectiveness and efficiency in work and provide ease in
communication with peers.
Use of ICT tools or application for making research data and information available are plenty in
numbers today, but the best use of ICT tools would be to improve cognitive skills and thus help
discriminate, analyse and create information rather than simply accumulate. As usually
research process deals with a large amount of complex information and requires a lot of skills
to analyse and organize these well, any ICT tool which helps the researcher give meaning and

precision along with adding value to the information generated would be rated above the
ones which help in just gathering information.
Generally, Applications of ICT help the researcher in the following research-related tasks:
 identify appropriate information sources
 critically analyse information
 research effectively
 manage information
 use the information to extend and communicate knowledge across subject fields
 search up to ten databases and electronic resources simultaneously
 receive results in a common format
 link to individual databases for more specialised searching
 select favourite resources and e-journals, save searches and records, and set up
email alerts.
Applications of ICT have many effects on research. They can be classified into three categories
which include:
1. Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis
2. Applications of ICT in data analysis, and
3. Applications of ICT in post-data analysis
A. Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis
Applications of ICT in pre-data analysis refers to the activities how ICTs are applied on activities
of social science research before reaching the stage of data analysis.
ICT application in pre-data analysis includes:
1. Literature Search, Article Availability, Thesis and Dissertation Availability
2. Content Search
3. Literature Tracking
4. Data Collection
1. Literature Search: Last time researchers need to perform a manual search on hard copies of
literature in libraries whereby this is a tedious effort and the search results were limited. On
the contrary, a lot of research materials, literature and artefacts today can be searched using
Internet search engines and databases.
 ShodhGanga: Indian theses repository where you can search and download the
theses.
 Google Scholar: Provides a way to broadly search for scholarly literature across
disciplines and sources.
 Microsoft Academic Search: Find information about academic papers, authors,
conferences, journals, and organizations from multiple sources.
 Mendeley: A unique platform comprising a social network, reference manager,
article visualization tools.
 SSRN: Multi-disciplinary online repository of scholarly research and related materials
in social sciences.
Some other Famous Database for Research Articles and literature:

 AMS
 Annual Reviews
 ASME Digital Collection
 Cambridge Core
 Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
 Cochrane Library
 eBook Academic collection
 EBSCO Databases, Discovery Service, eBooks, Point of Care Products, DynaMed and
Journal Collections
 EBSCO Information Services
 Economic & Political Weekly
 Elsevier
 Emerald eJournals
 Encyclopedia Britannica
 IEEE Xplore
 Indian Citation Index.
 Indian Journals
 IOPscience
 JSTOR
 Portland Press
 Project Euclid
 Project MUSE
 ProQuest databases
 Royal Society of Chemistry Journals
 Royal Society of Chemistry Publications Online
 Sage Online Journals
 Science Mag
 Scitation
 SIAM Journals Online
 Springer Link
 Supreme Court Cases Online
 Taylor & Francis Online
 Web of Knowledge
 Wiley Online Library
2. Content Search – in today’s world of research, researchers can utilize the softcopy
literature’s search or find function (also called content search) to search for specific keywords
or phrases in which this is more effective and productive. This observation is also supported
what Sekaran (2003) had stated that online search using technology is inexpensive and can
improve the identification of relevant sources of literature. Such content search also enables a
researcher to evaluate quickly whether a particular article or thesis et al. is worthy for his or
her deeper review. Moreover, the content search also helps a qualitative researcher to count
the frequency of certain keywords appears in an interviewed transcript more effectively.
3. Literature Tracking – In the past, researchers have to sort, classify and store all their
literature or artefacts that they had reviewed into computer folders or physical folders/place
holders. Researchers also need to create their own tracking mechanism e.g. in a word
document or spreadsheet format to track and manage their reviewed literature so that they
can re-use or refer to in future. Doing these manually can be daunting tasks.
With the advancement of ICT, researchers can still use the old approaches but more and more
researchers now are using software like Mendeley which can help manage, share and discover
the literature contents and contacts that they had reviewed. Using software like Mendeley to
track a researcher’s literature is saving time and effort as well as capable to manage lots of
literature that the researcher was not possible in the past.
4. Data Collection – with the help of application of ICT, Data collection can be collected via
online, web-based or Internet survey. Using this purpose-built software and Internet
technology which are greener technology in data collection can reduce the time and cost to
collect surveyed responses from the respondents. Not only an online survey can be
administered more effectively, but the data collected in its original format can also be input
directly into the statistical software.
Important Data Collection Application of ICT:
1. Google Forms
2. SurveyMonkey
B. Applications of ICT in data analysis
Application of ICT in data analysis includes the ICTs are applied on activities during the stage of
data analysis and can be divided into:
1. Quantitative Data Analysis
2. Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Quantitative Data Analysis:
The exploratory factor analysis, multiple regression, t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
are some common data analysis techniques used among researchers conducting quantitative
research. There are also some advanced and popular data analysis techniques like path
analysis, covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), variance-based SEM (partial
least squares), hierarchical regression analysis, hierarchical linear modelling et al.
 Statistical Package for Social Science / SPSS are more advanced and rich with a lot of
features and functionalities
 R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing)
 MATLAB (The Mathworks)
 Microsoft Excel
 SAS (Statistical Analysis Software)
 GraphPad Prism
 Minitab
2. Qualitative Data Analysis:
The following statistical software packages are for qualitative data analysis:
 NVivo
 ATLAS.ti
 MAXQDA
 SPSS Text Analytics
 Transana can be used for video transcribing in certain qualitative research
C. Application of ICT in post-data analysis
Application of ICT in post-data analysis refers to the ICTs are applied on activities of research
after completing the stage of data analysis which covers:
1. References and Bibliography Compilation
2. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion among Researchers, Supervisors,
Supervisees etc.
3. Plagiarism Detection
4. Journal Manuscripts Submission
1. References and Bibliography Compilation:
A few years back, researchers tend to compile references and bibliography manually. They
literally typing in to build the entire section of the references or bibliography then followed by
sorting them in ascending order. Recently, while researchers are writing, they can use citation
or reference management software to help select citations and populate the references or
bibliography automatically. This type of software can improve researchers’ efficiency and
accuracy while preparing their articles or theses.
The following software is used for referencing and bibliography compilation:
 EndNote
 Zotero
 Mendeley
2. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion:
In the course of producing an article, thesis or dissertation, there are needs for discussions or
communications among researchers, supervisors, supervisees or during the viva voce. Now,
we have the advanced application of ICT to facilitate sharing of research materials, seeking
comments from subject matter experts, enable analytics to monitor papers published, as well
as following some scholarly works.
There are online platforms or websites which can be used for such discussion:
 Academia.edu
 ResearchGate
3. Plagiarism Detection:
In the past, plagiarism acts were slow and hard to detect as the authority of universities or
journals dependent on readers to identify them manually while they were reading through the
submitted articles or theses/dissertations. With the advancement of ICT, readers or
researchers can use plagiarism checker software available in the market like:
 Grammarly
 Article Checker
 Turnitin
 DupliChecker etc.
4. Journal Manuscripts Submission:

In the past, journal manuscript submission used to be via email communications between
researchers/authors and journal’s editors/coordinators. Now web-based journal manuscript
management and peer-review software, electronic manuscript submission or management
systems are commonly used among the community of researchers and journals/publishers.
Using such systems can reduce their time of submission and checking the status of publishing.
Moreover, using such systems can greatly improve the productivity and quality of work to
administer the submission as well as the peer-review management in which
miscommunication, lost or delay of communication can be minimized.
The following are the Application of ICT for Manuscripts Submission and publicising:
 Elsevier
 Wiley
 Sage Publications etc.
Apart from the above-mentioned ICT tools for research, there is a long list of ICT applications
which can be used for quality research papers and theses.
RESEARCH ETHICS
Research ethics is a set of conduct norms applied in science. These principles cover the full
scope of research, starting from experiments with humans and animals through to
misconduct, fraud and plagiarism. The general principles of contemporary research ethics
involve objectivity, integrity, respect for intellectual property, confidentiality, responsible
monitoring, social responsibility, non-discrimination, competence, legality, animal care and
human subjects protection.
The field of biomedical research is a major concern for research ethics. Contemporary research
ethics strives for ethical treatment of human subjects of biomedical and social science
research as well as ethical standards in the research into human reproduction, which includes
stem cells. Ethical rules protect laboratory, livestock and wild animals involved in research.
International concerns extend to environmental risks caused by research and safety of
shipping of hazardous research materials.
The Hippocratic Oath, which dates back to 5th century BCE, is an early example of ethics in the
medical profession. Through the oath, medical professionals pledge not to do harm. Research
ethics went a long way until it acquired its contemporary shape. Until the 20th century, ethical
norms of conduct in science were rather fragmented and without a clear focus.
Research ethics became an important issue in the 20th century when science had already
developed significantly, but some considered that the harm which research was causing was
threatening to outweigh its benefits. The Pure Food and Drug Act passed in 1906 in the United
States was the first law in the country to regulate human subject research. The adoption of the
act was necessitated by a number of abusive human subject experiments. The law did not put
an end to scandals, including syphilis experiments and radiation experiments.
One of the notorious cases of abusive research in the United States was the Tuskegee Syphilis
Study (1932-1972). The project was implemented by the U.S. Public Health Service.
Researchers carried out a study of 600 African-American men, infecting 400 of them and
testing them for a period of 40 years. The participants in the project were refused treatment.
The project was terminated only after it acquired a high profile and provoked strong criticisms.
In response to the Tuskegee case, the United States passed the National Research Act in 1974,
which set up the National Research Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects in
Biomedical Research. The Commission's task was to define the major underlying ethical
principles in research.
The information on radiation experiments in the United States also provoked a strong
response. During World War II and in the 1950s, the U.S. authorities conducted research on
the effects of radiation on hospital patients, pregnant women and mentally disabled children.
The experiments were meant to enable the authorities to introduce safety standards for work
at atomic bomb facilities. It was only in the late 20th century that the government provided
financial compensation to the victims of human radiation experiments.
The international efforts to introduce research ethics standards on a global level became more
focused after World War II. Research ethics drew the attention of the international community
with the disclosure of the atrocities of German doctors conducted in concentration camps
during the war. In 1946, a U.S. military tribunal charged 23 German physicians and
administrators with war crimes and crimes against humanity. These doctors had conducted
medical experiments which claimed numerous lives and caused permanent disabilities to
many. The trial inspired the adoption of the Nuremberg Code in 1948, which was the first
official international document to promote ethics in research and lay a strong emphasis on the
informed consent of participants in experiments. The Code reads: "The voluntary consent of
the human participant is absolutely essential."
In 1964, the World Medical Association adopted the Declaration of Helsinki, which introduced
ethical guidelines for biomedical research. It focused on the transparency of results from
laboratory and animal experiments, the mandatory informed consent of research participants,
the qualification of researchers and the ratio of risks and benefits in research. Another
international player in the field of research ethics is the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Research Organization (UNESCO), whose efforts to promote international reflection on
ethics in life sciences dates back to the 1970s. UNESCO works in two main areas — bioethics
and ethics of science and technology.
Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In addition, it
educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard. The
following is a general summary of some ethical principles:
Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not
fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity:

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the
work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished
data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career.
Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make
their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or
other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize
benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
Principles of research ethics

There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when performing
undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. At the core, these ethical principles
stress the need to (a) do good (known as beneficence) and (b) do no harm (known as non-
malfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a researcher, you need
to: (a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants; (b) minimise the risk of
harm to participants; (c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid using deceptive
practices; and (e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research. This article
discusses these five ethical principles and their practical implications when carrying out
dissertation research.
When we look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear obvious that your
dissertation should include these. However, there are many instances where it is not
possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants. Similarly, there
may be instances where we seek permission from participants not to protect their anonymity.
More often than not, such choices should reflect the research strategy that you adopt to guide
your dissertation.
Broadly speaking, your dissertation research should not only aim to do
good (i.e., beneficence), but also avoid doing any harm (i.e., non-malfeasance). Whilst ethical
requirements in research can vary across countries, these are the basic principles of research
ethics. This is important not only for ethical reasons, but also practical ones, since a failure to
meet such basic principles may lead to your research being (a) criticised, potentially leading to
a lower mark, and/or (b) rejected by your supervisor or Ethics Committee, costing you valuable
time. In the sections that follow, we discuss the five of the main practical ethical principles
that stem from these basic principles. Each of these basic principles of research ethics is
discussed in turn:
PRINCIPLE ONE
Minimising the risk of harm
Dissertation research should not harm participants. Where there is the possibility that
participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be strong
justifications for this. Such scenarios will also require (a) additional planning to illustrate how
participant harm (or discomfort) will be reduced, (b) informed consent, and (c) detailed
debriefing.
There are a number of types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These include:
 Physical harm to participants.
 Psychological distress and discomfort.
 Social disadvantage.
 Harm to participants? financial status.
 An invasion of participants? privacy and anonymity.
Typically, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does not intentionally
go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should try to minimise. In order to
minimising the risk of harm you should think about:
 Obtaining informed consent from participants.
 Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.

 Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.
 Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any time.
We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow, explaining (a) what they
mean and (b) instances where they should (and should not) be followed.
PRINCIPLE TWO
Obtaining informed consent
One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed consent. Simply
put, informed consent means that participants should understand that (a) they are taking part
in research and (b) what the research requires of them. Such information may include the
purpose of the research, the methods being used, the possible outcomes of the research, as
well as associated demands, discomforts, inconveniences and risks that the participants may
face. Whilst is it not possible to know exactly what information a potential participant would
(or would not) want to know, you should aim not to leave out any material information; that
is, information that you feel would influence whether consent would (or would not) be
granted.
Another component of informed consent is the principle that participants should
be volunteers, taking part without having been coerced and deceived. Where informed
consent cannot be obtained from participants, you must explain why this is the case. You
should also be aware that there are instances informed consent is not necessarily needed or
needs to be relaxed. These include
certain educational, organisational and naturalistic research settings.
PRINCIPLE THREE
Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is another practical
component of research ethics. After all, participants will typically only be willing
to volunteer information, especially information of a private or sensitive nature, if the
researcher agrees to hold such information in confidence. Whilst it is possible that research
participants may be hurt in some way if the data collection methods used are
somehow insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger that harm can be caused once data
has been collected. This occurs when data is not treated confidentially, whether in terms of
the storage of data, its analysis, or during the publication process (i.e., when submitting your
dissertation to be marked). However, this does not mean that all data collected from research
participants needs to be kept confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the
identity and views of individuals at various stages of the research process (from data collection
through to publication of your dissertation). Nonetheless, permissions should be sought
before such confidential information is disclosed.
An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names, geographical cues, etc.)
or provide proxies when writing up. However, such a stripping of identifiable information may
not always be possible to anticipate at the outset of your dissertation when thinking about
issues of research ethics. This is not only a consideration for dissertations following
a qualitative research design, but also a quantitative research design.
For example:

Imagine that your dissertation used a quantitative research design and a survey as your
main research method. In the process of analysing your data, it is possible that when
examining relationships between variables (i.e., questions in your survey), a person's identity
and responses could be inferred. For instance, imagine that you were comparing responses
amongst employees within an organisation based on specific age groups. There may only be a
small group (or just one employee) within a particular age group (e.g., over 70 years old),
which could enable others to identify the responses of this individual (or small group of
employees).
Therefore, you need to consider ways of overcoming such problems, such as: (a) aggregating
data in tables and (b) setting rules that ensure a minimum number of units are present before
data/information can be presented.
A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and analysis to be restricted to
the published material, perhaps only allowing it to be viewed by those individuals marking
your work. If the work is later published, adjustments would then need to be made to protect
the confidentiality of participants.
There are also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what research you
can and cannot perform, how you must treated the data of research participants, and so forth.
In other words, we don’t simply have a duty to protect the data you collect from participants;
you may also have (in some cases) a legal responsibility to do so. Since this varies from
country-to-country, you should ask your dissertation supervisor or Ethics Committee for advice
(or a legal professional).
PRINCIPLE FOUR
Avoiding deceptive practices
At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all, how can
participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires
of them if they are being deceived? This is part of what makes the use of deceptive practices
controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances, dissertation research should avoid any
kinds of deceptive practices. However, this is not always the case.
Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be justified in
some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of the
observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to participants. Cases where you
may choose to engage in covert research may include instances where:
 It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing.
 Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the
particular phenomenon that is being studied.
each of these in turn:
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing
By feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead, we mean that it is
not practically possible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing. This is most likely to be the case where research involves observation, rather

than direct contact with participants, especially in a public or online setting. There are a
number of obvious instances where this may be the case:
 Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.
 Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to work, etc.
Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may simply be impossible to
let everyone known what you are doing. You may not be intentionally trying to engage
in deceptive practices, but clearly participants are not giving you their informed consent.
Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular
phenomenon that is being studied
Where observations or a participants? knowledge of the true purpose of the research have the
potential to alter the particular phenomenon that you are interested in, this is a major concern
in terms of the quality of your findings.
Therefore, when you think about whether to engage in covert research and possibly deceptive
practices, you should think about the extent to which this could be beneficial in your
dissertation, not research in general; that is, everything from the research paradigm that
guides your dissertation through to the data analysis techniques you choose affect issues of
research ethics in your dissertation.
Imagine some of the following scenarios where covert research may be considered justifiable:
 Scenario A
You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. Whilst participants are given a
questionnaire to complete that measures their prejudice, it is not obvious from the questions
that this is the case. Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is
about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses. After all, few people
would be happy if other people thought they were prejudice. As a result, if participants knew
that this is the purpose of the study, they may well provide responses that they think will
make them appear less prejudice.
 Scenario B
You are interested in understanding the organisational culture in a single firm. You feel
that observation would be an appropriate research method in such a naturalistic setting.
However, you feel that if employees knew that you were monitoring them, they may behave
in a different way. Therefore, you may have received permission to go undercover or provide
a story to explain why you are there, which is not the truth.
Whilst such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where used intentionally, can
be viewed as controversial, it can be argued that they have a place in research.
PRINCIPLE FIVE
Providing the right to withdraw
With the exception of those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let
everyone that is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should always
have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore, participants should have
the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process. When a participant chooses to
withdraw from the research process, they should not be pressured or coerced in any way to
try and stop them from withdrawing.
UNIT – II RESEARCH APTITUDE MCQS
As Per Updated Syllabus
RESEARCH APTITUDE

1- Hypothesis refers to A. A research proposal is a document that
A. The outcome of an experiment presents a plan for a project
B. A conclusion drawn from an experiment B. A research proposal shows that the
C. A form of bias in which the subject tries researcher is capable of successfully
to outguess the experimenter conducting the proposed research project
D. A tentative statement about the C. A research proposal is an unorganized
relationship and unplanned project
Answer: D D. A research proposal is just like a research
2- Statistics is used by researchers to report and written before the
researchproject
A. Analyze the empirical data collected in a
study Answer: C
B. Make their findings sound better 7- Preliminary data collection is a part of
the
C. Operationally define their variables
Research Method (STA 630) Success
D. Ensure the study comes out the way it
Objectives
was intended
A. Descriptive research
Answer: A
B. Exploratory research
3- A literature review requires
C. Applied research
A. Planning
D. Explanatory research
B. Good & clear writing
Answer: B
C. Lot of rewriting
8- Conducting surveys is the most common
D. All of the above
method of generating
Answer: D
A. Primary data
4- A literature review is based on the
B. Secondary data
assumption that
C. Qualitative data
A. Copy from the work of others
D. None of the above
B. Knowledge accumulates and learns from
the work of others Answer: A
C. Knowledge disaccumulates 9- After identifying the important variables
and establishing the logical reasoning in
D. None of the above option
Theoretical framework, the next step in the
Answer: B
research process is
5- A theoretical framework
A. To conduct surveys
A. Elaborates the r/s among the variables
B. To generate the hypothesis
B. Explains the logic underlying these r/s
C. To focus group discussions
C. Describes the nature and direction of the
D. To use experiments in an investigation
r/s
Answer: B
D. All of the above
10- The appropriate analytical technique is
Answer: D
determined by
6- Which of the following statement is not
A. The research design
true?
B. Nature of the data collected

C. Nature of the hypothesis C. Interview design
D. Both A & B D. Survey design
Answer: D Answer: B
11- Personal interviews conducted in 15-Question that consists of two or more

shopping malls are known as: questions joined together is called a:
a. Mall interviews A. Double barreled question
b. Mall intercept interviews B. General question
c. Brief interviews C. Accurate question
d. None of the given options D. Confusing question
Answer: B Answer: A
12-WATS lines provided by long distance 16-The number of questionnaires returned

telephone service at fixed rates. In this or completed divided by the total number
regard, of
WATS is the abbreviation of: eligible people who were contacted or
A. West Africa Theological Seminary asked to participate in the survey is called
B. Washtenaw Area Transportation Study the:
C. Wide Area Telecommunications Service A. Response rate
D. World Air Transport Statistics B. Participation rate
C. Inflation rate
Answer: C D. None of the given options
13-A list of questions which is handed over Answer: A

to the respondent, who reads the questions
and records the answers himself is known 17-To obtain the freest opinion of the
as the: respondent, when we ask general question
A. Interview schedule before a
B. Questionnaire specific question then this procedure is
C. Interview guide called as the:
D. All of the given options A. Research technique
B. Qualitative technique
Answer: B C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique
14-One of the most critical stages in the
survey research process is: Answer: C
A. Research design
B. Questionnaire design
18-A small scale trial run of a particular B. Discontinuous variable
component is known as: C. Both A & B
A. Pilot testing D. None of the above
B. Pre-testing
C. Lab experiments Answer: C
D. Both A & B
22-“Officers in my organization have higher
Answer: D than average level of commitment” Such a
hypothesis is an example of……….
18-Field testing of the questionnaire shows A. Descriptive Hypothesis
that: B. Directional Hypothesis
A. Respondents are willing to co-operate C. Relational Hypothesis
B. Respondents are not willing to co- D. All of the above
operate
C. Respondents do not like any participation Answer: A
D. All of the given options
23-‘Science’ refers to……….
Answer: A A. A system for producing knowledge
B. The knowledge produced by a system
19- Service evaluation of hotels and C. Both A & B
restaurants can be done by the: D. None of the above
A. Self-administered questionnaires
B Office assistant Answer: C
C. Manager
D. None of the given options 24-Which one of the following is not a
characteristic of scientific method?
Answer: A A. Deterministic
20- Service evaluation of hotels and Objectives
restaurants can be done by the: B. Rationalism
A. Self-administered questionnaires C. Empirical
B. Office assistant D. Abstraction
C. Manager
D. None of the given options Answer: D
Answer: A 25-The theoretical framework discusses the

interrelationships among the……….
21-Discrete variable is also called………. A. Variables
A. Categorical variable B. Hypothesis

C. Concept D. None of the given options
D. Theory
Answer: A
Answer: A
30-Randomization of test units is a part of
26-………research is based on naturalism. ………
A. Field research A. Pretest
B. Descriptive research B. Posttest
C. Basic research C. Matching
D. Applied research D. Experiment
Answer: A Answer: D
27-Personal interviews conducted in 31- Rationalism is the application of which

shopping malls are known as……… of the following?
A. Mall interviews A. Logic and arguments
B. Mall intercept interviews B. Research solution
C. Brief interviews C. Reasoning
D. None of the given options D. Previous findings
Answer: B Answer: A
28- ……… is used to obtain the freest 32- On which of the following, scientific
opinion of the respondent, by asking knowledge mostly relies?
general A. Logical understanding
question before a specific question. B. Identification of events
A. Research technique C. Prior knowledge
B. Qualitative technique D. All of the given options
C. Funnel technique
D. Quantitative technique Answer: A
Answer: C 33- Which of the following refers to

research supported by measurable
29-In ___________the interviewer and evidence?
members jointly control the pace and A. Opinion
direction of the interview. B. Empiricism
A. Field interview C. Speculation
B. Telephonic interview D. Rational
C. Both A and B

Answer: B Answer: D
34-Research method is applicable in all of 38- Exploratory research addresses which of

the following fields, EXCEPT; the following types of question?
A. Health care A. If
B. Religion B. How
C. Business C. Why
D. Government offices D. What
Answer: B Answer: D
35- All of the following are true statements 39- Which of the following is not the source
about action research, EXCEPT; for getting information for exploratory
A. Data are systematically analyzed research?
B. Data are collected systematically A. Content analysis
C. Results are generalizable B. Survey
D. Results are used to improve practice C. Case study
D. Pilot study
Answer: C
Answer: A
36-Which of the following is characteristic
of action research? 40- Which of the following is the main
A. Variables are tightly controlled quality of a good theory?
B. Results are generalizable A. A theory that has survived attempts at
C. Data are usually qualitative falsification
D. Results demonstrate cause-and-effect B. A theory that is proven to be right
relationships C. A theory that has been disproved
D. A theory that has been falsified
Answer: C
Answer: A
37-If a researcher is studying the effect of
using laptops in his classroom to ascertain 41- A variable that is presumed to cause a
their change in another variable is known as:
merit and worth; he is likely conducting A. Discontinuous variable
which of the following types of research? B. Dependent variable
A. Experimental C. Independent variable
B. Applied D. Intervening variable
C. Basic
D. Evaluation Answer: C

42- Which of the following is the opposite 46-“There is no relationship between higher
of a variable? motivation level and higher efficiency” is an
A. An extraneous variable example of which type of hypothesis?
B. A dependent variable A. Alternative
C. A data set B. Null
D. A constant C. Co relational
D. Research
Answer: D
Answer: B
43- Which of the following is not a concept?
A. Leadership 47- Which of the following is not a role of
B. Total Quality Management hypothesis?
C. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) A. Guides the direction of the study
D. Human Resource Management B. Determine feasibility of conducting the
study
Answer: C C. Identifies relevant and irrelevant facts
D. Provides framework for organizing the
44- Which of the following can best be conclusions
described as a categorical variable?
A. Age Answer: B
B. Annual income
C. Grade point average 48-Hypothesis test may also be called as:
D. Religion A. Informal test
Research Method (STA 630) Success B. Significance test
Objectives C. Moderating test
D. T-test
Answer: D
Answer: B
45-“Income distribution of employees” in a
specific organization is an example of which 49-Which type of review compares how
of different theories address an issue?
following type of variable? A. Context review
A. Discontinuous variable B. Integrated review
B. Continuous variable C. Theoretical review
C. Dependent variable D. Methodological review
D. Independent variable
Answer: C
Answer: B

50-After you locate a source, you should 54- In, ____________the interviewer and
write down all details of the reference, members jointly control the pace and
EXCEPT; direction of the interview.
A. Volumes
B. Titles A. Field interview
C. Price B. Telephonic interview
D. Full names of the authors C. Both A and B
D. None of the given options
Answer: C Research Method (STA 630) Success
Objectives
51- ___________ research is based on
naturalism. Answer: A
A. Field research
B. Descriptive research 55- Randomization of test units is a part of
C. Basic research ______________
D. Applied research A. Pretest
B. Posttest
Answer: A C. Matching
D. Experiment
52- Personal interviews conducted in
shopping malls are known as_________ Answer: D
A. Mall interviews
B. Mall intercepts interviews 56- Which one of the following sets is the
C. Brief interviews measure of central tendency?
D. None of the given options a. Mean, standard deviation, mode
b. Mean, median, standard deviation
Answer: B c. Arithmetic mean, median, mode
d. Standard deviation, internal validity,
53- ____________is used to obtain the mode
freest opinion of the respondent, by asking
general question before a specific question. Answer: C
A. Research technique 57- Internal validity refers to.

B. Qualitative technique a. Researcher’s degree of confidence.
C. Funnel technique b. Generalisability
D. Quantitative technique c. Operationalization
d. All of the above
Answer: C
Answer: A

58- How many times the students appear in 62- In an experimental research study, the
the research class is the example of primary goal is to isolate and identify the
_________. effect
a. Intensity produced by the ____.
b. Space 1. Dependent variable
c. Frequency 2. Extraneous variable
d. Direction 3. Independent variable
4. Confounding variable
Answer: C
Answer: 3
59- Time consumed in mall intercept
interview is . 63- A measure is reliable if it provides
a. High consistent ___________.
b. Moderate 1. Hypothesis
c. Low 2. Results
d. Nil 3. Procedure
4. Sensitivity
Answer: B
Answer: 2
60- Departmental stores selected to test a
new merchandising display system is 64- The interview in which questions are
the example of _______. already prepared is called ________.
a. Quota sampling 1. Telephonic interview
b. Convenience sampling 2. Personal interview
c. Judgmental sampling Research Method (STA 630) Success
d. Purposive sampling Objectives
3. Unstructured interview
Answer: C 4. Structured interview
61- In ___________, the researcher Answer: 4

attempts to control and/ or manipulate the
variables in 65-The numerical description that describe
the study. sample may be expected to differ from
1. Experiment those that describe population because of
2. Hypothesis random fluctuations inherent in sampling
3. Theoretical framework process.
4. Research design 1. Sampling design
2. Non-probability sampling
Answer: 1 3. Sampling error
4. Probability sampling
2. Proportions of groups in the sample must
Answer: 3 always match their population
proportions
66- In ______________ , each population 3. Disproportional stratified random
element has a known and equal chance of sampling is especially helpful for getting
selection. large
1. Purposive sampling enough subgroup samples when subgroup
2. Quota sampling comparisons are to be done
3. Stratified sampling 4. Proportional stratified random sampling
yields a representative sample
4. Simple random sampling
Answer: 2
Answer: 4
70- Experimental design is the only

67- ______ is the evidence that the
appropriate design where_________
instrument, techniques, or process used to
relationship can be established.
measure concept does indeed measure the
intended concepts. 1. Strong
1. Reliability 2. Linear
2. Replicability 3. Weak
3. Scaling 4. Cause and Effect
4. Validity
Answer: 4
Answer: 4
71. Discrete variable is also called……….
68- A researcher is interested in studying A. Categorical variable
why the “new math” of the 1960s failed. B. Discontinuous variable
She interviews several teachers who used C. Both A & B
the new math during the 1960s. These D. None of the above
teachers are considered as:
1. Primary sources Answer: C
2. Secondary Sources 72. “Officers in my organization have higher
3. External critics than average level of commitment” Such a
4. Internal critics hypothesis is an example of……….
a. Descriptive Hypothesis
Answer: 1 b. Directional Hypothesis
c. Relational Hypothesis
69- Which of the following is NOT true d. All of the above
about stratified random sampling?
1. It involves a random selection process Answer: A
from identified subgroups

73. The theoretical framework discusses the a. Field interview
interrelationships among the………. b. Telephonic interview
a. Variables c. Both A and B
b. Hypothesis d. None of the given options
c. Concept
d. Theory Answer: A
Answer: B 78.Randomization of test units is a part of

………
74.………research is based on naturalism. a. Pretest
a. Field research b. Posttest
b. Descriptive research c. Matching
c. Basic research d. Experiment
d. Applied research
Answer: A
Answer: C
79. In ___________, the researcher
75.Personal interviews conducted in attempts to control and/ or manipulate the
shopping malls are known as……… variables in the study.
a. Mall interviews 1. Experiment
b Mall intercept interviews 2. Hypothesis
c. Brief interviews 3. Theoretical framework
d. None of the given options 4. Research design
Answer: A Answer: A
76.……… is used to obtain the freest opinion 80. In an experimental research study, the
of the respondent, by asking general primary goal is to isolate and identify the
question before a specific question. effect produced by the ____.
a. Research technique 1. Dependent variable
b. Qualitative technique 2. Extraneous variable
c. Funnel technique 3. Independent variable
d. Quantitative technique 4. Confounding variable
Answer: A Answer: A
77. In ……… the interviewer and members 81. A measure is reliable if it provides
jointly control the pace and direction of the consistent ___________. Research Method
interview. (STA 630) Success Objectives
1. Hypothesis
2. Results 1. Reliability
3. Procedure 2. Replicability
4. Sensitivity 3. Scaling
4. Validity
Answer: 2
Answer: 4
82. The interview in which questions are
already prepared is called ________. 86. A researcher is interested in studying
1. Telephonic interview why the “new math” of the 1960s failed.
2. Personal interview She interviews several teachers who used
3. Unstructured interview the new math during the 1960s. These
4. Structured interview teachers are considered as:
1. Primary sources
Answer: 4 2. Secondary Sources
3. External critics
83. The numerical description that describe 4. Internal critics
sample may be expected to differ from
those that describe population because of Answer: 1
random fluctuations inherent in sampling
process. 87. Which of the following is NOT true
1. Sampling design about stratified random sampling?
2. Non-probability sampling 1. It involves a random selection process
3. Sampling error from identified subgroups
4. Probability sampling 2. Proportions of groups in the sample must
Answer: 3 always match their population
proportions
84. In ______________ , each population 3. Disproportional stratified random
element has a known and equal chance of sampling is especially helpful for getting
selection. large
1. Purposive sampling enough subgroup samples when subgroup
comparisons are to be done
2. Quota sampling
4. Proportional stratified random sampling
3. Stratified sampling
yields a representative sample
4. Simple random sampling
Answer: 2
Answer: 4
88. Experimental design is the only

85. ______ is the evidence that the
appropriate design where_________
instrument, techniques, or process used to
relationship can be established.
measure concept does indeed measure the
1. Strong
intended concepts.
2. Linear B. Religion
3. Weak C. Business
4. Cause and Effect D. Government offices
Answer: 4 Answer: B
89. Rationalism is the application of which 93. All of the following are true statements
of the following? about action research, EXCEPT;
A. Logic and arguments A. Data are systematically analyzed
B. Research solution B. Data are collected systematically
C. Reasoning C. Results are generalizable
D. Previous findings D. Results are used to improve practice
Answer: A Answer: C
90. On which of the following, scientific 94. Which of the following is characteristic
knowledge mostly relies? of action research?
A. Logical understanding A. Variables are tightly controlled
B. Identification of events B. Results are generalizable
Research Method (STA 630) Success C. Data are usually qualitative
Objectives D. Results demonstrate cause-and-effect
C. Prior knowledge relationship
Answer: C
Answer: A
95. If a researcher is studying the effect of
91. Which of the following refers to using laptops in his classroom to ascertain
research supported by measurable their merit and worth, he is likely
evidence? conducting which of the following types of
A. Opinion research?
B. Empiricism A. Experimental
C. Speculation B. Applied
D. Rationalism C. Basic
D. Evaluation
Answer: V
Answer: D
92. Research method is applicable in all of
the following fields, Except: 96. Exploratory research addresses which of
A. Health care the following types of question?
A. If
B. How B. Dependent variable
C. Why C. Independent variable
D. What D. Intervening variable
Answer: D Answer: C
97. Which of the following is not the source 102. Which of the following is the opposite
for getting information for exploratory of a variable?
research? A. An extraneous variable
A. Content analysis B. A dependent variable
B. Survey C. A data set
C. Case study D. A constant
D. Pilot study
Answer: D
Answer: A 103. Which of the following can best be
described as a categorical variable?
98. Which of the following is the main A. Age
quality of a good theory? B. Annual income
A. A theory that has survived attempts at C. Grade point average
falsification D. Religion
B. A theory that is proven to be right
C. A theory that has been disproved Answer: D
D. A theory that has been falsified
104. “Income distribution of employees” in
Answer: A a specific organization is an example of
which of following type of variable?
100. Which of the following is not a A. Discontinuous variable
concept? B. Continuous variable
A. Leadership C. Dependent variable
B. Total Quality Management D. Independent variable
C. Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
D. Human Resource Management Answer: B
Answer: C 105. “There is no relationship between

higher motivation level and higher
101. A variable that is presumed to cause a efficiency” is an example of which type of
change in another variable is known as: hypothesis?
Research Method (STA 630) Success A. Alternative
Objectives B. Null
A. Discontinuous variable C. Correlational
D. Research
Answer: D
Answer: B
110. Which one of following is generally
106. Which of the following is not a role of common in establishment survey and
hypothesis? household survey?
A. Guides the direction of the study A. Cognitive recall
B. Determine feasibility of conducting the B. Homogenous respondents
study C. Error free
C. Identifies relevant and irrelevant facts D. Response burden
D. Provides framework for organizing the Research Method (STA 630) Success
conclusions Objectives
Answer: B
Answer: A
107. Which type of review compares how
different theories address an issue? 111. Which one of the following is not of
A. Context review important consideration in establishment
B. Integrated review survey while designing questionnaires?
C. Theoretical review A. Response burden
D. Methodological review B. Professional terminology
C. Cognitive recall
Answer: C D. Use of Records
108. After you locate a source, you should Answer: C

write down all details of the
reference, EXCEPT; 112. Which of the following method of data
A. Volumes collection is not discussed in the case
B. Titles study?
C. Price A. Questionnaires
D. Full names of the authors B. Interviews
C. Mail survey
Answer: C D. Observations
109. What is the primary focus of Answer: D

establishment surveys in this case study?
A. Collect the data through past studies 113. Which of the following sampling
B. Analyze the literature review technique is used for Employee Turnover
C. Using of quantitative techniques and Job Openings survey?
D. Data collection through mail and A. Simple random sampling
Interview B. Cluster sampling
C. Stratified sampling Answer: C
D. Convenience sampling
118. What is the basic purpose of ETJO
Answer: C survey?
A. To assess the feasibility of collecting job-
114. Which one of the following is the vacancy and turnover data by occupation
limitation of establishment survey in this B. To analyze the problem of labor shortage
case study? C. To assess the motivation level of
A. Cost employees
B. Limited data D. To analyze the factor contributing
C. Unskilled interviewer towards employee turnover
D. Small sample size Answer: A
Answer: A 119. Which of the following is the basic

purpose of pretest interview in this case
study?
115. Which of the following is not the part
of specific protocol of focus groups in ETJO? A. To identified the potential problem
A. Concept and indicators B. To know the sample size
B. Definition C. To develop the questionnaire
C. Availability of records D. To use agency representative
D. Cognitive recall
Answer: D 120. Which one of the following sampling
type is used in operations test to select the
units?
116. Which of the following is the draw
A. Simple random sampling
back of pretest interview in ETJO survey?
A. Small simple size
Objectives
B. Non cooperative response
B. Cluster sampling
C. Probing
C. Quota sampling
D. Questionnaire format
D. Judgment sampling
Answer: A
Answer: A
117. Which of the following method of data

121. Which of the following is the basic
collection is not used in the case study?
purpose of Response analysis survey in the
A. Questionnaires
case study?
B. Focus groups
A. To assess the quality of ETJO survey data
C. Correlational method B. To know the sample size of ETJO survey
D. Secondary data data
C. To develop the questionnaire for ETJO

D. To use agency representative for ETJO
Answer: C
Answer: A 126. Which one of the following is useful in
assessing and clarifying concepts and
122. After Operation test, which of the definitions at the beginning stages of
following test findings were suggested by questionnaire?
the researcher? A. Operation test
A. Need of highly skilled and well trained B. Document design analysis
interviewer C. Focus group
B. Sample size should be increased D. Response analysis survey
C. A decent increase in survey budget
D. Focus group should be included Answer: C
Answer: A 127.‘Science’ refers to……….

123. In which one of the following stage A. A system for producing knowledge
researcher consult the literature? Research Method (STA 630) Success
A. Operation test Objectives
B. Response analysis survey B. The knowledge produced by a system
C. Document design analysis C. Both A & B
D. Pretest interviews D. None of the above
Answer: C Answer: D
124. Which one of the following sampling 128.Which one of the following is not a
type is used in Response analysis survey characteristic of scientific method?
(RAS)? a. Deterministic
A. Simple random sampling b. Rationalism
B. Cluster sampling c. Empirical
C. Quota sampling d. Abstraction
D. Stratified sampling
Answer: D
Answer: D
129. In a study of concept learning in first-
125. Which one of the following could be graders, all of the following should happen,
helpful for minimizing the bias in this case except;
study? ► To help make the experience enjoyable,
A. Cognitive research children should be given substantial
B. Focus group incentives to participate.
C. Pretest Interview ► The children should be asked if they
D. Response analysis survey want to participate.

► Teachers of the children in their classes ► It underestimates the similarities
should give informed consent. between objects in the natural and social
► Parents must give consent. worlds.
► It has no validity.
Answer: A
Answer: B
130. According to the Harvard referencing
convention, which is the correct reference? 133. Which of the following is a
a) Bryman, A. (2008, 3e) Social Research characteristic of a standardized test?
Methods, Oxford; Oxford University Press ► The administration of the test is
b) Bryman (2008, second edition), Oxford controlled carefully to ensure that all
University Press examinees experience the same conditions.
c) Bryman, Alan, Social Research Methods ► The test is developed by experts to
(2008: OUP) ensure it is technically sound.
d) Bryman, A. Social Research Methods ► The scores are interpreted in standard
(2008) ways.
► All of the given options
Answer: A
Answer: D
131,Which of the following is least likely to
occur as an ethical problem with electronic 134. Mr. Latif is measuring students'
research? attitudes on a controversial topic. Which of
► Privacy could be invaded. the following would you recommend he use
► People are not likely to be able to stop to control for the potential problem of
once they have begun participating. students feeling the need to respond with
socially acceptable responses?
► Debriefing could be avoided.
► Ensure construct validity
► Informed consent cannot be completely
monitored. ► Allow anonymous responses
► Ensure reliability
Answer: B ► Ensure confidentiality
132Quantitative research has been Answer: B

criticised because:
► The reliance on instruments and 135. Which of the following scales can
procedures makes it high in ecological measure the Temperature?
validity. ► Nominal scale
► The measurement process suggests a ► Ordinal scale
spurious and artificial sense of accuracy. ► Interval scale
► All of the given options

Answer: D ► Construct
136. Which Following are the properties of Answer: C

nominal scale, except;
► Least powerful 140. Which of the following is a legitimate
► Suggest no order purpose of a research plan?
► Provide categorical information ► It forces you to think through every
► Provide magnitude of object aspect of a study.
► It provides detailed procedures to guide
Answer: B the conduct of the study.
► It provides clear roadmap of the study.
137. Which of the following is NOT the ► Writing a plan facilitates the evaluation
implication of Ordinal scale? of it.
► Characteristics of nominal scale
► Rank the object Answer: D
► Does not provide magnitude of object
► Provide rate 141. In the statement ‘Smoke badly
destroys health of people’ what is the unit
of analysis?
Answer: B
► Transportation
► Individuals
138. Which of the following statements is
correct about validity and reliability? ► Pollutants
► When internal validity is high, external ► Drugs
validity is low
► When internal validity is high, there is no Answer: D
change in external validity
► When internal validity is high, external 142. While studying supervisor-subordinate
validity is also high relationship in an organization, what is the
► All of the given options unit of analysis?
► Individual
Answer: D ► Dyad
► Employer-employee
139. When you are confident that the ► Organization
experimental manipulation produced the Answer: D
changes you measured in the dependent
variable, your study probably has good 143. Which of the following types of survey
________ validity. research is often used for program
► Internal evaluation or accreditation purposes?
► External ► Developmental surveys
► Causal ► Followup studies

► Public opinion polls ► Clear presentation is more important
► No survey research is appropriate than overall size.
Answer: D Answer: D
144. Which of the following is NOT an 147. Critical decision area in questionnaire
example of a problem with using survey construction is which of the following?
research to investigate behaviour? ► Question content
► Respondents tend to answer by giving ► Question wording
the most socially desirable answer. ► Response strategy
► Respondents may inadvertently omit key ► All of the given options
terms in the question.
► Respondents may not give an honest Answer: D
reply to what they see as a threatening
question.
148. The most critical area of an article to
► Respondents may be unwilling to reveal read is;
information as they believe they are likely
► Introduction
to be identified.
► Abstract
► Results section
Answer: D
► Limitations
145. What should the researcher do if they

Answer: C
have achieved a low response rate?
► Copy responses and paste them again.
149. Mr. Ali has conducted an extensive
► Abandon the research project entirely.
review of the literature and has deductively
► Recognize and accept the possible
reasoned a hypothesis about his problem
limitations of a low response rate.
on the basis of this review. Which type of a
► Fill in some more questionnaires research plan is Mr. Ali likely proposing?
themselves.
► Qualitative
► Ethical
Answer: C
► Both quantitative and qualitative
146. Which of the following statements is
► Quantitative
correct about questionnaire?
► A questionnaire should run to at least
Answer: A
twenty pages.
► The questions should have no spaces
between them so that the whole 150. Which of the following represent a
questionnaire looks small. good qualitative problem statement?
► Only questionnaires that are A3 size ► Defines the independent and dependent
achieve high response rates. variables.
► conveys a sense of emerging design.
► Specifies a research hypothesis to be 154. Time consumed in mall intercept
tested. interview is representing which of the
► Specifies the relationship between following type?
variables that the researcher expects to ► High
find. ► Moderate
► Low
Answer: B ► Nill
151. Which of the following makes research Answer: B

questions very crucial?
► Guide your decisions about what data to 155. Which of the following similarity is
collect and from where. found in Qualitative research and Survey
► Help you decide which research area research?
interests you. ► Examine topics primarily from the
► Ensure that your findings have external participants' perspectives.
validity. ► They are guided by predetermined
► Prevent you from thinking about variables to study.
research strategies. ► They are descriptive research methods.
► Have large sample sizes.
Answer: A
Answer: C
152. How would you explain "Research
Proposal" and its different sections? 156. Which type of validity refers to the
Ans - activity for practice degree to which you can infer that the
Part-3 relationship between two variables is
causal?
Answer: B a. Internal validity
153. Which of the following is/are b. Population validity
advantage(s) of the self-completed c. Ecological validity
questionnaire? d. Statistical conclusion validity
► Inability to confirm who completed the
questionnaire Answer: A
► Its unsuitability for some kinds of
respondents
157. Which type of validity refers to the
► Inability to ask many questions that are ability to infer that the independent and
not directly relevant to the respondent dependent variables are related ant that
► Easy to justify the answer the measured strength of the relationship is
accurate?
Answer: D a. Internal validity
b. Population validity

c. Ecological validity individuals over time, such as aging,
d. Statistical conclusion validity learning, boredom, hunger, and fatigue.
a. Instrumentation
Answer: D b. History
c. Maturation
158. An extraneous variable that d. Testing
systematically varies with the independent
variable and also influences the dependent Answer: C
variable is known as a _______________.
a. Confounding variable 162. What type of validity refers to the
b. Third variable extent to which the results of a study can
c. Second variable be generalized across time?
d. Both a and b are correct a. Ecological validity
b. External validity
Answer: D c. Internal validity
d. Temporal validity
159. The use of multiple observers to allow
cross-checking of observations to make sure Answer: D
that the investigators agree with what took
place is known as _______. 163. Which of the following best describes
a. Interpretive validity interpretive validity?
b. Researcher bias a. Factual accuracy of an account as
c. Multiple operationalism reported by the researcher
d. Investigator triangulation b. Accurately portraying the meanings given
by the participants to what is being studied
Answer: D c. Degree to which a theoretical explanation
fits the data
160. _____________ is the lowest inference d. Ability to generalize the study results
descriptor of all because it uses the across settings
participant’s own words.
a. Participant feedback Answer: B
b. A verbatim
c. Data triangulation 164. Which of the following terms is a
d. Investigator triangulation strategy where the researcher actively
engages in critical self-reflection about his
Answer: B or her potential biases and predispositions.
a. Experimenter effect
161. ___________ refers to physical or b. Reactivity
mental changes that may occur within c. Investigator triangulation
d. Reflexivity

Answer: D 168. What is another term that refers to a

confounding extraneous variable?
165. Which of the following is not a. Last variable
considered one of the criteria for inferring b. First variable
causality? c. Third variable
a. Evidence that the independent and d. Fourth variable
dependent variables are related
b. Evidence that the relationship between Answer: C
the variables being investigated is not due
to a confounding extraneous variable
169. Which of the following refers to any
c. Evidence that changes in variable A occur systematic change that occurs over time in
before changes in variable B the way in which the dependent variable is
d. The temporal ordering of the variables assessed?
being investigated does not matter because a. Instrumentation
a relationship is all that is really needed
b. Maturation
c. Testing
Answer: D
d. Selection
166. The use of multiple data sources to

Answer: A
help understand a phenomenon is one
strategy that is used to promote qualitative
170. Which of the following terms describes
research validity. Which of the
the ability to generalize from the sample of
following terms describes this strategy?
individuals on which a study was conducted
a. Data matching to the larger target population of
b. Pattern matching individuals and across different
c. Data triangulation subpopulations within the larger target
d. Data feedback population?
a. External validity
Answer: C b. Population validity
c. Ecological validity
167. What may happen when different d. Temporal validity
comparison groups experience a different
history event? Answer: B
a. History effect
b. Selection-history effect 171. Which of the following is not a strategy
c. Selection effect used to promote qualitative research
d. Group effect validity?
a. Peer review
Answer: B b. Theory triangulation

c. Extended fieldwork
d. Random assignment Answer: A
Answer: D
176. Internal validity refers to which of the
172. The use of several measures of a following?
construct is called: a. The ability to infer that a casual
a. Multiple operationalism relationship exists between 2 variables
b. Multiple construct measurement b. The extent to which study results can be
c. Operationalism generalized to and across populations of
d. Methods triangulation persons, settings, and times
c. The use of effective measurement
instruments in the study
Answer: A
d. The ability to generalize the study results
to individuals not included in the study
173. A physical or mental change that
occurs in participants over time that affects
their performance on the dependent Answer: A
variable is called ________.
a. Instrumentation 177. Which strategy used to promote
b. Maturation qualitative research validity uses multiple
research methods to study a phenomenon?
c. Regression
a. Data triangulation
d. None of above
b. Methods triangulation
c. Theory triangulation
Answer: B
d. Member checking
174. Attrition generally occurs in research
where ____. Answer: B
a. You do demographic research
b. The study fails 178. Which type of validity refers to the
factual accuracy of an account as reported
c. Some participants do not complete the
by the researcher?
study
a. Ecological validity
d. The study is very brief
b. Temporal validity
c. Descriptive validity
Answer: C
d. None of the above
175. Differential attrition occurs when the
people dropping out from one group are Answer: C
different from the others in their group or
from the people in the comparison group. 179. Which of the following in not one of
a. True the key threats to internal validity?
b. False a. Maturation

b. Instrumentation beyond the original participants is known as
c. Temporal change ___________.
d. History a. Naturalistic generalization
b. Methods generalization
Answer: C c. Data triangulation
d. Replication logic
180. This type of validity refers to the ability
to generalize the results of a study across Answer: D
settings.
a. Temporal validity 184. An operational definition is: One that
b. Internal validity bears no relation to the underlying concept.
c. Ecological validity A. An abstract, theoretical definition of
d. External validity a concept.
B. A definition of a concept in terms of
Answer: C specific, empirical measures.
C. One that refers to opera singers and
their work.
181. Which is not a direct threat to the
internal validity of a research design?
Answer: C
a. History
b. Testing
185. If a researcher is studying the effect of
c. Sampling error
using laptops in his classroom to ascertain
d. Differential selection their merit and worth, he is likely
conducting which type of research?
Answer: B 1. Basic
2. Applied
182. Alteration in performance due to being 3. Evaluation
aware that one is participating in a 4. Experimental
study is known as ______. Answer: A
a. Operationalism
b. Reactivity 186. What is the basis of the Scientific
c. Temporal validity Method? To test hypotheses in conditions
d. Mortality those are condusive to its success. To
formulate a research problem and disprove
the hypothesis.
Answer: B
A. To formulate a research problem,
test the
183. The idea that the more times a
B. hypothesis in carefully controlled
research finding is shown with different sets
C. conditions that challenge the
of people, the more confidence we can
hypothesis.
place in the finding and in generalizing

D. To test hypotheses and if they are
disproved, they should be abandoned Answer: D
completely.
191. If a researcher was studying the use of
Answer: D various instructional approaches to the
"multiple intelligences" of his students, he
187. Which of the following is a concept? is likely to be conducting which type of
A. Leadership. research?
B. Total Quality Management. A. Basic
C. Human Resource Management. B. Applied
D. All of the given options C. Evaluation
D. Grounded theory
Answer: A
Answer: C
188. Meanings attached to a concept create
problems of measurements. 192. A concept is a generalized idea about--
A. Unambiguous ---- .
B. Vague A. A class of objects
C. Clear B. Attributes
D. Dictionary C. Occurrences
D. All of the given
Answer: B
Answer: D
189. To explain, predict, and/or control
phenomena are the goal of---------------------- 193. The scientific method is preferred over
A. Tradition other ways of knowing because it is more;
B. Inductive logic A. Reliable
C. Deductive logic B. Systematic
D. The scientific C. Accurate
Answer: A
Answer: D
190. Why, as scientists, do we not want to
rely on authority for explanations? 194. When a extraneous variable
A. Those in authority are often wrong. systematically varies with the independent
B. Those in authority cannot be variable and influences the dependent
challenged. variable, it is called:
C. Those in authority rely too much on a. Another dependent variable
objective information. b. A confounding variable
D. Those in authority often have no c. A moderating variable
common sense. d. An unreliable variable
effect. The failure to find an effect may be
Answer: B due to:
a. A treatment effect
195. Which of the following statements is b. A testing effect
true? c. A differential selection effect
a. A statistical relationship is sufficient d. A maturation effect
evidence to infer causality
b. Temporal order of the cause and effect is Answer: C
not important in inferring causality
c. A statistical relation of X and Y is 198. A researcher examines a program
insufficient evidence for inferring causality looking at the effects of mentoring on poor
d. Temporal order of cause and effect readers' reading achievement. He looks at
variables and statistical relation are all that two different schools. One serves as the
are needed to infer causality control and the other the experimental
group. Both schools had reading
Answer: C achievement that was around the 50th
percentile. During the time that the
196. A school district examines a program mentoring program is in place in the
that uses mentors to help very poor readers experimental group, a statewide reading
improve their reading performance. The initiative is started in randomly selected
children in the program are at the 4th schools. The experimental, but not the
percentile at pretest. At posttest they are control school is involved in the initiative.
around the 20th percentile. While it is At the end of the year, the experimental
possible that the program made the group does better than the control. From
difference, another reason for the change in the information presented above, a likely
scores could be: threat to the internal validity of the study is:
a. History a. Selection by mortality interaction
b. Regression artifact b. Mortality
c. Multiple-treatment interference c. Selection-history effect
d. Differential selection d. Selection-maturation effect
Answer: B Answer: C
197. A group of researchers do a study 199. conducted in shopping malls are

where children from particular classrooms known as:
are assigned to treatment or control a. Mall interviews
conditions. After the study, the researcher b. Mall intercept interviews
finds out that the students in the control c. Brief interviews
group are higher achievers than those in the d. None of the given options
experimental group. He found no treatment
Answer: B
d) Uses qualitative methods whenever
200. Service evaluation of hotels and possible
restaurants can be done by the:
a. Self-administered questionnaires Answer: B
b. Office assistant
c. Manager 204. What does 'sampling cases' mean?
d. None of the given options a) Sampling using a sampling frame
b) Identifying people who are suitable for
Answer: A research
c) Literally, the researcher's brief-case
201. When planning to do social research, it d) Sampling people, newspapers, television
is better to: programmes etc.
a) Approach the topic with an open mind
b) Do a pilot study before getting stuck into Answer: D
it
c) Be familiar with the literature on the 205. What is one of the main disadvantages
topic of using the covert role in ethnography?
d) Forget about theory because this is a a) It can be hard to gain access to the social
very practical undertaking can't have one group
without the other b) It is difficult to take notes without
arousing suspicion
Answer: C c) The problem of reactivity: people may
change their behaviour if they know they
202. We review the relevant literature to are being observed
know: d) It is usually too time consuming and
a) What is already known about the topic expensive to be a realistic option
b) What concepts and theories have been
applied to the topic Answer: B
c) Who are the key contributors to the topic
d) All of the above 206. Disadvantage of content analysis is .
a. Researcher can increase the sample size
Answer: D b. Provides access on the subjects to which
researcher does have physical access.
203. A deductive theory is one that: c. Sometime documents provide incomplete
a) Allows theory to emerge out of the data account to the researcher
b) Involves testing an explicitly defined d. Spontaneous feelings can be recorded
hypothesis when they occurred
c) Allows for findings to feed back into the
stock of knowledge Answer: A

207. Which of the following statement is
incorrect with respect to “An experimental Answer: B
design is a set of procedures specifying:”
a. How the test units (subjects) are to be 210. What is a key informant?
divided into homogenous sub samples. a) A group member who helps the
b. What independent variables or ethnographer gain access to relevant
treatments are to be measured? people/events
c. What dependent variables are to be b) A senior level member of the
measured? organisation who refuses to allow
d. How the extraneous variables are to be researchers into it
controlled? c) A participant who appears to be helpful
but then blows the researcher's cover
Answer: A d) Someone who cuts keys to help the
ethnographer gain access to a building
208. Time consumed in mall intercept
interview is . Answer: A
a. High
b. Moderate 211. What is the name of the role adopted
c. Low by an ethnographer who joins in with the
d. Nil group's activities
but admits to being a researcher?
Answer: D a) Complete participant
b) Participant-as-observer
209. “Teacher should create a friendly c) Observer-as-participant
environment in the classroom” this is the d) Complete observer
type of .
a. Leading question Answer: B
b. Loaded question
c. Double Barreled 212. Is it okay to break the law in order to
d. Burdensome question maintain a "cover"?
a) Yes, provided it is not very serious
Answer: C b) No, never under any circumstances
c) Yes, because otherwise data on criminal
210. Departmental stores selected to test a activity would never come to light
new merchandising display system is d) Yes, provided it doesn't cause physical
the example of . harm to someone
a. Quota sampling
b. Convenience sampling Answer: B
c. Judgmental sampling
d. Purposive sampling
213. What is the difference between
"scratch notes" and "full field notes"? Answer: C
a) Scratch notes are just key words and
phrases, rather than lengthy descriptions 217. Why is it helpful to prepare an
b) Full field notes are quicker and easier to interview guide before conducting semi-
write than scratch notes structured interviews?
c) Scratch notes are written at the end of a) So that the data from different
the day rather than during key events interviewees will be comparable and
d) Full field notes do not involve the relevant to your research questions
researcher scratching their head while b) So that you can calculate the statistical
thinking significance of the results
c) In order to allow participants complete
Answer: A control over the topics they discuss
d) To make the sample more representative
214. What are the two main types of data
that can be used in visual ethnography? Answer: A
a) Positivist and interpretivist
b) Qualitative and quantitative 218. What is a "probing question"?
c) Nominal and ordinal a) One that inquires about a sensitive or
d) Extant and research-driven deeply personal issue
b) One that encourages the interviewee to
Answer: D say more about a topic
c) One that asks indirectly about people's
215. Which of the following makes opinions
qualitative interviewing distinct from d) One that moves the conversation on to
structured interviewing? another topic
a) The procedure is less standardized
b) "Rambling" off the topic is not a problem Answer: B
c) The researcher seeks rich, detailed
answers 219. What can you do to reduce the time
d) All of the above consuming nature of transcribing
interviews?
Answer: D a) Use a transcribing machine
b) Employ someone to transcribe for you
216. Which of the following is not a type of c) Transcribe only selected parts of the
qualitative interview? interviews
a) Unstructured interview d) All of the above
b) Oral history interview
c) Structured interview Answer: D
d) Focus group interview

220. Which of the following is not a type of c) Grab the reader's attention
life story? d) All of the above
a) Naturalistic life stories
b) Researched life stories Answer: D
c) True life stories
d) Reflexive and recursive life stories 224. What is the purpose of the conclusion
in a research report?
Answer: C a) It explains how concepts were
operationally defined and measured
221. Which of the following is an advantage b) It contains a useful review of the relevant
of qualitative interviewing relative to literature
participant c) It outlines the methodological procedures
observation? that were employed
a) It allows you to find out about issues that d) It summarizes the key findings in relation
are resistant to observation to the research questions
b) It is more biased and value-laden
c) It is more likely to create reactive effects Answer: D
d) None of the above
225. Which of the following is not normally
Answer: A included in a written account of qualitative
research?
222. Which of the following is a a) An introduction, locating the research in
disadvantage of qualitative interviewing its theoretical context
relative to participant b) An explanation of the design of the study
observation? c) A discussion of the main findings in
a) It has a more specific focus relation to the research questions
b) It is more ethically dubious, in terms of d) A decision to accept or reject the
obtaining informed consent hypothesis
c) It may not provide access to deviant or
hidden activities Answer: D
d) It does not allow participants to
reconstruct their life events 226. Before submitting your dissertation,
you should ensure that:
Answer: C a) Your writing is free of sexist, racist and
disablist language
223. The introductory section of a research b) Other people have read your final draft
report should aim to: c) You have proofread it thoroughly
a) Identify the specific focus of the study d) All of the above
b) Provide a rationale for the dissertation,
or article Answer: D

231. Why is an ethnographic study unlikely
227. Probability sampling is rarely used in to use a probability sample?
qualitative research because: a) Because the aim of understanding is
a) Qualitative researchers are not trained in more important than that of generalization
statistics b) Because the researcher cannot control
b) It is very old-fashioned who is willing to talk to them
c) It is often not feasible c) Because it is difficult to identify a
d) Research questions are more important sampling frame
than sampling d) All of the above
Answer: C Answer: D
228. The two levels of sampling used by 232. Apart from people, what else can
Savage et al. (2005) for the Manchester purposive sampling be used for?
study were: a) Documents
a) Random and purposive b) Timing of events
b) Convenience and snowball c) Context
c) Statistical and non-statistical d) All of the above
d) Contexts and participants
Answer: D
Answer: D
233. What can be generalized from a
229. Which of the following is not a type of purposive sample?
purposive sampling? a) That the findings are true for broadly
a) Probability sampling similar cases
b) Deviant case sampling b) That the findings are true for the entire
c) Theoretical sampling population
d) Snowball sampling c) That the opposite is true for people who
are the opposite of those in the sample
Answer: A d) That purposive sampling is better than
probability sampling
230. The minimum sample size for
qualitative interviewing is: Answer: A
a) 30
b) 31 234. Which of the following is a problem
associated with survey research?
c) 60
a) The problem of objectivity
d) It's hard to say
b) The problem of "going native"
c) The problem of omission
Answer: D
d) The problem of robustness

238. One of the criticisms often levelled at
Answer: C structured observation is that:
a) It does not allow us to impose any
235. The key advantage of structured framework on the social setting
observation over survey research is that: b) It only generates a small amount of data
a) It does not rely on the researcher's ability c) It is unethical to observe people without
to take notes an observation schedule
b) The researcher is immersed as a d) It does not allow us to understand the
participant in the field they are studying intentions behind behaviour
c) It does not impose any expectations of
behaviour on the respondents Answer: D
d) It allows you to observe people's
behaviour directly 239. What is a research design?
a) A way of conducting research that is not
Answer: D grounded in theory
b) The choice between using qualitative or
236. It may not be possible to use a quantitative methods
probability sample to observe behaviour in c) The style in which you present your
public places because: research findings, e.g. a graph
a) The findings of such studies are not d) A framework for every stage of the
intended to have external validity collection and analysis of data
b) It is not feasible to construct a sampling
frame of interactions Answer: D
c) It is difficult to gain access to such social
settings 240. If a study is "reliable", this means that:
d) Researchers prefer not to use random a) It was conducted by a reputable
samples whenever possible researcher who can be trusted
b) The measures devised for concepts are
Answer: B stable on different occasions
c) The findings can be generalized to other
237. Which of the following is not a type of social settings
sampling used in structured observation? d) The methods are stated clearly enough
a) Focal sampling for the research to be replicated
b) Scan sampling
c) Emotional sampling Answer: B
d) Behaviour sampling
241. In an experimental design, the
Answer: C dependent variable is:
a) The one that is not manipulated and in
which any changes are observed

b) The one that is manipulated in order to
observe any effects on the other Answer: B
c) A measure of the extent to which
personal values affect research 245. An inductive theory is one that:
d) An ambiguous concept whose meaning a) Involves testing an explicitly defined
depends on how it is defined hypothesis
b) Does not allow for findings to feed back
Answer: A into the stock of knowledge
c) Uses quantitative methods whenever
242. What is a cross-sectional design? possible
a) A study of one particular section of d) Allows theory to emerge out of the data
society, e.g. the middle classes
b) One that is devised when the researcher Answer: D
is in a bad mood
c) The collection of data from more than 246. The qualitative research strategy
one case at one moment in time places a value on:
d) A comparison of two or more variables a) Using numbers, measurements and
over a long period of time statistical techniques
b) Generating theories through inductive
Answer: C research about social meanings
c) Conducting research that is of a very high
243. Cross cultural studies are an example quality
of: d) All of the above
a) Case study design
b) Comparative design Answer: B
c) Experimental design
d) Longitudinal design 247. An important practical issue to
consider when designing a research project
Answer: B is:
a) Which theoretical perspective you find
244. What is a 'grand theory'? most interesting
a) One that was proposed by one of the b) Whether or not you have time to retile
major theorists in the sociological tradition the bathroom first
b) One that is highly abstract and makes c) How much time and money you have to
broad generalizations about the social conduct the research
world d) Which colour of ring binder to present
c) An intermediate level explanation of your work in
observed regularities
d) A particularly satisfactory theory that Answer: C
makes the researcher feel happy

248. You can manage your time and Answer: D
resources best, by:
a) Working out a timetable 252. What practical steps can you take
b) Finding out what resources are readily before you actually start your research?
available to you a) Find out exactly what your institution's
c) Calculating a budget for likely requirements are for a dissertation
expenditure b) Make sure you are familiar with the
d) All of the above hardware and software you plan to use
c) Apply for clearance of your project
Answer: D through an ethics committee
d) All of the above
249. How can you tell if your research
questions are really good? Answer: D
a) If they guide your literature search
b) If they are linked together to help you 253. Why do you need to review the
construct a coherent argument existing literature?
c) If they force you to narrow the scope of a) To make sure you have a long list of
your research references
d) All of the above b) Because without it, you could never
reach the required word-count
Answer: D c) To find out what is already known about
your area of interest
250. Which of the following should be d) To help in your general studying
included in a research proposal?
a) Your academic status and experience Answer: C
b) The difficulties you encountered with
your previous reading on the topic 254. A systematic literature review is:
c) Your choice of research methods and a) One which starts in your own library,
reasons for choosing them then goes to on-line databases and, finally,
d) All of the above to the internet
b) A replicable, scientific and transparent
Answer: C process
c) One which gives equal attention to the
251. Which of the following should you principal contributors to the area
think about when preparing your research? d) A responsible, professional process of
a) Your sample frame and sampling strategy time-management for research
b) The ethical issues that might arise
c) Negotiating access to the setting Answer: B
d) All of the above

255. What is the first stage of a systematic b) It tends to be based on high quality data
review? c) It provides an opportunity for
a) Assess the relevance of each study to the longitudinal analysis
research question(s) d) It allows you to study patterns and social
b) Define the purpose and scope of the trends over time
review
c) Appraise the quality of studies from the Answer: A
previous step
d) Survey all of the literature contained 259. The large samples used in national
within a single library social surveys enable new researchers to:
a) Avoid using probability sampling
Answer: B b) Identify any bias in the question wording
c) Evaluate the inter-coder reliability of the
256. The term "secondary analysis" refers data
to the technique of: d) Conduct subgroup analysis
a) Conducting a study of seconds, minutes
and other measures of time Answer: D
b) Analysing your own data in two different
ways
260. Which of the following is not a
c) Analysing existing data that has been disadvantage of using secondary analysis?
collected by another person or organization
a) The researcher's lack of familiarity with
d) Working part time on a project alongside the data
other responsibilities
b) It is a relatively expensive and time
consuming process
Answer: C c) Hierarchical datasets can be very
confusing
257. Why might secondary analysis be a d) The researcher has no control over the
particularly useful method for students? quality of the data
a) It is relatively easy to do
b) It saves time and money Answer: B
c) It does not require any knowledge of
statistics 261- Hypothesis refers to
d) It only requires a half-hearted effort A. The outcome of an experiment
B. A conclusion drawn from an experiment
Answer: B C. A form of bias in which the subject tries
to outguess the experimenter
258. Which of the following is not an D. A tentative statement about the
advantage of secondary analysis? relationship
a) It immerses the researcher in the field
they are studying Answer: D

A. A research proposal is a document that
262- Statistics is used by researchers to presents a plan for a project
A. Analyze the empirical data collected in a B. A research proposal shows that the
study researcher is capable of successfully
B. Make their findings sound better conducting the proposed research project
C. Operationally define their variables C. A research proposal is an unorganized
D. Ensure the study comes out the way it and unplanned project
was intended D. A research proposal is just like a research
report and written before the research
project
Answer: A
Answer: C
263- A literature review requires
A. Planning
267- Preliminary data collection is a part of
B. Good & clear writing
the
C. Lot of rewriting
A. Descriptive research
D. All of the above
B. Exploratory research
C. Applied research
Answer: D
D. Explanatory research
264- A literature review is based on the

Answer: B
assumption that
A. Copy from the work of others
268- Conducting surveys is the most
B. Knowledge accumulates and learns from
common method of generating
the work of others
A. Primary data
C. Knowledge disaccumulates
B. Secondary data
D. None of the above option
C. Qualitative data
D. None of the above
Answer: B
Answer: A
265- A theoretical framework
A. Elaborates the r/s among the variables
269- After identifying the important
B. Explains the logic underlying these r/s
variables and establishing the logical
C. Describes the nature and direction of the
reasoning in
r/s
theoretical framework, the next step in the
D. All of the above
research process is
A. To conduct surveys
Answer: D
B. To generate the hypothesis
C. To focus group discussions
266- Which of the following statement is
D. To use experiments in an investigation
not true?
d. Survey design
Answer: B
Answer: B
270- The appropriate analytical technique is
determined by 274. Question that consists of two or more
A. The research design questions joined together is
B. Nature of the data collected called a:
C. Nature of the hypothesis a. Double barreled question
D. Both A & B b. General question
E. Personal interviews c. Accurate question
d. Confusing question
Answer: B
Answer: A
271. WATS lines provided by long distance
telephone service at fixed rates. 275. The number of questionnaires
In this regard, WATS is the abbreviation of: returned or completed divided by the total
a. West Africa Theological Seminary number of eligible people who were
b. Washtenaw Area Transportation Study contacted or asked to participate in the
c. Wide Area Telecommunications Service survey is called the:
d. World Air Transport Statistics a. Response rate
b. Participation rate
Answer: C c. Inflation rate
d. None of the given options
272. A list of questions which is handed
over to the respondent, who reads Answer: A
the questions and records the answers
himself is known as the: 276. To obtain the freest opinion of the
a. Interview schedule respondent, when we ask general
b. Questionnaire question before a specific question then
c. Interview guide this procedure is called as the:
d. All of the given options a. Research technique
b. Qualitative technique
Answer: B c. Funnel technique
d. Quantitative technique
273. One of the most critical stages in the
survey research process is: Answer: C
a. Research design
b. Questionnaire design 277. A small scale trial run of a particular
c. Interview design component is known as:
a. Pilot testing
b. Pre-testing c. Arithmetic mean, median, mode
c. Lab experiments d. Standard deviation, internal validity,
d. Both A & B mode
Answer: D Answer: A
278. Field testing of the questionnaire 282. In lab experiment the effect of
shows that: Variables is controlled to evaluate the
a. Respondents are willing to co-operate causal relationship.
b. Respondents are not willing to co- a. Extraneous
operate b. Moderate
c. Respondents do not like any participation c. Intervening
d. All of the given options d. All of the above
Answer: A Answer: B
279. Which of the following is the weakest 283. Internal validity refers to .
experimental design? a. Researcher’s degree of confidence.
a. One group pretest-posttest design b. Generalizability
b. Quasi- experimental design c. Operationalization
c. Two group posttest only design d. All of the above
d. Ex post facto design
Answer: D
Answer: A
284. The most powerful research tool is a
280. How many times the students appear (an)
in the research class is the example of a.clinical study.
_________. b.experiment.
a. Intensity c.survey.
b. Space d.correlational study.
c. Frequency
d. Direction ANSWER: B
Answer: D 285. A major disadvantage of the

experimental method is that
281. Which one of the following sets is the a.private funding can never be obtained.
measure of central tendency? b. APA Ethical Review Committees often do
a. Mean, standard deviation, mode not approve of the research techniques.
b. Mean, median, standard deviation c. there is a certain amount of artificiality
attached to it.
d. subjects are difficult to find for research ANSWER: C
projects.
289. Collection of observable evidence,
ANSWER: C precise definition, and replication of results
all form the basis for
286. A researcher determines that the a. scientific observation.
crime rate in a large city fluctuates with the b. the scientific method.
phases of the moon. He concludes that the c. defining a scientific problem.
gravitational pull of the moon influences d. hypothesis generation.
human behavior. He has committed what
error?
ANSWER: B
a.He incorrectly inferred correlation from
causation.
290. An advantage of the experimental
b.He incorrectly inferred causation from
method in psychology is
correlation.
a. the identification of a cause- and-effect
c.He failed to measure the gravitational pull
relationship.
to test his hypothesis.
b. similar to the correlational method in
d.He has overlooked the placebo effect.
that causality is determined.
c.that the surroundings are always similar
ANSWER: B to real life experiences.
d.that it is an informal way to investigate
287. Students who do better in high school behavior.
tend to do better in college. This is an
example of
ANSWER: D
a.a negative correlation.
b.a zero correlation.
291. Which of the following describes
c.a positive correlation. single-blind experiments?
d.a perfect correlation. (A) They are experiments in which the
subjects don’t know whether they are
ANSWER: C receiving a real or fake drug or treatment
(B) They help reduce placebo effects
288. In the traditional learning experiment, (C) They help reduce bias in research
the effect of practice on performance is (D) All of the above
investigated. Performance is the ANSWER: A
__________ variable.
a.independent
292. What does it mean if two variables
b.extraneous have a positive correlation?
c.dependent (A) As one variable increases, so does the
d.control other

(B) As one variable increases, the other ANSWER: B
decreases
(C) The correlation between the two 296. What is the difference between the
variables is 0 highest and lowest scores in a data
(D) The correlation between the two distribution called?
variables is greater than 1.0 (A) Mode
(B) Standard deviation
ANSWER: A (C) Range
(D) Median
293. In what type of study does a
researcher study an individual subject in ANSWER: C
depth?
(A) Naturalistic observation
297. The social desirability bias can affect
(B) Laboratory observation which of the following?
(C) Case study (A) The validity of a test
(D) Survey (B) The reliability of a test
(C) Self-report data
ANSWER: C (D) None of the above
294. How can we determine if a test has ANSWER: C

good validity?
(A) It produces the same result when it is
298. Which of the following is a research
given at different times to the same group
method that allows a researcher to get
of people
information about a large number of
(B) It produces the same result no matter
subjects relatively inexpensively and easily?
which version of the test is used
(A) Naturalistic observation
(C) It measures what it is supposed to
(B) Case study
measure
(C) Laboratory observation
(D) All of the questions on it can be
answered accurately by the subject (D) Survey
ANSWER: C ANSWER: D
295. What is the variable called that a 299. What is a common way of controlling
researcher manipulates in an experiment? extraneous variables in an experiment?
(A) Dependent variable (A) Random assignment
(B) Independent variable (B) Double-blind procedure
(C) Extraneous variable (C) Single-blind procedure
(D) None of the above (D) Using animal subjects

ANSWER: A ANSWER: B
300. When doing research involving 303. Which of the following is not a
deception with human subjects, researchers criterion for the statement of a good
have an obligation to do which of the research problem?
following? (A) Expression of relationship
(A) Tell subjects the truth about the study’s between/among variables.
purpose and methods after the study is (B) Clarity and unambiguousness.
completed (C) Possibility of empirical testing.
(B) Prevent mental and physical harm to (D) Possibility of use of statistical analysis.
subjects
(C) Let subjects withdraw from the study at ANSWER: D
any time if they don’t want to keep
participating
304. Which of the following variables is
(D) All of the above
continuous?
(A) Attitude towards school
ANSWER: D
(B) Family size in a locality
(C) Marital status of College students
301. Which of the following variances is not
(D) Religious affiliation of workers.
controlled or manipulated in a research
design?
(A) Variance of independent variable. ANSWER: A
(B) Variance of dependent variable.
305. Read the following statements about a
(C) Variance of extraneous variables.
laboratory experiment.
(D) Error variance.
I. It has relatively complete control of
extraneous variables.
ANSWER: B
II. Its results are applicable to real life
situations.
302. Assertion (A): Longer tests are more
reliable than shorter ones. Which of the following is correct?
Reason (R): Each item adds to test (A) Both I and II are correct.
reliability.
(B) I is incorrect, but II is correct.
Which of the following is correct?
(C) Neither of I and II is correct.
(D) I is correct, but II is incorrect.
Codes:
(A) Both (A) and (R) are correct.
ANSWER: D
(B) Only (A) is correct.
(C) Only (R) is correct.
306. Which of the following is not correctly
(D) None of the (A) and (R) is correct.
matched?
(A) Achievement Test – Content validity
(B) Aptitude Test – Predictive validity ANSWER: B
(C) Reasoning Test – Content validity
(D) Personality test – Concurrent validity 309. Which of the following is a measure of
location?
ANSWER: C (A) Mode
(B) Mean
307. Read the following two lists of items: (C) Percentile
List – I List – II (D) Standard Deviation
a. Historical Research 1. Current status
b. Action Research 2. Control of ANSWER: C
variables
c. Survey Research 3. Natural setting
d. Experimental Research 4. Local 310. An investigator wants to study the
problem vocational aspirations of visually challenged
5. Past oriented children in a wide geographical area. He
should select his sample by using
Which of the following matching is correct? (A) Sample Random sampling
a b c d (B) Stratified sampling
(A) 3 4 1 2 (C) Purposive sampling
(B) 5 4 1 2 (D) Convenient sampling
(C) 4 3 2 5
(D) 1 2 3 4 ANSWER: C
ANSWER: B 311. A study in which direct perception of

an incident or object made is
308. In the context of a Survey Research, (A) Naturalistic research
the following steps are taken in a certain (B) Practitioner research
order: (C) Phenomenological research
1. Sampling (D) Descriptive research
2. Inference
3. Data analysis ANSWER: C
4. Data collection
312. A simple correlation was calculated
Which of the following is the right order of between two variables after removing the
these steps? effect of a third variable from both, the
(A) 2, 3, 1, 4 resulting correlation is called
(B) 1, 4, 3, 2 (A) Partial correlation
(C) 3, 2, 4, 1 (B) Part correlation
(D) 4, 1, 2, 3 (C) Multiple correlation
(D) Canonical correlation
(A) Searching sources of information
ANSWER: A (B) Survey of related literature
(C) Identification of a broad area of
313. Reorganise the following steps of research
descriptive research in a correct sequence: (D) Searching for solutions to problem
(a) Collection and processing of data
(b) Interpretation of results ANSWER: C
(c) Identification of a problem
(d) Drawing conclusions 317. A researcher commits Type I Error
(e) Drafting of the report when he
(f) Formulation of hypothesis (A) accepts Null hypothesis when it is false.
(B) rejects Null hypothesis when it is false.
Codes: (C) accepts Null hypothesis when it is true.
(A) f c a b d e (D) rejects the Null Hypothesis when it is
(B) f c a e b d true.
(C) c f a e b d
(D) c f a b d e ANSWER: D
ANSWER: D 318. The major objective of a qualitative

research study is to
314. The consistency of evaluation-results is (A) understand a process or concept
measured by (B) study group-differences
(A) Objectivity (C) predict relationships
(B) Reliability (D) explain variation in measurements
(C) Predictability
(D) Usability ANSWER: A
ANSWER: B 319. The ‘standard error of a statistic’ is a

measure of
315. Stratified sampling is adopted when (A) Sampling Fluctuation
(A) the universe is homogeneous (B) Errors of Measurement
(B) the universe is heterogeneous (C) Errors of Prediction
(C) selected groups need to be studied (D) Systematic Variation
(D) data about the universe is not available
ANSWER: A
ANSWER: B
320. Which of the following gives a more
316. Which of the following is the first step accurate measure of relationship than the
in starting the research process? other three?
(A) Spearman’s Rho
(B) Biserial Correlation (A) Gravity of the population
(C) Kendall’s Tau (B) Geographical area of the study
(D) Product-moment Method (C) Homogeneity and heterogeneity of the
population
ANSWER: D (D) Type of population
321. A Ph. D scholar conducted a study with ANSWER: C

a view to address the language problems of
tribal children at elementary level. This 325. Which of the following is the incorrect
study can be categorised as pair?
(A) Action Research (A) Rank correlation –
(B) Applied Research Spearman
(C) Basic Research (B) Product moment correlation –
(D) None of the above Pearson
(C) Split-half correlation – Kuder
ANSWER: B Richardson
(D) Contingency correlation –
322. A study on the topic “perception of Cramer
tribal people about formal education”
comes under the type
(A) Ethnographic ANSWER: D
(B) Historical
(C) Experimental 326. When a non-directional hypothesis is
(D) Expost facto stated, the test of significance would be
(A) One tailed
ANSWER: A (B) Two tailed
(C) Both (A) and (B)
323. Errors in the findings of an (D) None of the above
experimental study caused by deliberate
selection of some bright students for ANSWER: B
experimental group is known as
(A) Random sampling error 327. The critical difference between
(B) Systematic sampling error naturalism and pragmatism is in the
(C) Random measurement error importance accorded to
(D) Systematic measurement error (A) aims
(B) methods
ANSWER: B (C) social context
(D) evaluation
324. The size of sample for a study mostly
depends on ANSWER: A
(C) Controlling extraneous variables
328. The coefficient of correlation lies from (D) Observation of dependent variable
(A) +1 to –1
(B) 0 to –1 ANSWER: B
(C) –1 to 0
(D) +1 to 0 332. An operational definition of a
construct is the one which defines it in
ANSWER: A terms of
(A) Other constructs
329. Which of the following statements is (B) Implied behaviour pattern
true for the relationship between reliability (C) Activities necessary to measure it
and validity of a research tool ? (D) Other equivalent words in the dictionary
(A) A reliable test is always valid.
(B) A valid test must be reliable. ANSWER: C
(C) A valid test may not be reliable.
(D) A reliable test is never valid. 333. Which of the following is not a
characteristic feature of research process ?
ANSWER: B (A) Empirical approach
(B) Systematic endeavour
330. Reorganize the following steps of (C) Uncontrolled conditions
Descriptive Research in a correct sequence: (D) Critical analysis
1. Collection and processing of data
2. Interpretation of results ANSWER: C
3. Identification of a problem
4. Arranging of generalizations 334. Read the following statements about
5. Drafting of the report field studies:
6. Formulation of the hypothesis I. A field study is conducted in a real life
(A) 6, 3, 1, 2, 4, 5 setting.
(B) 6, 3, 1, 5, 2, 4 II. It effectively uses scientific method.
(C) 3, 6, 1, 5, 2, 4
(D) 3, 6, 1, 2, 4, 5 Which of the following is true ?
(A) I is correct, but II is not.
ANSWER: D (B) II is correct, but (I) is not.
(C) Both I and II are true.
331. Which of the following is not common (D) None of the two is true.
to experimental and Ex-post Facto designs
of research ? ANSWER: C
(A) Cause and Effect relationship
(B) Manipulation of independent variable 335. Read the following:

I. Correlation coefficient may be negative as 339. The difference between a statistical
well as positive. average based on the entire population and
II. Reliability of a test can be negative. the one based on a sample is known as
(A) Standard Error
Which of the following is correct ? (B) Mean Difference
(A) I is wrong, but II is correct. (C) Sampling Error
(B) Both I and II are correct. (D) Mean Deviation
(C) I is correct, but II is wrong.
(D) Both I and II are wrong. ANSWER: C
ANSWER: A 340. The standard deviation of sampling

distribution of a statistic is known as
336. Which of the following is not correctly (A) Sampling Variance
matched ? (B) Standard Error
(A) Test-Retest : Stability (C) Sampling Error
(B) Split-Half : Internal consistency (D) Standard Variance
(C) KR-20 : Stability
(D) Parallel Form : Equivalence ANSWER: B
ANSWER: C 341. Which one of the following tests can

be used to examine the differences in
337. Which of the following is NOT a Mathematics achievement of boys and
measure of dispersion ? girls?
(A) Range (A) Correlational Test
(B) Mode (B) ‘t’ Test
(C) Mean Deviation (C) Chi-square Test
(D) Standard Deviation (D) Anova
ANSWER: B ANSWER: B
338. The variance reflecting a systematic 342. Match the Measurement Scales in List
difference between groups of measures is – I which can be used with appropriate
termed as Statistics in List – II:
(A) Total Variance
List – I List – II
(B) Error Variance
a. Nominal Scales i. Geometric Mean
(C) Experimental Variance
b. Ordinal Scales ii. Frequency
(D) Within Groups Variance
Distribution
c. Interval Scales iii. Median & Rank
ANSWER: C
Correlation

d. Ratio Scales iv. Mean, SD &
Correlations ANSWER: B
Codes:
a b c d 346. Pre-test-post-test randomized
(A) iv iii ii i matching control group design is an
(B) i iii ii iv example of
(C) ii iii iv i (A) True experimental design
(D) i iv iii ii (B) Pre- experimental design
(C) Quasi-experimental design
ANSWER: C (D) Post-facto experimental design
343. There is a significant positive ANSWER: A

correlation between variables X and Y. This
means that: 347. Which of the following is not assessed
(A) X causes variation in Y. by using essay type questions?
(B) Y causes variation in X. (A) Thinking skills
(C) X and Y vary together in opposite (B) Knowledge of wide content area
directions. (C) Supplying suitable arguments
(D) X and Y vary together in the same (D) Detailed description of an event
direction.
ANSWER: B
ANSWER: D
348. Which one of the following is the
344. Which of the following terms is related stable measure of dispersion?
to the idea of validity of a test? (A) Range
(A) Errors of measurement (B) Quartile Deviation
(B) True score variance (C) Average Deviation
(C) Common factor variance (D) Standard Deviation
(D) Random errors
ANSWER: D
ANSWER: C
349. The method of drawing conclusions
345. One of the appropriate statistics that based on the observation of each and every
can be used for Solomon four experimental instance of a population is called
designs is (A) Scientific Method
(A) Correlational Analysis (B) Deductive Method
(B) One-way ANOVA (C) Inductive Method
(C) Chi-square (D) Dialectic Method
(D) Median Test
ANSWER: C 354. Which of the following types of studies
results in findings which could not be
350. Positivistic research approach was generalized to other situations?
advocated by (A) Descriptive
(A) Francis Bacon (B) Historical
(B) Stanley & Compbell (C) Experimental
(C) Auguste Comte (D) Causal Comparative
(D) Babbit
ANSWER: B
ANSWER: C
355. Which of the following terms is
351. The control of extraneous variables in Brelevant to a qualitative study?
experimental research after the treatment (A) Comparison
is given can be done through a technique (B) Prediction
called (C) Correlation
(A) Statistical Regression (D) Exploration
(B) Post-Test
(C) One-way ANOVA ANSWER: D
(D) Analysis of Co-variance
356. Which of the following is a
ANSWER: D characteristic feature only of experimental
352. Which of the following is incorrect studies?
pairing? (A) Control of extraneous variables.
(A) Product moment coefficient of (B) Study of cause and effect relationship.
correlation - r (C) Observing variation in the dependent
(B) Chi Square - χ2 variable.
(C) Multiple correlation - R (D) Manipulation of treatment variable.
(D) Standard deviation - ρ
ANSWER: D
ANSWER: D
357. Equating through matched pairs is the
353. A survey of population is equivalent to method used in
(A) Census Survey (A) Survey Research
(B) Sample Survey (B) Experimental Research
(C) Group Survey (C) Sociological Research
(D) None of the above (D) Trend Research
ANSWER: A ANSWER: B

358. When a researcher checks the 362. When the findings of an experimental
genuineness and authenticity of the source research are generalized to target
material, it is known as population, the research is said to possess
(A) External validity (A) Internal validity
(B) External criticism (B) Concurrent validity
(C) Concurrent validity (C) External validity
(D) Internal consistency (D) Predictive validity
ANSWER: B Answer: C
359. An investigator studied the census 363. The status-quo of a situation in

data for a given area and prepared a write research can be studied through:
up based on them. Such a write-up is called (A) Experimental research
(A) Research Paper (B) Survey research
(B) Article (C) Historical research
(C) Thesis (D) Phenomenological research
(D) Research Report
Answer: B
ANSWER: B
364. Which of the following is incorrect as a
360. An intensive investigation of a slow measure of dispersion?
learner undertaken in a research project by (A) Quartile Deviation
a teacher can be termed as (B) Range
(A) Action Research (C) Standard Deviation
(B) Survey (D) Sampling Error
(C) Case study
(D) Ethnography Answer: D
ANSWER: C 365. Which one of the following variables is

controlled in experimental research?
361. Which of the following statements is (A) Independent variables
true for reliability and validity of a (B) Moderate variables
measuring instrument? (C) Dependent variables
(A) Reliable test is also valid. (D) Extraneous variables
(B) Validity does not ensure reliability.
(C) Validity and reliability are not related. Answer: D
(D) Valid test must be reliable.
Answer: D 366. One of the tools that can be used for
in-depth data collection is
(A) Test
(B) Interview 370. Rearrange in proper order, the
(C) Rating Scale following activities related to test
(D) Observation standardization:
(a) Preparation of test items
Answer: B (b) Planning the test
(c) Assessment of reliability and validity
367. Deductive reasoning helps in (d) Tryout of the test
(A) Sample Selection
(B) Hypothesis Generation Codes:
(A) (b), (a), (d), (c)
(C) Problem Identification
(B) (c), (d), (a), (b)
(D) None of the above
(C) (d), (a), (b), (c)
(D) (a), (d), (c), (b)
Answer: B
Answer: A
368. Which of the following factors does
not affect internal validity of an
experimental design? 371. The type of grading that asserts fixed
(A) Statistical regression proportion of learners at different grade
points is known as
(B) Maturation of subjects
(A) Direct grading
(C) Pre-testing
(B) Indirect grading
(D) Noise during experiment
(C) Relative grading
(D) Absolute grading
Answer: D
Answer: C
369. A researcher compared the mean IQ
scores of randomly selected government
and private school students and arrived at 372. _______ refers to inferring about the
conclusion that private school curriculum whole population based on the
has significant positive effect on intelligence observations made on a small part.
of students as compared to that of the
government school. This study can be (A) Deductive inference
categorized as (B) Inductive inference
(A) Experimental (C) Pseudo-inference
(D) Objective inference
(B) Ex-post facto
(C) Historical
Answer: B
(D) Case study
373. Sampling is advantageous as it

Answer: B
(A) Helps in capital-saving
(B) Saves time
(C) Increases accuracy
(D) Both (a) and (b) (D) Systematic sampling
Answer: D Answer: D
374. Random sampling is helpful as it is 378. Research and Development become

the index of development of country. Which
(A) An economical method of data of the following reasons are true with
collection regards to this statement?
(B) Free from personal biases (A) Because R&D reflect the true economic
(C) Reasonably accurate and social conditions prevailing in a country
(D) All the above (B) Because R&D targets the human
development
Answer: D (C) Because R&D can improve the standard
of living of the people in a country
375. Tippit table refers to (D) All the above
(A) Table of random digits Answer: D

(B) Table used in sampling methods
(C) Table used in statistical investigations 379. The data of research is
(D) All the above (A) Qualitative only
(B) Quantitative only
Answer: D (C) Both (a) and (b)
(D) Neither (a) nor (b)
376. Type-I Error occurs if
Answer: C
(A) the null hypothesis is rejected even
though it is true 380.The longitudinal approach of research
(B) the null hypothesis is accepted even deals with _________.
though it is false
(C) both the null hypothesis as well as (A) Horizontal researches
alternative hypothesis are rejected (B) Long-term researches
(D) None of the above (C) Short-term researches
(D) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: B
377._________ is a preferred sampling
method for the population with finite size. 381. Phenomenological Research is a
(A) Qualitative Research
(A) Area sampling (B) Quantitative Research
(B) Cluster sampling (C) Trend Research
(C) Purposive sampling
(D) Descriptive Research

Answer: A 386. ‘Internal criticism’ is a required step in

(A) Experimental Research
382. Which one of the following is not a (B) Historical Research
type of Descriptive Research method? (C) Descriptive Research
(A) Correlational (D) Philosophical Research
(B) Causal Comparative
(C) Survey Answer: B
(D) Developmental study
387. Which sampling technique will be most
Answer: D appropriate to draw a representative
sample of heterogeneous population?
383. The process of assigning numerals to (A) Stratified Random
objects according to some rules is termed (B) Quota
as (C) Purposive
(A) Observation (D) Incidental
(B) Measurement
(C) Analysis Answer: A
(D) Statistics
388. Chi-square test is an example of
Answer: B (A) Parametric test
(B) Non-Parametric test
384. While conducting experimental (C) Descriptive test
research a researcher should control the (D) Survey test
(A) Independent variables
(B) Dependent variables Answer: B
(C) No variables
(D) Extraneous variables 389. A highly reliable test is required for the
purpose of
Answer: D (A) Using teacher made test
(B) Testing for research purpose
385. ‘Subject Mortality’ leads to internal (C) Dividing students into ability groups
invalidity of (D) Providing guidance services
(A) Historical Research
(B) Experimental Research Answer: C
(C) Descriptive Research
(D) Philosophical Research 390. Deductive Reasoning helps in
(A) Research Reporting
Answer: B (B) Formulation of Hypothesis

(C) Data Analysis (C) Content Analysis
(D) Tools Preparation (D) Inductive Analysis
Answer: B Answer: B
391. Which is the highest level of concept 395. Internal criticism is done
formation? (A) To verify the accuracy of the source.
(A) Formal level (B) To verify the authenticity of the source.
(B) Sensory level (C) Both of these
(C) Concrete level (D) None of these
(D) None of these
Answer: A
Answer: A 396. Research means

(A) Searching again and again
392. Which of the following does not (B) Finding solution to any problem
belong to the category of non probability (C) Scientific approach to new truth
sample? (D) Conducting experiment
(A) Quota sample Answer: C

(B) Multi-stage sample
(C) Purposive sample 397. Which of the following is the first step
(D) Incidental sample in the research process?
(A) Searching sources of information.
Answer: B (B) Survey of related literature.
(C) Identification of a broad area of
393. The research proposals sent to research.
research institutes for financial assistance (D) Searching for solution to problem.
must have
(A) The whole plan and procedure Answer: C
(B) Budget requirements and time schedule
(C) Definite objectives of research 398. If a researcher conduct a research on
(D) None of the above finding out which administrative style
contributes more to institutional
Answer: B effectiveness, this will be an example of
(A) Ex post facto research
394. Which of the following is not an (B) Action research
approach of analysis of qualitative data? (C) Applied research
(A) Logical Analysis (D) Fundamental research
(B) Criterion Analysis
402. A researcher is interested in studying
Answer: C the prospects of a particular political party
in an urban area. What tool should he
399. A researcher is generally expected to prefer for the study?
(A) Study the existing literature in a field. (1) Rating scale
(B) Generate new principles and theories. (2) Interview
(C) Synthesize the ideas given by others. (3) Questionnaire
(D) Evaluate the findings of a study. (4) Schedule
Answer: B Answer: 3
400. The process of educational research 403. Ethical norms in research do not
involves the following steps: involve guidelines for:
(1) Collection of data (1) Thesis format
(2) Statement of objectives (2) Copyright
(3) Selecting the problem (3) Patenting policy
(4) Method/Procedure (4) Data sharing policies
(5) Analysis and Interpretation of data
(6) Reporting the results Answer: 1
Which of the following sequence is correct?
(A) 3, 2, 4, 1, 5, 6 404. A researcher intends to explore the
effect of possible factors for the
(B) 1, 3, 2, 5, 6, 4
organization of effective mid-day meal
(C) 3, 2, 4, 1, 6, 5 interventions. Which research method will
(D) 3, 2, 5, 1, 6, 4 be most appropriate for this study?
(1) Historical method
Answer: A (2) Descriptive survey method
(3) Experimental method
401. Which of the following statements is (4) Ex-post-facto method
not true in the context of participatory
research?
Answer: 4
(1) It recognizes knowledge as power.
(2) It emphasises on people as experts.
405. Which of the following is an initial
(3) It is a collective process of enquiry.
mandatory requirement for pursuing
(4) Its sole purpose is production of research?
knowledge.
(1) Developing a research design
(2) Formulating a research question
Answer: 4
(3) Deciding about the data analysis
procedure
(4) Formulating a research hypothesis

(vi) Both policy making and policy
Answer: 2 implementing processes are regulated in
terms of preliminary studies.
406. The format of thesis writing is the Codes:
same as in (1) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(1) preparation of a research paper/article (2) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(2) writing of seminar presentation (3) (ii), (iv) and (vi)
(3) a research dissertation (4) (i), (iii) and (v)
(4) presenting a workshop / conference
paper Answer: 3
Answer: 3 409. In a research on the effect of child-

rearing practices on stress-proneness of
407. In qualitative research paradigm, children in completing school projects, the
which of the following features may be hypothesis formulated is that ‘child rearing
considered critical? practices do influence stress-proneness’. At
(1) Data collection with standardised the data-analysis stage a null hypothesis is
research tools. advanced to find out the tenability of
research hypothesis. On the basis of the
(2) Sampling design with probability sample
evidence available, the null hypothesis is
techniques.
rejected at 0.01 level of significance. What
(3) Data collection with bottom-up decision may be warranted in respect of the
empirical evidences.
research hypothesis?
(4) Data gathering to take place with top-
(1) The research hypothesis will also be
down systematic evidences.
rejected.
(2) The research hypothesis will be
Answer: 3 accepted.
(3) Both the research hypothesis and the
408. From the following list of statements null hypothesis will be rejected.
identify the set which has negative (4) No decision can be taken in respect of
implications for ‘research ethics’: the research hypothesis.
(i) A researcher critically looks at the
findings of another research.
Answer: 2
(ii) Related studies are cited without proper
references.
410. The principal of a school conducts an
(iii) Research findings are made the basis for
interview session of teachers and students
policy making. with a view to explore the possibility of
(iv) Conduct of practitioner is screened in their enhanced participation in school
terms of reported research evidences. programmes. This endeavour may be
(v) A research study is replicated with a related to which type of research?
view to verify the evidences from other (1) Evaluation Research
researches.
(2) Fundamental Research Methods) Collection Tools)
(3) Action Research
a. i. Using primary
(4) Applied Research
Experimental and secondary
method sources
Answer: 3
b. Ex post- ii. Questionnaire
facto method iii. Standardized
411. In doing action research what is the c. Descriptive tests
usual sequence of steps? survey iv. Typical
(1) Reflect, observe, plan, act method characteristic tests
(2) Plan, act, observe, reflect d. Historical
(3) Plan, reflect, observe, act method
(4) Act, observe, plan, reflect
Codes:
a b c d
Answer: 2
(1) ii i iii iv
(2) iii iv ii i
412. Which sequence of research steps is
logical in the list given below? (3) ii iii i iv
(1) Problem formulation, Analysis, (4) ii iv iii i
Development of Research design,
Hypothesis making, Collection of data, Answer: 2
Arriving at generalizations and conclusions.
(2) Development of Research design, 414. The issue of ‘research ethics’ may be
Hypothesis making, Problem formulation, considered pertinent at which stage of
Data analysis, Arriving at conclusions and research?
data collection. (1) At the stage of problem formulation and
(3) Problem formulation, Hypothesis its definition
making, Development of a Research design, (2) At the stage of defining the population
Collection of data, Data analysis and of research
formulation of generalizations and (3) At the stage of data collection and
conclusions. interpretation
(4) Problem formulation, Deciding about (4) At the stage of reporting the findings.
the sample and data collection tools,
Formulation of hypothesis, Collection and
Answer: 3
interpretation of research evidence.
415. In which of the following, reporting

413. Below are given two sets – research
format is formally prescribed?
methods (Set-I) and data collection tools
(Set-II). (1) Doctoral level thesis
Match the two sets and indicate your (2) Conference of researchers
answer by selecting the correct code: (3) Workshops and seminars
Set – I (Research Set – II (Data (4) Symposia

(4) Reporting of research findings
Answer: 1
Answer: 4
416. Which of the following research types
focuses on ameliorating the prevailing 420. There are two sets given below. Set - I
situations? specifies the types of research, while Set - II
(1) Fundamental Research indicates their characteristics. Match the
(2) Applied Research two and give your answer by selecting the
(3) Action Research appropriate code.
(4) Experimental Research Set - I Set - II
(Research (Characteristics)
Answer: 3 types)
(a)Fundamental (i) Finding out the
417. A researcher attempts to evaluate the research extent of
effect of method of feeding on anxiety - (b) Applied perceived impact
proneness of children. Which method of research of an intervention
research would be appropriate for this? (c) Action (ii) Developing an
(1) Case study method research effective
(d) Evaluative explanation
(2) Experimental method
research through theory
(3) Ex-post-facto method
building
(4) Survey method
(iii) Improving an
existing situation
Answer: 3 through use of
interventions
418. In which of the following arrangements (iv) Exploring the
a wider spectrum of ideas and issues may possibility of a
be made possible? theory for use in
(1) Research Article various situations
(2) Workshop mode (v) Enriching
(3) Conference technological
(4) Symposium resources
Code:
Answer: 3 (a) (b) (c) (d)
(1) (ii) (iv) (iii) (i)
419. Which of the following is susceptible to (2) (v) (iv) (iii) (ii)
the issue of research ethics? (3) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(1) Inaccurate application of statistical (4) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
techniques
(2) Faulty research design Answer: 1
(3) Choice of sampling techniques
421. Which of the sets of activities best (4) Evidence based research reporting
indicate the cyclic nature of action research
strategy? Answer: 4
(1) Reflect, Observe, Plan, Act
(2) Observe, Act, Reflect, Plan 424. In which of the following activities,
(3) Act, Plan, Observe, Reflect potential for nurturing creative and critical
(4) Plan, Act, Observe, Reflect thinking is relatively greater?
(1) Preparing research summary
Answer: 4 (2) Presenting a seminar paper
(3) Participation in research conference
422. Which of the following sequences of (4) Participation in a workshop
research steps is nearer to scientific
method? Answer: 4
(1) Suggested solution of the problem, 425. Prime Minister Research Fellowship is
Deducing the consequences of the solution, for students pursuing Ph.D programme in:
Perceiving the problem situation, Location (1) State and Central Universities
of the difficulty and testing the solutions.
(2) Central Universities, IISc, IITs, NITs,
(2) Perceiving the problem situation, IISERs and IIITs
Locating the actual problem and its
(3) IISc, IITs, NITs, IISERs, IIITs, State and
definition, Hypothesizing, Deducing the
Central Universities
consequences of the suggested solution and
(4) IITs and IISc
Testing the hypothesis in action.
(3) Defining a problem, Identifying the
causes of the problem, Defining a Answer: 4
population, Drawing a sample, Collecting
data and Analysing results. 426: Who said that members of the same
(4) Identifying the causal factors, Defining species are not alike ?
the problem, Developing a hypothesis, A. Darwin
Selecting a sample, Collecting data and B. Herbert Spencer
arriving at generalizations and Conclusions. C. Best
D. Good
Answer: 3 Option: A
423. The problem of ‘research ethics’ is 427: A researcher divides the populations
concerned with which aspect of research into PG, graduates and 10 + 2 students and
activities? using the random digit table he selects
(1) Following the prescribed format of a some of them from each. This is technically
thesis called
(2) Data analysis through qualitative or A. stratified sampling
quantitative techniques B. stratified random sampling
(3) Defining the population of research C. representative sampling

D. none of these
Option: B
428: A researcher divides his population

into certain groups and fixes the size of the
sample from each group. It is called
A. stratified sample
B. quota sample
C. cluster sample
D. all of the above
Option: B
429: Field study is related to

A. real life situations
B. experimental situations
C. laboratory situations
D. none of the above
Option: A
430: Attributes of objects, events or things

which can be measured are called
A. qualitative measure
B. data
C. variables
D. none of the above
Option: C

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UNIT-II RESEARCH APTITUDE

As Per Updated Syllabus

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Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.

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APPLICATION OF ICT IN RESEARCH

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Application of ICT in Research

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11- Personal interviews conducted in 15-Question that consists of two or more

12-WATS lines provided by long distance 16-The number of questionnaires returned

13-A list of questions which is handed over Answer: A

Answer: A 25-The theoretical framework discusses the

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27-Personal interviews conducted in 31- Rationalism is the application of which

Answer: C 33- Which of the following refers to

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34-Research method is applicable in all of 38- Exploratory research addresses which of

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