ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS

HARPER'S MATHEMATICS SERIES

Charles A. Hutchinson, Editor
ELEMENTS
OF
CALCULUS
SECOND EDITION
Th u rman S. Peterson, Ph.D.
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS

PORTLAND STATE COLLEGE

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS NEW YORK

 ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS, Second Edition
Copyright 1950 by Harper & Brothers
Copyright © 1960 by Thurman S. Peterson
Printed in the United States of America
All rights in this book are reserved.
No parts of the book may be used or reproduced
in any manner whatsoever without written per-
mission except in the case of brief quotations
embodied in critical articles and reviews. For
information address Harper & Brothers,
49 East 33rd Street, New York 16, N.Y.

Library of Congress catalog card number: 59-13918

 Contents

Preface xi
Introduction
Reference formulas and curves

I Variables, Functions, and Limits 13

1. Introduction. 2. Rate of Change. 3. The Concept of Area.

4. Constants and Variables. 5. Functions. 6. Limit of a
Function. 7. Continuity. 8. Infinity. 9. Limit of a Sequence.

2 Differentiation and Applications 33

10. Increments. 11. Derivative. 12. Derivatives of Powers
of x. 13. Slope of a Curve. 14. Velocity and Acceleration.
15. Maxima and Minima; Critical Points. 16. Higher Deriva-
tives. 17. Points of Inflection; Concavity. 18. Applications
of Maxima and Minima. 19. Differentials. 20. Approxima-
tions and Errors.

3 Integration of Powers 63
21. Antidifferentiation. 22. Integration of Powers. 23. Con-
stant of Integration. 24. Differential of Area. 25. Area as an
Integral. 26. Calculation of Areas. 27. Area as a Limit.
28. Definite Integrals. 29. Fundamental Theorem. 30. Plane
Areas in Rectangular Coordinates. 31. Volumes of Solids of
Revolution.

4 Applications of Integration 87
32. Moment of Mass; Centroids. 33. Centroid of a Plane Area.
34. Centroid of a Solid of Revolution. 35. Moment of Inertia;
Radius of Gyration. 36. Moment of Inertia of an Area.
37. Moment of Inertia of a Solid of Revolution. 38. Fluid
Pressure. 39. Work.

5 Differentiation of Algebraic Functions 108

40. Introduction. 41. Formulas for Differentiation. 42. For-
mulas for Differentiation (Continued). 43. Differentiation of
Implicit Functions. 44. Summary of Formulas.
V
vi Contents
6 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions 121
45. Transcendental Functions. 46. Properties of Trigono-
metric Functions. 47. Limit of sin 0/0. 48. Derivatives of
Trigonometric Functions. 49. Properties of Inverse Trigono-
metric Functions. 50. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric
Functions. 51. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions.
52. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions. 53. Derivatives of
Exponential Functions. 54. Summary and Applications.

7 Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots 146

55. Parametric Representations. 56. Derivatives in Parametric
Form. 57. Differential of Arc Length. 58. Curvature.
59. Circle of Curvature. 60. Center of Curvature. 61. Evo-
lutes. 62. Newton's Method.

8 Differentiation with Respect to Time 160

63. Time-Rates. 64. Curvilinear Motion. 65. Tangential and
Normal Components of Acceleration. 66. Angular Velocity
and Acceleration.

9 Polar Coordinates 173

67. Polar Coordinates. 68. Locus of a Polar Equation.
69. Intersection of Polar Curves. 70. Angle Between the
Radius Vector and Tangent. 71. Differential of Arc.
72. Curvature. 73. Radial and Transverse Components of
Velocity and Acceleration.

10 Indeterminate Forms 185

74. Limits. 75. Rolle's Theorem. 76. Law of the Mean.
77. Cauchy's Theorem. 78. The Indeterminate Form 0/0.
79. The Indeterminate Form oc/oo. 80. The Indeterminate
Form 0 oo. 81. The Indeterminate Form co - oo. 82. The
Indeterminate Forms 0°, oo°, 1°°.

I I Curve Tracing 196

83. Graphs of Curves in Rectangular Coordinates. 84. Ob-
lique Asymptotes Determined by Inspection. 85. Asymptotes
to an Algebraic Curve. 86. Singular Points of Algebraic
Curves. 87. Summary of Curve Tracing.

12 Integration Formulas 207

88. Introduction. 89. Formulas of Integration. 90. Integra-
tion of Powers. 91. Integration of Exponential Functions.
 Contents vii
92. Integration of Trigonometric Functions. 93. Transforma-
tions of Trigonometric Integrals. 94. Integrals Giving Inverse
Trigonometric Functions. 95. Additional Formulas of Inte-
gration. 96. Improper Integrals.
13 Integration Procedures 227
97. Introduction. 98. Integration by Parts. 99. Algebraic
Substitutions. 100. Trigonometric Substitutions. 101. Inte-
gration of Rational Fractions. 102. Miscellaneous Substitu-
tions. 103. Use of Integration Tables. 104. Approximate
Integration; Trapezoidal Rule. 105. Simpson's Rule.
14 Additional Applications of Integration 259
106. Area in Polar Coordinates. 107. Length of a Plane
Curve. 108. Centroid and Moment of Inertia of Arc.
109. Area of a Surface of Revolution. 110. Volumes of Solids
with Known Cross Sections. 111. Average Value.
15 Infinite Series 276
112. Sequences and Series. 113. Convergent and Divergent
Series. 114. Theorems on Convergence. 115. The Integral
Test. 116. Comparison Tests. 117. Ratio Test. 118. Alter-
nating Series. 119. Absolute and Conditional Convergence.
120. Power Series.

16 Expansion of Functions 295

121. Introduction. 122. Maclaurin's Series. 123. Algebraic
Operations with Power Series. 124. Differentiation and Inte-
gration of Power Series. 125. Approximation Formulas
Derived from Power Series. 126. Taylor's Series. 127. Tay-
lor's Theorem.

17 Hyperbolic Functions 313

128. Definitions of the Hyperbolic Functions. 129. Identities
Involving Hyperbolic Functions. 130. Derivatives and Inte-
grals of Hyperbolic Functions. 131. The Inverse Hyperbolic
Functions. 132. Derivatives of the Inverse Hyperbolic Func-
tions. 133. Integrals Leading to Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.
134. Relations Between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Func-
tions. 135. Geometric Interpretation of Hyperbolic Functions.

18 Solid Analytic Geometry 325

136. Rectangular Coordinates. 137. Distance Between Two
Points. 138. Point on the Line Joining Two Points.
viii Contents

139. Direction of a Line. 140. Angle Between Two Lines.

141. Locus of a Point in Space. 142. Equation of a Plane.
143. Normal Equation of a Plane. 144. Planes Determined by
Three Conditions. 145. Equations of a Line. 146. Symmetric
Equations of a Line. 147. Equation of a Surface. 148. Quad-
ric Surfaces.

19 Partial Differentiation 353

149. Functions of Two or More Variables ; Continuity.
150. Partial Derivatives. 151. Geometric Interpretation of
Partial Derivatives. 152. Partial Derivatives of Higher Order.
153. Increment and Total Differential of a Function.
154. Approximations and Errors. 155. Total Derivatives.
156. Chain Rule for Partial Derivatives. 157. Differentiation
of Implicit Functions. 158. Tangent Line and Normal Plane
to a Curve. 159. Normal Line and Tangent Plane to a Surface.
160. Maxima and Minima. 161. Differentiation of a Definite
Integral. 162. Taylor's Series for Functions of Two Variables.
163. Sufficient Condition for a Maximum or Minimum.

20 Multiple Integrals 387

164. Double Integrals. 165. Iterated Integrals. 166. Iterated
Integrals in Rectangular Coordinates. 167. Plane Areas by
Double Integration. 168. Centroid and Moment of Inertia of
a Plane Area. 169. Iterated Integrals in Polar Coordinates.
170. Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates. 171. Volumes by
Double Integration. 172. Volumes in Cylindrical Coordinates.
173. Areas of Curved Surfaces. 174. Triple Integrals.
175. Iterated Integrals. 176. Iterated Triple Integrals in
Rectangular Coordinates. 177. Volumes by Triple Integra-
tion. 178. Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia of a
Solid. 179. Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates.
180. Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates.

21 Differential Equations 425

181. Definitions. 182. Solutions of Differential Equations.
183. Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree.
184. Exact Differential Equations. 185. Linear Equations
of the First Order. 186. Equations Reducible to Linear
Equations. 187. Second Order Equations Reducible to First
Order. 188. Applications of First Order Differential Equa-
tions. 189. Linear Differential Equations of Order it.
 Contents ix

190. Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients.

191. Non-homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients.
192. Applications of Linear Differential Equations.

22 Vector Analysis 459

193. Introduction. 194. Addition of Vectors. 195. Scalar
Multiplication of Vectors. 196. Vector Multiplication of
Vectors. 197. Scalar Triple Product. 198. Vector Triple
Product. 199. Derivative of a Vector. 200. The Gradient.
201. The Divergence. 202. The Curl or Rotation. 203. Sum-
mary of Vector Differentiation. 204. Line Integrals.
205. Surface Integrals. 206. Divergence Theorem.
207. Stokes's Theorem. 208. Summary of Integration.

Table of Integrals 495

Numerical Tables 503

I. Powers, Roots, Reciprocals. II. Natural Logarithms.
III. Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions. IV. Trigono-
metric Functions. V. Common Logarithms.

Index 13
 Preface

This text is designed to serve as an introductory course in calculus

for students who have some familiarity with the basic principles of
algebra, trigonometry, and plane analytic geometry. The book pro-
vides sufficient material for classes that meet each day for one academic
year. The arrangement of the topics, however, facilitates the organiza-
tion of shorter courses.
Purpose. The basic theory of calculus is developed in this book
with a view to giving the student both a sound understanding of the
fundamental concepts of calculus and a thorough appreciation of its
many applied uses. Considerable stress has been placed on the logical
structure of the theory in order that students might gain some active
experience in making original mathematical developments. To serve
this purpose all definitions, theorems, and general procedures are
presented in as much detail as the demands of clarity and relative
simplicity permit.
Special features. The fundamental principles of calculus are
clearly stated in precise mathematical terms. Numerous illustrations
and illustrative examples are presented to clarify both the theoretical
and the applied aspects of the subject.
For the convenience of the many students of calculus who are
primarily interested in engineering and other applied fields, the con-
cept of integration and its applications are introduced in the early
part of the book. Also, to assist in the computational aspects of
calculus, the formulas and curves of more elementary mathematics
are given in an Introduction, five numerical tables are given on pp.
503 if., and the answers to all odd-numbered problems are included
in the text. A pamphlet containing the answers to the even-numbered
problems is available to instructors.
Revised features. In order to make the text as adaptable as
possible to modern needs, the basic material on limits, functions, and
continuity has been thoroughly revised with a view to emphasizing
modern mathematical techniques. Extensive additions on the
theoretical structure of calculus have been made, both in illustrations
and exercises, throughout the book.
On the applied side, considerable material has been added to illus-
trate the many applications of differential equations. Another
important addition supplementing the applied work is a chapter on
xi
xii Preface

the calculus of vectors. This chapter covers completely the algebra,

differentiation, and integration of vectors, including discussions of
directional derivatives, line integrals, and surface integrals.
In addition to the preceding changes, a completely new chapter on
solid analytic geometry has been included in order to augment the
increased emphasis which has been placed on the applications of
calculus to a space of three dimensions.
Acknowledgments. The author wishes to take this opportunity
to express his appreciation to his many friends and colleagues who have
so graciously criticized and assisted in the revision of the text. In
particular the author would like to thank the many users of the
original edition who have contributed many worth-while suggestions
for the revision.

T. S. P.
Portland, Oregon
May, 1960
ELEMENTS OF CALCULUS
 Introduction

Mathematical Formulas
The following list of mathematical formulas and graphs is given to
summarize briefly the computational aspects of more elementary mathe-
matics and to serve as a convenient reference in future work.
GEOMETRY
In the following formulas, r denotes radius, h altitude, l slant height,
b base, B area of base, 0 central angle expressed in radians.
1. Triangle. Area = 2bh.

2. Rectangle. Area = bh. Diagonal = 1/b2 + h2.

3. Trapezoid. Area = 2h(bl + b2).
4. Circle. Arc = rO. Circumference = 27rr. Area = nrr2.
5. Circular sector. Area = 2r20.
6. Circular segment. Area = 2r2(0 - sin 0).
7. Rectangular parallelepiped. If a, b, c are the sides
Volume = abc. Diagonal = \/a2 + b2 + c2.
8. Prism. Volume = Bh.
9. Pyramid. Volume = 3Bh.
10. Right circular cylinder. Lateral surface = 27rrh. Volume =
7rr2h.
I. Right circular cone. Lateral surface = rrrl. Volume = 37rr2h.
12. Sphere. Surface = 47rr2. Volume = 43L?Tr3.
13. Spherical segment. Volume = 37rh2(3r - h).
14. Frustum of a pyramid. Volume = 3h(BI + B2 + 1/BiB2).
15. Frustum of a right circular cone.
Lateral surface = 7rl(r1 + r2). Volume = 37rh(r2 + r2 + r1r2).
16. Prismatoid. Volume = 6h(B1 + 4B. + B2)-
ALGEBRA
17. Quadratic formula. If axe + bx + c = 0, a 0 0, then
x=
- b ± 02 - 4ac
2a
1
2 Introduction

18. Properties of logarithms.

(a) log (11IN) = log M + log N, (b) log (M/N) = log M - log N,
(c) log M n = it log ill, (d) log /M = (1/n) log Al,
(e) logb b = 1, (f) logo 1 = 0.
19. Factorial numbers. n! = 1.2.3 . . . (n - 1) n. 0! = 1.
20. Binomial expansion.
(a + b)n = an + nClan-lb + C2an-2b2 _}.... .
+ nCran-rbr + ... + bn,
where
n n(n - 1) ..., n!
....
nCl nCr =
= 1' 1-2
nC2 = r! (n - r)!'
21. Arithmetic progression. If a denotes the first term, d the
common difference, n the number of terms, l the last term, and
S the sum, then
l = a + (n - 1) d, S = 2n(a + l), S = ?n[2a + (n - 1)d].
22. Geometric progression. If a denotes the first term, r the
common ratio, n the number of terms, l the last term, and S the
sum, then
n
l = am-1, S= a 1- r S= 1- r
23. Infinite geometric progression. S = a/(1 - r), if r2 < 1.
TRIGONOMETRY
24. Radians and degrees. 360° = 27r radians = 1 revolution.
1 radian = 57.2957 . degrees. 1 degree = 0.0174532... radian.
25. Values of trigonometric functions for certain angles.
Angle in sin tan cot Angle in
Degrees
cos sec csc Radians
00
0 1 0 1 0

30° 2 2

2 4
2 2

1 1

0 0

0 -1
0 1 0 1 271
 Mathematical Formulas-Trigonometry 3

26. Fundamental identities.

sec x = 1 /cos x,
csc x = 1 /sin x, cot x = 1 /tan x,
tan x = sin x/cos x, cot x = cos x/sin x,
sine x + cost x = 1, 1 + tang x = sect x, 1 + cot2 x = csc2 X.
27. Reduction relations.

tanCo-
Angle Sine Cosine Tangent gent Secant Cosecant

_x - sin x cos x - tan x - cot x sec x - csc x

90° - x cos x sin x cot x tan x csc x sec x

90° + x cos x - sin x - cot x - tan x - csc x sec x

1800

-x sin x - cos x - tan x - cot x - sec x csc x

180° + x - sin x - cos x tan x cot x - sec x - csc x

270° - x - cos x - sin x cot x tan x - csc x - sec x
270° + x - cos x sin x - cot x - tan x csc x - sec x
360° - x -sin x cos x -tan x -cot x sec x -csc x

28. Formulas for the sum and difference of two angles.

sin (x ± y) = sin x cosy ± cosx sin y,
cos (x ± y) = cos x cosy T- sin x sin y,
tan (x ± y) = tan x ± tan y
1 + tan x tan y
29. Double-angle formulas.
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, cos 2x = cost x - sine x,
2 tan x
tan 2x =
1 - tang x
30. Half -angle formulas.

sinx2 = ±
/1 - cosx
2
x
cos 2
/1 + cos x
2

x
tan 2 =
+J l - cosx 1 - cosx sin x
1 + cosx sin x 1 + cos x
4 Introduction

31. Sum formulas.

sin x + sin y = 2 sin 2(x + y)cos1(x - y),
sin x - sin y = 2 cos 2(x + y)sin 2(x - y),
cos x + cosy = 2 cos (x + y) cos (x - y),
? 2
cos x - cos y = - 2 sin 1 (x + y) sin (x - y).
z
32. Product formulas.
sin x sin y = cos (x - y) - 2 cos (x + y),
sin x cos y = sin (x - y) + 2 sin (x + y),
cos x cos y = 2 cos (x - y) + 2 cos (x + Y).
33. Inverse formulas. When a > 0,
Sin-' (-a) = -Sin-' a, Cot-' (- a) = IT - Tan-1 (1/a),
Cos-' (-a) = it - Cos-' a, Sec-' (-a) = Cos-' (1 /a) - 7r,
Tan-' (-a) = - Tan-' a, Csc-' (- a) = Sin-' (1/a) - IT,
Sin-' a = 1 - a2,
Cos-'

Cos-' a = Sin-'1/l - a2.

When a > 0, b > 0,
Sin-' a - Sin-' b = Sin-'(a-N/1 - b2 - b\/1 - a2),
Tan-' a - Tan-' b = Tan-' (a - b)/(1 + ab),
1Cos-'[ab - V(1 - a2)(1- b2)], if a2 + b2 > 1,
Cos-' a + Cos-' b = it/2, a2 + b2 = 1,
IT - Cos-'[-x/(l - a2)(1 - b2) - ab], a2 + b2 < 1,
Tan-'(a + b)/(1 - ab), if ab < 1,
Tan-' a + Tan-' b = it/2, ab = 1,
7T- Tan-'(a + b)/(ab - 1), ab > 1.
34. Formulas for any triangles. Sides, a, b, c; opposite angles,
A, B, C ; s = 2 (a + b + c) ; radius of circumcircle, R ; radius of
incircle, r.
a = b = c
Law of sines. = 2R,
sin A sin B sin C
Law of cosines. a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A,
(s - a)(s - b)(s - c),
r
s

Area = lab sin C

_ a2 sin B sin C
2 sin (B + C)
= Vs(s - a) (s - b) (s - c).
 Formulas-Plane Analytic Geometry 5

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

35. For two points Pi(xi,yi) and P2(x2,y2).
Distance PiP2. d = 1/(x1 - X2)2 + (yi - y2) 2.
Slope of P1P2. m = Y1 - Y2
xi - X2
Mid-point of P1P2. x = 2(xi + X2), y = 2(yi + y2).
36. Angle between two lines with slopes m1 and M2-
M1 - M2
tan
1 + m1m2
For parallel lines mi = M2; for perpendicular lines m1 -1/m2.
37. Equations of straight lines.
Point-slope form. y - yi = m(x - xi).
Slope-intercept form. y = mx + b.
= Y2 - yl
Two-point form. Y - Y1
X - x1 x2 - xi
X
Intercept form. + b = 1.
Horizontal line. y = b.
Vertical line. x = a.
38. Distance from P(xi,yi) to the line Ax + By + C = 0.
Axi+Byi+C
d= +1/A2+B2

39. Relations between rectangular and polar coordinates.

x = r cos 0, r = ± 1/x2 + y2,
y = r sin 0. 0 = tan-'(y/x).
40. Equation of circle. Center (h,k), radius r.
(x - h) 2 + (y - k) 2 = r2.
41. Equation of ellipse. Center (h,k), semimajor axis a, semiminor
axis b.
(x-h)2+ (y-k)2= 1 or
(y-k)2+ (x-h)2=
a2 b2 a2 b2
42. Equation of hyperbola. Center (h,k), semitransverse axis a,
semiconjugate axis b.
(x-h)2 (y-k)2= 1 or
(y-k)2- (x-h)2= 1.
a2 b2 a2 b2
Equilateral hyperbola with center at origin xy = C.
6 Introduction
43. Equation of parabola. Vertex (h,k), focal distance p.
(y-k)2=4p(x-h) or (x-h)2=4p(y-k).
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
44. For two points P,(xl,yl,zl) and P2(x2,y2,z2).
Distance P,P2. d = V (xl - x2) 2 + (yl - y2) 2 + (z1 - z2) 2.
Direction numbers of P1P2. [XI - X2, y1 - Y2, z1 - z2].
Mid-point of P,P2. x = 2 (xl + x2), y = 2 (yl + Y2), z = (zl + z2)
2
45. Angle between two lines whose direction numbers are
[al, b1, c1] and [a2, b2, c2].
ala2 + b,b2 + ClC2
cos = _
a2j +b2 i+c1'Va2
2 +b2+
2 C22

al b, c1
a2=b2=C2
Parallel lines.

Perpendicular lines. a,a2 + b,b2 + clc2 = 0-

46. Equation of a plane through P(xl,yl,z1) and perpendicular
to a line with direction numbers [A,B,C].
A(x-x1) +B(y-y1) +C(z-z1) = 0.
47. Equations of a line through P(xl,ylizl) with direction
numbers [a,b,c].
x- x1 y - yl z -z1
a b c

48. Distance from P(x1iyl,zl) to the plane Ax + By + Cz +

D = 0.
d-Ax,+By,+Cz,+D
\/A2+B2+C2
49. Relations between rectangular and cylindrical coordinates.
x=rcos0, y=rsin0, z=z;
r = ± -V x2 + y2, 6 = tan-' (y/x), z = z.
50. Relations between rectangular and spherical coordinates.
x = r sin 0 cos 0, y = r sin 0 sin 0, z = r cos 0;
r = ± V x2 + y2 + z2, 0 = tan-1 (.y/x), 0 = tan-l(V/x2 + y2)/z.
 Formulas-Curves 7

51. Sine curve. 52. Cosine curve.

y=sin x y = cos x

53. Tangent curve. 54. Secant curve.

Y

X X
11 3n
2

55. Inverse sine curve. 56. Inverse cosine curve.

Y

11 . art
2

+n

Principal values
-1--+ X
-1 0 /
/
II

y=cos 1 x
8 Introduction

57. Inverse tangent curve. 58. Inverse secant curve.

Y Y
IT
1 n

-- -------- ------
z
-1
X X
O O
Principal values
V\-',
Principal values
-n -n+
y=tan' x y = sec' x

59. Logarithmic curve. 60. Exponential curve.

x
y=logbx, (b>1)

61. Hyperbolic sine curve. 62. Hyperbolic cosine curve.

y=cosh x
y=sinh x
 Formulas-Curves 9

63. Cubical parabola. 64. Semicubical parabola.

x x

y = ax3, (a > 0) y2=ax3, (a> 0)

65. Probability curve. 66. Parabolic arc.

y = e-x 2 1 I 1

x2+ y2=a2

67. Folium of Descartes. 68. The cissoid of Diodes.

x3 + y3 -3axy=O
y4=x3/(2a - x)
10 Introduction

69. Astroid. 70. The witch of Agnesi.

x2y=4a2 (2a-y)

2
x3+y3-a32
2

71. Strophoid. 72. Tractrix.

a+ o2_Y2
X s In a2_ y2

x2o-x
2 0+X
y

73. Cardioid. 74. Limacon.

 Formulas-Curves I I

75. Spiral of Archimedes. 76. Hyperbolic spiral.

r=a8 r8=a

77. The lemniscate of Bernoulli. 78. The conchoid of Nicomedes.

r2=a2 cos 28 r=a csc 8+b, (a<b)

79. Three-leaved rose. 80. Four-leaved rose.

r=a sin 30 r=a sin 20

12 Introduction

81. Cycloid. 82. Trochoid.

x=a(A-sin A), x=aO-b sin 0,

) Y=0(1-cos e) {y=o-b cos 6,(o<b)

83. Greek Alphabet.

A a Alpha I c Iota P p Rho
BB Beta KK Kappa E a Sigma
r y Gamma A A Lambda T T Tau
A 8 Delta Al µ Mu 1° v Upsilon
E E Epsilon Ni V Nu (D 0 Phi
Z Zeta Xi XX Chi
H 7) Eta 0 o Omicron 'F 0 Psi
0 0 Theta n ir Pi Q co Omega

84. Mathematical Symbols.

Plus or minus Minus or plus
Equal to Not equal to
Identically equal to 0 Not identically equal to
x, Multiplication / Division
> Greater than < Less than
Greater than or equal to Less than or equal to
Congruent to ti Approximately equal to
Similar to Approaches
c Varies as In Natural logarithm
I
1/-
Perpendicular to
Square root
Parallel to
- path root
i Imaginary unit 1/ -1 00 Infinity
nCr nt)/r! (n - r)! nPr It!/(It - r)!
(al Absolute value of a And so on
 CHAPTER I

Variables, Functions, and Limits

1. Introduction
Prior to the year 1600, geometry as developed by the Greeks and
algebra as developed by the Hindus, Moslems, and Persians were two
completely unrelated mathematical disciplines. They remained so
until 1637 when Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a renowned French
mathematician and philosopher, published a treatise La Geometrie in
which he introduced the concept of coordinate systems. He indicated
how, by using coordinates, it was possible to represent geometric con-
figurations by equations, and vice versa. This important discovery
made it possible to use algebraic or analytic methods in geometry and
as a result led to the development of a far more comprehensive theory
of geometry, called analytic geometry.
Thirty years after the origin of analytic geometry, two other
prominent mathematicians, Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) developed independently another new
and revolutionary idea in mathematics. This new concept dealt with
the notion of limits, that is, with the values approached by non-finite
sequences of numbers. This theory of limits is the basis for what we
now call calculus.
Actually the calculus is concerned with two types of limiting
processes. One involves the concept of a derivative, which can be
illustrated by the problem of finding the instantaneous velocity of a
moving object. Thus if an apple drops from a tree, how fast is it
moving at any instant? This type of limit is the basis of the differ-
ential calculus. The other involves the concept of an integral which
can be illustrated by the problem of finding the area of a plane geo-
metric figure when some of its boundaries are curved. Thus, why is
it that the area of a circle is given by 7rr2? This type of limit is the
basis of the integral calculus. In the development of the subject we
will find that these two apparently unrelated limit concepts are in fact
very closely related, one being merely the inverse of the other.
13
14 Variables, Functions, and Limits

2. Rate of Change
If a body falls from a position of rest and air resistance is neglected,
we know from physics that an approximation formula for the distance
s in feet fallen in time t in seconds is
s = 1612.
We observe that the velocity of the body is not constant since it
falls 16 feet the first second, 48 feet the second second, 80 feet the
third second, and so on. When an object such as this is moving at a
varying velocity, its exact velocity at any particular instant can only
be estimated by a process of calculating average velocities of the object
over shorter and shorter intervals of time, each interval containing the
instant in question. Thus to find the velocity of the falling body at
the end of 2 seconds we could compile a table such as is illustrated
below, and from this table we could conclude that the average velocity
at time t = 2 is close to 64 feet per second.
Time Interval Distance Covered Average Velocity
1 to 2 48 48
1.9 to 2 6.24 62.4
1.99 to 2 0.6384 63.84
2 to 2.01 0.6416 64.16
2 to 2.1 6.56 65.6
2 to 3 80 80

This same conclusion can be reached more effectively by using

algebraic methods of analysis. For example, if t and to denote any
two different times, the corresponding locations of the falling body are
given by s = 1612 and so = 16t01, and the average velocity v for the
time interval to to t is
s-so=16to (t2 - 2) =16(t+to).
T--to t - to
As the time interval shortens and t gets closer to to, it is clear that
v becomes more and more nearly equal to 16(to + to). Thus if we
denote by vo the exact velocity at time to, we conclude that
vo = 3210.
This formula gives vo = 64 feet per second when to = 2 seconds, in
agreement with the preceding arithmetical analysis.
The process by which we have defined the exact velocity vo is called
taking the limit as t approaches to, and we write this operation symbolic-
ally as
s - so
vo = lim t - to
t-+t0
 The Concept of Area 15

The preceding limit process has a much wider application than that
of merely finding the velocities of moving objects. Whenever any two
measurable quantities are related in some manner, we may be interested
in investigating their relative rates of change. Thus if xo and yo are
specific values of two related quantities x and y, the rate of change of
y with respect to x for the particular value xo is defined as the limit

lim y - yo
x - XO
This limit is called the derivative of y with respect to x at x = xo.
4,
Illustration. For the function y = we have yo = 4 and
x xo

4 4 4(xo - x)
Y - Yo=x-xo= xxo

Thus the derivative of y with respect to x at xo is

limy Yo = lim -4 = - 4xo.

x-*xo X - xo x-*xo xxo

3. The Concept of Area

In the preceding article we discussed the type of limit process that
is associated with relative rates of change. We shall now consider
another kind of limit process, one that
consists of adding together many small
divisions of a whole object. This process
is most easily illustrated by attempting
to determine the area of a plane figure
that has curved boundaries.
For this purpose let the bounding
curve in Figure 1 have the equation
y = x2, and let us consider the area S
of the three-sided figure OAP. Since a
unit of area is defined as the area of a I
X ' x
square with sides one unit long, the area Figure 1
of a rectangle is easily determined to be
the product of its length and width. To determine the area of a
figure with curved boundaries, we choose a set of non-overlapping
rectangles that nearly cover the figure. The sum of the areas of these
rectangles gives us an approximation to the area in question, and if
the number of these rectangles is increased with corresponding decreases
in all widths, the better, in general, will be the approximation.
16 Variables, Functions, and Limits

To make such an investigation let the interval OA in Figure 1 be

divided into it segments by the points xo, xi, , xn, where xo = 0
and xn = a. Although it is essential that all of these segments get
smaller as it gets larger, it is not necessary that they all be of the same
length. We shall, however, for the sake of simplicity assume that all
of these segments do have the same length, namely a/n. In this case,
then, we have

XO = 0,
a
xl = -,
n
x2 =2a
-,
it n
-, ... , xn =na
xk = ka - = a.
n
Since the equation of OP is y= x2, it follows that the heights of the n
approximating rectangles are
0, (a)2, (2ci)2 , 1) a ) 2
`n
n J

and the sum Sn of their areas is

[(a) 2 2l
Sn = n
2 + (2a)
n
+...+ ((n it 1)a) a
3
= x3[12+22+...+(n- 1)2].

Our problem now is to see what happens to Sn as n gets larger and larger.
This limit could be studied arithmetically for large values of it, but it
is simpler to make use of the algebraic formula*

12+22+32--...+ m2= m (+ m + 1)6 (2m + 1) (1)

Substituting it - 1 for m in (1) gives

12+22+32+...+(n- 1)2= (n - 1)n6 (2n - 1)1

hence we have
n - a3 n(n - 1) (2n - 1)
Sn
- 1 - 1 1
+ 6n2)
n3 6 (3 2n
In this form it is easy to see that Sn tends toward the value 3a3 as it
gets larger and larger. For this reason, we take S = 3a3. Geo-
metrically, this result indicates that the area OAP is exactly one-third
the area of the rectangle that has OA and AP as sides.
It is also interesting to observe that if a set of rectangles are
* See Thurman S. Peterson, College Algebra, 2nd ed., Harper & Brothers, 1958.
 Exercise 17

selected that extend above the curve, as shown in Figure 2, their

combined area will exceed the area S but will tend toward S as the
widths of the rectangles decrease. Thus if OA is divided into n equal
parts and S', is the total area of the circumscribing rectangles, we find
5= [(a)2 +
11n
2a12+...+ -i a
\ n J] n
a3
[12 + 22 +...+ 112]
n3
1 1 11
I a 3'
+ 2n + 6n2
3

Hence in this case, as before, S' tends toward -ga3 as it gets larger and
larger.
Instead of thinking in terms of an
area, we may consider the operation of
finding the limit of the sequence S1i S2,
, Sn, as a process being applied
to the function f (x) = x2 whose graph
is the curved boundary in Figure 1.
The limit S of the sequence is called the
definite integral of x2 from x = 0 to
x = a, and is denoted by the symbol
f('a
x2 dx. Figure 2
Jo

The two limit concepts, the derivative and the definite integral,
form the basis of the calculus. The discussion that follows will
indicate how these concepts are related.
EXERCISE I
. A ball rolling down an incline travels s feet in t seconds, where s = 5t2.
Derive a formula for the velocity of the ball at time t = to. How fast
is it going (a) after 2 seconds, (b) after it has rolled 80 feet?
Ans. (a) 20 ft./sec., (b) 40 ft./sec.
2. By definition, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect
of time. Find the acceleration of the falling body considered in
Article 2.
3. A ball thrown straight up is located s feet above the ground at t seconds
after it is thrown in accordance with the formula s = 112t - 16t2.
Find a formula for the velocity of the ball and find (a) the time required
to reach its highest point, (b) the distance of the highest point above
the ground, and (c) the acceleration of the ball at this point.
Ans. (a) 3.5 sec., (b) 196 ft., (c) -32 ft./sect.
18 Variables, Functions, and Limits

4. Find the rate of change of the function f (x) = x3 with respect to x at xo.
5. Find the derivative of the function f (x) = - with respect to x at xo.
Ans. 1/2\/xo.
6. By use of a procedure similar to that discussed in Article 3, find the area
of the triangle OAP (Figure 3) as the limit of a sum of inscribed
rectangular areas. Do the same for circumscribed rectangular areas.
7. Using the methods suggested in the
preceding problem, find the area of
the trapezoid bounded by the line
y = x + 3, the ordinates x = 1,
x = 3, and the x axis. Ans. 10.
8. By use of a procedure similar to
that discussed in connection with
Figure 1, find the area OAP when
the equation of OP is y = x3 and P
has the coordinates (a,a3). Hint:
Use the formula 13 + 23 + 33 +
+m3 = 4in2(sn + 1)2.
Figure 3 By finding the limit of a sum of rec-
9.
tangles, find the area bounded by the
curve y = x2, the ordinates x = 1, x = 2, and the x axis. Ans. 7/3.
10. By summing both sides of the identity
h3-(h-1)3=3h2-3h+1
for h = 1, 2, 3, , m, show how to obtain the formula (1) given in
Article 3.

4. Constants and Variables

In mathematics a constant is a quantity that maintains a fixed value
throughout a particular problem. Numerical or absolute constants,
such as 2, V-5, and rr, retain the same values in all problems, whereas
arbitrary constants remain constant in a particular problem but may
assume different values in other problems. The absolute or
numerical value of a constant a is denoted by Ial and means the
magnitude of a regardless of its algebraic sign. Thus 131 = 3 and
I - 31 = - (- 3) = 3. If two numbers a and b have the same sign, then
j a + bI =Ial + IbI, but if they have different signs, Ia + bI < IaI + IbI.
Since the cases when a = 0 or b = 0 are trivial, we see for all a and b
that
(1)
Ia + bI < Ial + IbI
Illustration I. When jal > JbI it follows from the identity a = b +
(a - b) that
jal < JbI + ja - bj or ja - bj > jal - Ibl.
 Functions 19

A variable is a quantity that may assume various values in the

course of a problem, and the set of values that it assumes is called the
domain or range of the variable. Thus, for the ellipse x2/a2 + y2/b2 =1,
a and b arc constants for a particular ellipse, and x and y are variables.
The variable x has the range from -a to a inclusive and y ranges from
- b to b inclusive.
We know from analytic geometry that the totality of real numbers
can be represented by the points on a straight line. A scale, such as
shown in Figure 4, which indicates this ordered relationship is called
a real continuum or number scale. In most applications, the
a b
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Figure 4

domain or range of a continuous variable x will be one or more of

various kinds of intervals such as
a < x < b, open interval, all points between a and b ;
a < x < b, closed interval, includes the end points ;
x < a, open half interval to the left ;
x > a, closed half interval to the right.
Since an absolute value function such as jxj means x when x is
positive and - x when x is negative, it is possible to represent a domain
of a variable by an expression such as jxl < 4. Thus in this case we
have
x < 4, when x is positive,
- x < 4 or - 4 < x, when x is negative.
Hence in all cases, zero included, the domain of x for Ixl < 4 is the
interval - 4 < x < 4.
Illustration 2. The points of the interval -1 < x < 5 all lie within 3 units
of the central point 2; therefore the domain of x can be represented as
I x - 21 < 3. In this sense we observe that the expression I x - 21 represents
the distance between x and 2.

5. Functions
If two variables x and y are related so that, for each x in a domain
R of real numbers, we obtain one or more real values for y, then y is
said to be a real function of the real variable x defined in the
domain R. Throughout this book the word "function" will refer to a
real function of a real variable unless stated otherwise.
20 Variables, Functions, and Limits

Since the implication of the above definition is that y depends on

x, we call y the dependent variable or function and x the inde-
pendent variable.
If only one value of y corresponds to each value of x in the domain
R, y is called a single-valued function of x; otherwise it may be a
double-valued, triple-valued, or multiple-valued function of x.
Illustration I. If y = 1/x2, y is a single-valued function of x for all real
numbers except x = 0. If y2 = 4x, y is a double-valued function (± 21/x)
of x for all x in the domain x > 0.
The definition of a function does not state explicitly how we find
the value of the function when we know the value of the independent
variable; it merely asserts that it can be found. In general, these
functional values are determined in one of two ways ; either from an
equation or formula, or from a statistically determined table of values.
In this book we shall be concerned primarily with functional relation-
ships that are defined by equations.
Functions of a single variable are represented by symbols such as
f (x), g(r), and O(z). The letter in parentheses indicates the independent
variable, and the prefixed letter denotes a given relationship. The
symbol f (x) is read "the f function of x" or briefly "f of x." The value
of f (x) when x = a is denoted by f (a).
Illustration 2. If F(x) = x2 + 4, then F(-2) = (-2)2 + 4 = 8, F(n) =
n2 + 4, and F(x + y) = (x+y)2+4.
A functional definition cannot
always be expressed by a single
relationship ; frequently, composite
definitions are necessary. For ex-
ample, the function
x
- x, when x <- 0,
f (x) - ,3, when x > 0,
Figure 5
whose graph is shown in Figure 5,
is defined differently in the positive and negative domains of x.
Example 1. Draw a sketch of the function f (x) = IxI + Ix - 1 I.
Solution: Since for absolute values
x, when x ? 0, x - 1, when x > 1,
1xI
- { -x, when x < 0, / x - 1 I - 1 - x, when x < 1,
 Exercise 21

we see that f (x) is defined differently in the three intervals x 5 0, 0 < x <
and x >_ 1. Thus an equivalent representation is
1 - 2x, when x < 0,
f (x) = 1, when 0 < x < 1,
2x - 1, when x > 1.
Plotting these line segments for the domains in question we obtain the graph
shown in Figure 6.
A function that depends on two 3 f(x)
or more independent variables is
represented symbolically in a similar
manner. Thus a function of two 2

variables x and y is written as f (x, y)

and is read "f of x and y." The 1

value of f (x, y) when x = a and y = b

is denoted by f (a,b).
X
Example 2. If f (x,y) = , show
X-Y Figure 6
that f (x, y) + f (x, -y) = 2f (x2, Y2)
Solution: Substituting -y for y in f (x, y) = x/(x - y), we obtain
f (x, - y) = x/(x + y). Hence
x x = 2x2
f (x y) + f (X, -Y) =x-y+x+y x2-y2 = 2f (x2, Y2)

EXERCISE 2
I. If g(x) = \/25 - x2, find g(0), g(-3), g(5). Ans. 5, 4, s .

2. If O(z) = 4z, find 0(0), 0(-2), 0(2).

3. If h(O) = cost 0, find h(0), h(4 7r), h(?ir). 1, 2, 0.
4. If f (x) = logo x, find f (1), f (10), f (5).
5. If G(x) = sin 2x, find G(0), G(- 4ir), G(Sir). 0, -1, - V2-.
6. If fi(t) = tt, find /(1), :/s(-2), :/s(?).
1
7. If R(a,b) = b --+--I ' find R(5,- 3), R(a - 1,4). - 3, a/5.
8. If F(na,n) = rn2 - n2, find F(!3,-6 ), F(x + y,x - y).
Find the domain of the variable x for which the following equations
determine y as a real function of x.
9. y-xy=5. Ans. x 0 1.
10. y=1/4-x2.
II. y2=x-3. x > 3.
12. y4=4-x2.
22 Variables, Functions, and Limits

13. Y = tan x. Ans. x (n + 2)ir.

14. y = log (1 - 2x).

15. y3 = 1 - x2. All real values.
16. Y = sin-1 x.
17. If f (x) = x(x + 1), show that f (x + h) - f (x) = h(2x + 1 + h).
18. If g(y) = y/(1 - y), show that -[g(y) + g(-y)] = g(y2).
19. If F(z) = log z, show that F(xy) = F(x) + F(y).
20. If O(r) = 2r, show that 0(r + 1) = 20(r).
21. If P(x) _ V, show that P(x + h) - P(x) = h/( x -+h + 1/x).
22. If f (x) = sin x, show that f (2x) = 2f (x) f (27r - x).
23. If f (x) = x2 - 1 and g(x) = 2x + 1, show that f [g(x)] = 4x(x + 1).
24. If f (x) = I0x and O(x) = loglo x, show that f [O(x)] = 0[f (x)] = x.
25. If f (x, y) = x3 + 4xy2 + y3, show that f (ax,ay) = Of (x,y).
26. If F(u,v) = u + v, find F(1 /is, l /v) + F(u,v).
27. Prove that a + b I- I a - b I < 21 b 1.
Find equivalent functional definitions for each of the following and draw
a graph of the function.
28. f (x) = 2x - I x I + I x
0, when x < 0,
29. f (x) = x + jxj. Ans. f (x)
2x, when x > 0.
30. f(x) = jxj Ix - 1 1.

6. Limit of a Function
In Article 2 we discussed briefly the limit process that is associated
with the determination of relative rates of change. We concluded,
for example, that as t gets closer and closer to to the expression
16(t + to) becomes more and more nearly equal to 32to. A limit such
as this can be expressed formally as "f (x) approaches the limit value
A as x approaches the constant a." This we can write as f (x) --*A
as x ---> a, or more commonly as
lim f (x) = A.
x-+a

There are two important aspects in regard to this statement that

have to do with the use of the word "approach." First, it is important
to understand that the word is restricted to imply a certain degree of
"closeness." What we actually mean is that the difference If (x) - A
can be made as small as we desire simply by requiring x to be near
enough to a. Second, since it is possible that the function under
consideration is undefined when x = a, we restrict the symbolism
"x -- a" to mean "x nears but is never equal to a."
 Limit of a Function 23

Illustration I. lim = 3, lim sin 7Tx = 1, and lim 3-1/x2 = 0.

x->3 x-->112 z->0
Note: Observe that the function 3-1/x2 is undefined when x = 0, but
the limit exists and is equal to 0. This is true since x small implies 1/x2 large,
which in turn implies 31/x2 large, and so 3-1/x2 is small.
In order that problems which involve limits may be analyzed with
mathematical precision the preceding intuitive concept of a limit is
incorporated into the following definition.
A function f (x) is said to approach a value A as x approaches a, if
corresponding to every positive number E there is some positive number 8
such that
If(x) - AI < E
is true for every x that satisfies the inequality
0 < Ix - al < 8.
Example. Prove that lim (5x - 2) = 8.
x->2 I

Solution: To prove this we need to show that for any c > 0 there exists
a number 8 > 0 such that
1(5x-2)-81<E (1)
is satisfied, whenever x is in the domain
0< I x-21 <8.
By dividing both sides of (1) by 5, we obtain
Ix-21 < .
Hence 8 = E/5 is an adequate choice for 8 and the proof is complete.
Letting E = 0.005, we see that the preceding result means that the
function 5x - 2 will lie in the range 7.995 < 5x - 2 < 8.005 whenever the
domain of x is 1.999 < x < 2.001.
Although basic theorems must of necessity be proved in accordance
with the preceding definition, subsequent results are usually derived
from the theorems so established. One of the most important and
useful of the theorems is the following.
Theorem 1. If lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B, then
x-+a x-a
1. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = A + B,
x-a
2. urn f (x) g(x) = AB,
x--).a
A
3. lim f (x) = provided B 0.
' z->a g(x) B
24 Variables, Functions, and Limits
Intuitively the results of this theorem appear trivial since, for
example, if f (x) is near A and g(x) is near B, it seems obvious that the
sum, product, and quotient of the functions will be near A + B, AB,
and A /B, respectively. The limit of the quotient must of course
include the restriction B = 0 since the expression A /0 is meaningless.
We shall not give a complete proof of Theorem 1, but the method
of proof will be illustrated by proving part 1. A similar procedure
can be used to prove parts 2 and 3.
Proof of part 1: To prove this we need to show that for any E > 0
there exists a number 8 > 0 such that
I [f (x) + g(x)] - [A + B] I < E,
is satisfied, whenever x is in the domain
0<lx-al<8.
From lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B it follows that
x.(--a

If (x) - A I < E1, when 0 < Ix - al < 81,

I g(x) - Bl < E2, when 0 < l x - al < 82.
If we let E1 = E2 = E/2 and take 8 to be the smaller of 81 and 82, we
find by use of equation (1) in Article 4 that

I [f (x) - A] + [g(x) - B] I < I f (x) - A I + I g(x) - BI < 2 + 2 = E,

whenever x is in the domain defined by
0 < lx - al < 8.
As another illustration of the method of proof using the definition
of a limit, we will establish the following theorem.
Theorem 2. If f (x) -->- A and h(x) -- A as x -->. a, and if f (x) <
g(x) <- h(x) for all values of x near a, then g(x) -->- A as x -- a.
Proof: The existence of the limits for f (x) and h(x) means that
A - E < f (x) < A + E, when 0 < I x - a I < 81,
A-E<h(x) <A +-E, when 0<Ix-al <82.
If we take 8 to be the smaller of 81 and 62i we see by the hypothesis
that for all x in the domain 0 < Ix - al < 8 we have
A - E < J (x) g(x) < h(x) < _4 + E
or
A-E<g(x) <A+E.
 Continuity 25

This means, however, that lim g(x) exists and equals A.

x-->a

In some instances a function may approach two different limits

according as x approaches a through values larger than a or through
values smaller than a. We denote these limits by lim f (x) and
x->a+
lim f (x), respectively; and since they are not equal the limit of f (x)
as x -- a is undefined.
Illustration 2. The function 211x approaches zero as x approaches zero
through negative values only. As x approaches zero through positive values
only, the functional values become larger and larger.

7. Continuity
When f (a) exists we find for most elementary functions that this is
the limit that is usually approached by f (x) as x --* a. This important
property of functions is called continuity and is defined as follows.
A single-valued function f (x) is said to be
continuous at a value a of its domain pro- Y

vided (1) f (a) is deined, (2) lim f (x) exists, +4

x->a
and (3) lim f (x) = f (a). If f (x) is con-
tinuous atx--""
each point of an interval, it is said
to be continuous on the interval.
A function that is not continuous at a / 1

point is said to be discontinuous at that

point. Thus the function f (x) = I xl /x is -1 O 2 3 X
discontinuous at x = 0 since 0/0 is meaning-
less and moreover lim f (x) does not exist.
X- +O Figure 7
Similarly, the function g(x) = (x2 - 4)/(x - 2)
is discontinuous at x = 2 since g(2) is undefined. In this case, however,
lim g(x) = 4, and we observe that the graph of y = (x2 - 4)/(x - 2)
x-->2
(Figure 7) is the entire line y = x + 2 with the single point (2,4)
omitted.
Since lim f (x) = f (a) means that for every E > 0 there exists a
x->a
8 > 0 such that
f (a) - E < f (x) < f (a) + E
for every x in the interval
a-8<x< a +8,
26 Variables, Functions, and Limits

we see in Figure 8 that the continuity of f (x) at x = a means that

the graph of f (x) for the domain a - 8 < x < a + 8 is entirely within
a rectangle whose center is (a, f (a)) and whose height is 2E.
Several important and useful theorems on continuity are as follows.

f(X)

f (a)+6

f(a)

f(a)-e

X
0 a-6 a a+d

Figure 8

Theorem 1. If f (x) and g(x) are two functions that are continuous at
x = a, then the following functions are continuous at x = a.
1. f (x) + g(x),
2. f(x)g(x),
3. f(x)/g(x), provided g(a) 0.

Proof: If all limits are taken as x - a, we know from the

continuity of f (x) and g(x) that lim f (x) = f (a) and lim g(x) = g(a).
Hence, by use of Theorem 1, Article 6, we find
1. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = f (a) + g(a),
2. lim f(x)g(x) lim f (x) lim g(x) = f (a)g(a),
3. lim f (x)/g(x) = lim f (x)/lim g(x) = f (a)/g(a), g(a) 0,

and the theorem is proved.

Since a polynomial, P(x) = aoxn + alxn-1 + + an, is a com-
bination of sums and products of the variable x, we have the following
conclusion.
Corollary I. A polynomial in x is a continuous function for all
values of x.
Similarly, since a rational function is the quotient of two poly-
nomials, we have the following result.
Corollary 2. A rational function in x is a continuous function for
all values of x except those values for which the denominator is zero.
 Continuity 27

Theorem 2. When the function f (x) is continuous for a < x < b and
f (a) -A f (b), then if k is any number between f (a) and f (b), there exists
some number c between a and b such that f (c) = k.
Theorem 3. If the function f (x) is continuous in the closed interval
a <_ x < b, there exist numbers x. and xM in this domain such that
f (x,,,) is the minimum and f (x.11) is the maximum value of f (x) in
a <x < b.
We shall not attempt to prove the preceding theorems, since
rigorous proofs would require a more thorough study of the number
system than we can possibly make at this time. It should be noted
in Theorem 3, however, that the requirement of a closed interval is
essential. The function 11'x which is continuous in the interval
0 < x < 1 has, for example, no maximum value in this domain.
Theorem 4. If the function f (y) is continuous at y = A and if
lim g(x) = A, then
x-ia
lim f [g(x)] = f f lim g(x)l = f (A).
x->a x->a J

Proof: The fact that f(y) is continuous at y = A means that

for every c > 0 there exists a S' > 0 such that
If(y) - f(A)l < E, when l y - Al <8.

If we substitute g(x) for y, we obtain

If [g(x)] - f (A) I < E, when l g(x) - A I < S'. (1)

Now the fact that g(x) A as x -- a means that for any number,
say S' in this case, there is some S > 0 such that
lg(x) - Al < S', when 0 < lx - al <8. (2)

Thus it follows from (1) and (2) that for every E > 0 there exists a
S > 0 such that
if [g(x)] - f (A) I < E, for every x in 0 < Ix - al < S.
This, however, means that f [g(x)] - f (A) as x -> a, and the theorem is
proved.
Since functions f (y) , such as yn, 1" /y, logy, and sin y, are
continuous functions in their domains of definition, it follows by the
preceding theorem that lim gn(x) = [lim g(x)] n, lim 1"/g(x) = 1/lim g(x),
lim [log g(x)] = log [lim g(x)], and lim [sin g(x)] = sin [lim g(x)]. This
interchange of the operations of limit and function facilitates the
evaluation of many problems concerning limits.
28 Variables, Functions, and Limits

Illustration. lim \/1 - cos x = \/lim (1 - cos x) = N/1 - cos lim x

X--n x--n X--77

1 - cos 7r = .
Example. If f (x) -> A and g(x) -> B as x -* a, prove that f (x) g(x) -
AB asx -> a.
Proof: This is an alternate proof for the second part of Theorem 1,
Article 6. It follows from Theorem 4 that if O(x) L as x --> a, then
r
JIM 02(x) = lim O(x)I
x-+a L x->a

We use this relation in the following way. Consider the identity

f(x) g(x) = I[f(x) + g(x)]2 - 1[f(x) - g(x)]2.
If we take the limit of both sides as x -- a, the proof is completed by use of
the above relation and the fact that the limit of a sum is equal to the sum
of the limits.
lim fg = Jim 1[f
4
+ g] 2 - lim 4 [f - g] 2
= j[lim (f + g)]2 - 1[lim (f - g)]2
= 4[A +B]2- 4[A -B]2=AB.
8. Infinity
In considering the function f (x) = 1/x, we observe that, as x
approaches zero through positive values, the corresponding values of
the function become larger and larger. To indicate the behavior of
the function in a case like this, we say that f (x) increases without
limit or approaches infinity as x --* 0 through positive values. In
symbols, we write lim f (x) = + oo. Similarly, as x approaches zero
x-*0+
through negative values, the value of the function decreases without
limit, and we write lim f (x) oo. The word "infinite" signifies
x--->O-

only a state of being non-finite, and the introduction of the symbol 00

does not in any way justify its use as a number. Division by zero in
mathematics is a meaningless operation and it is not intended that the
symbol oo represent 1/0.
A state of approaching infinity is determined in accordance with
the following definition.
A function f (x) is said to approach + oo as x ---* a+, if for any number
N, however large it may be, there exists a 8 > 0 such that f (x) > N for
every x in the domain a < x < a + S. Similarly, f (x) -- - oo as
x -- a- means that f (x) < - N for every x in the domain a - 5 < x < a.
 Limit of a Sequence 29

The definition is stated in terms of "left-hand" and "right-hand"

limits since only one of them may be infinite; for example,
lim 211x = 0 and lim 211x = + co.
x>0 - x>0+

Illustration I. If 1/1/x - a > N, we have Vx - a < 1/N and x - a <

1/N2. Hence lim 1 /Yx - a = + oo, because l / x - a > N for every x
x-->a +
in the domain a < x < a + 1 /N2.
As the value of a variable x becomes larger and larger without bound
it is possible that a function f (x) may approach a finite limit. This
situation is defined as follows.
A function f (x) is said to approach the limit A as x --> + co, if for
any number E, however small it may be, there exists an N > 0 such that
If (x) - A I < E for every x in the domain x > N.
A similar definition holds when x -- > - co.
3x -I- 2 =
Illustration 2. As x --* + oo the limit of 3x + 2 is 3, because
x x
2 2 2
3 + x and 3 < 3 + x < 3 + E is true provided x > E

The evaluation of limits as x -} ± co is most easily accomplished,

when possible, by expressing the function in terms of 1/x and using
the fact that 1/x -* 0.

Example. Evaluate lim

3x3-2x+4
X__+ + 00 2 - 3x2 - 2x3
Solution: Dividing the numerator and denominator by x3, the highest
power of x in the denominator, we obtain

3x3 - 2x + 4 _
3 -2x2 + x34 3
lim
x-> + 00 2 -3x2-2x3 rm
m 2
---2 3 2
x3

9. Lbmit of a Sequence
In determining the area of a plane figure, we discussed a type of
limit process that is common in the integral calculus. This limit
process is concerned with sequences and their limits.
An ordered succession of numbers s1, s2, , sn, is called a
sequence of numbers, if for each positive integer n there corresponds
a real number sn. The expression {sn} is used to denote a sequence,
and sn refers to the nth term. Sequences may be defined in various
30 Variables, Functions, and Limits

ways but some fixed rule for determining sn must be given. Thus, for
the sequences indicated below, we have listed the first five terms.
a 1 2345
(a) n + 3 4' 5' 6' 7' 8'

(b) {(-1)n2}; -2, 2, -2, 2, -2, .

(c) {5}; 5, 5, 5, 5, 5,
(d) {1 - (-1) n} ; 2, 0, 2, 0, 2,
Number of
(e) integral ; 1, 2, 2, 3, 2,

divisors of n
As it gets larger and larger the general term sn of a sequence may
get closer and closer to some value A. If it does, we say that the
limit of the sequence exists and we write sn -* A as it -- oo, or
lim s,, = A. For example, the sequences (a) and (c) have the limits
n->oo
1 and 5, respectively, and (b), (d), and (e) have no limits. A formal
definition for the limit of a sequence can be stated as follows.
A sequence is said to approach a value A as it increases, if correspond-
ing to every positive number E there is some positive integer N such that
ISn - A I < E
is true for every integer it that satisfies the inequality it > N.
Illustration. The sequence {1/n2} ->0 as it -> oo, because l(1/n2) - 01 < E
is true for all integers it > 1 / VE-.
The limit concept for sequences is very similar to the limit concept
for functions and most methods of proof that can be used for one can
also be applied to the other. The limit theorem for sequences would
have the following form.
Theorem. If {sn} -> A and {sn} -> B as it - oo, then as it -> oo
A
{sn + s,} -->- A + B, {sns } -- AB, Sn -- B
n
the quotient sequence having the restriction B 0.
-VIT-2 + 1
Example. Find the limit of the sequence .
it + 1
Solution : Dividing the numerator and denominator of sn by it, we find

+n2
lim
V1+0=1.
1+1 = 1+0
n*ao
n
 Exercise 31

EXERCISE 3
Evaluate the following limits, when possible.

I. lim
x2 - 1
Ans. 2. 2. lim
x2-x-2
x->1 X -1 x-->2 x2-3x+2
3. lirn
x3 - 2x 5
4. lim
8-x3
x-->w 2x3 7 x-->2 X2- 2x
cos x tan 2x
5. lim 0. 6. lim
x-+O+ log x x,O tan x
7. lim sin 1 No limit. 8. lim x sin 1
x-+O X x--*O X

Find the limits of the following as n --> oo.

n2 + a2
9. (- 1)n2-n. Ans. 0. 10.
n3 + a3
2-n
2-n +- 2n
2n (n + 1)3 - (n - 1)3
n2
- 1. 12 .

sin it sin (2/n)

13. 0. 14.
n sin (1/n)
12
15. [n+ (n+ 1) +...+2n]. Ans. 2.

16. when a > 1, a = 1, and 0 < a < 1.

Find the values of x for which the following functions are discontinuous.
17.
x - 2
Ans. - 1. 18 .
X+
x+1
19.
x2
2, -1. x+ 1
x2-x-2* 20.
X-1
21. csc 2x. in7r. 22. tan (x + 27r).
23. log (2x - 5) . 2T . 24 . lo g
x-2
x
25. 0 26 . log sin x.
2x - 1 .

27. If f (x) = x2, show that lim f (x + h)

h-->O h
- f (x) = 2x.

28. If f (x) = 1, show that lira f (x + 11)

h
- f (x) -- 1
X2 .
X h-->O

29. If f (x) = Vx-, show that lim f (x + h) - f (x) = 1

h-->.O h 2 /x
Hint : Multiply the numerator and denominator by ''/x -+h + Vx.
30. If n is a positive integer, prove that lim (x
+
hhn - xn
= nxn-1.
h-->0
32 Variables, Functions, and Limits
31. If f (x) = x2, find a 8 such that 0 < Ix - 21 < 8 implies 1x2 - 41 < E
(a) when E = 1, (b) when E = 0.1, and (c) when 0 < E < 5.
Ans. (a) 0.2, (b) 0.02, (c) E/5 will do.
32. If f (n) = 2-n, find an N such that n > N implies 12-n - 01 < E
(a) when E = 0.1, (b) when E = 0.001, and (c) when E > 0.
33. IfIx-21 <0.1andly-31 < 0.2, then J(x + y) - 51 <a,Ixy-61
< P, and I
-Y
- 3I < y. Find a, P, and y. Hint: Write Ix - 21 <0.1
as1.9<x<2.1. Ans. a = 0.3, = 0.72, y=1/12.
34. Find lim Ix /x, lim lx /x, and draw a graph of y = lx /x.
35. If g(x) is continuous at x = a and f (y) is continuous at y = g(a), prove
that F(x) - f [g(x)] is continuous at x = a.
[n],
36. Write the first ten terms of the sequence sn = where the notation
[a] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal
n to a; for example,
[5] = 5, [9/2] = 4, and [1.99] = 1. Find an alternate definition for
the odd and even terms of sn that does not use this notation. Does the
sequence have a limit?
 CHAPTER 2

Differentiation and Applications

10. Increments
If a variable x changes from one fixed value xl to another x2, the
difference x2 - xl is called an increment of x. In general an increment
of x may be positive or negative, and it is denoted by the symbol Ox,
read "delta x." Similarly, Ay denotes an increment of y, zf (x) an
increment of f (x), and so on.
Let y be a continuous, single-valued function of x denoted by
y = f(x) (1)
If the independent variable changes from the value x to another value
x + Ox, the function (1) will change from y to y + Ay; thus
y+oy=f(x+Ax). (2)

Subtracting (1) from (2), we obtain the increment of the function

AY = of (x) = f (x + Ox) - f (x)
corresponding to the increment Ox of the variable x.
Illustration. If y = x2, then Ay = (x + 0x)2 - x2 = 2x Ox + (0x)2.
Hence, if x changes from 3 to 3.1, we have x = 3, Ox = 0.1, and Ay =
2(3)(0.1) + (0.1)2 = 0.61.

II. Derivative
If an increment Ay of a function y = f (x) is divided by Ox, the
quotient gives the average rate of change of y with respect to x in the
interval from x to x + Ox. Symbolically,
Dy=f(x+Ax) -f(x) (1)
Ox Ox
Illustration. When y= x2, we obtain
Ay _ 2x Ox + (Ox) 2
= 2x + Ox.
Ox Ox
33
34 Differentiation and Applications

Thus the average rates of change for the intervals (3,4), (3,3.1), and
(3,3.01) are respectively 7, 6.1, and 6.01. Observe that the average
rate of change approaches the limit 6 as the length of the interval Ox
approaches zero.
If, for a fixed value of x, the quotient (1) approaches a limit as the
increment Ox approaches zero, this limit is called the derivative of y
with respect to x for the given value of x, and it is denoted by the
symbol Wx' or dy/dx. Thus, by definition,
f (x + Ox) - f (x)
dy = lim Ay = lira
dx 4z-*0 Ox AX-+0 Ox
Other symbols used to denote the derivative are
Dry, Dzf (x), y', f'(x), f(x)
The process of finding dyldx, when y = f (x) is known, is called
differentiation; and if the derivative exists, f (x) is said to be a
differentiable function. The procedure for finding the derivative of
a given function may be summarized in the following four-step rule.
1. Substitute x + Ox for x and y + Ay for y in, y = f (x).
2. Subtract y = f (x) from the result of 1 to obtain Ay in terms of x
and Ox.
3. Divide both sides of 2 by Ax.
4. Find the limit of 3 as Ox approaches zero.

Example I. If y = + 1, find dx (a) for any value of x, (b) for x = 2.

x
Solution: (a) In accordance with the four-step rule, we have

1. y+Ayx+Ox+ 1' 1

AY _ 1 1
2.
x+Ax+1 x+1
- Ax
(x+Ox+ 1)(x+ 1)'
AV 1
3.
Ax (x -I- AX + 1) (x + 1)'
dy - oy 1
4. d ax o Ox (x + 1) 2

(b) When x = 2, by substitution we find

dx (2 + 1) 2 91
 Derivative 35

Example 2. Find dy/dx, if y = Vx-.

Solution:
1. y+Ay=VX+AX,
2. Dy= x+Ax - v/x
_ 1/x + Ox - 1/x 1/x _+ AX + -
N/x-1

1/x -+ Ox + \/x-
Ox

Dy 1
3.
Ox 1/x+AX +V'x
4.
dyI
dx FATX
x 0.

Example 3. Find the rate of change of the volume of a sphere with

respect to its radius when the radius is 6 inches.
Solution: Using 12, page 1, and applying the four-step rule, we have

V = 3 7Tr3,

4
V + AV = 7r(r + Ar)3,
3
AV = 3 7T[(r + Or)3 - r3]

= 3 7r[3r2 Or + 3r(Ar)2 + (Or)3],

3r AY + (Or)2],
Ar = 4 7T[3r2 +
dV = lim AV
= 47rr2.
dr dr--*O Lr
Hence, when r = 6, the volume of the sphere is increasing at the rate
47r(6)2 = 1447r cubic inches per inch of increase in the radius.
The existence of a derivative implies the continuity of the function
as is shown in the following theorem.
Theorem. If f'(x) exists at x = a, then f (x) is continuous at x = a.
Proof: For x a consider the identity
f (xx a(a) (x - a) + f (a).
f (x) =
36 Differentiation and Applications
Taking the limit of both sides as x --* a, we have
lim f (x) = f(a) 0 + f (a) = f (a).
x->a

This, by definition, means that the function is continuous at x a.

EXERCISE 4
Find dy/dx in each of the following.
1. y=x2-5x. Ans. y'=2x-5.
2. y= 1 +3x-x2.
3. y=2x3+x. y'=6x2+1.
4. y=x3-2x2-3.
5. y=x 3
y = -z2.
3

6. Y2-x' 3

x 1
7. Y x + 1 Y (x + 1) 2

8. Y X3.
1

1
y' _ 21/x+ 1
10. y= 2x.
II. y = (ax + b)2. y' = 2a(ax + b).
C
12. y=
ax + b

In each of the following evaluate dy/dx, when x = 2.

13. Y= 8x-x3. Ans.y'=-4.
14. Y x4.
15. Y= axe+bx+C. y'=4a+b.
16. Y= (x + a)3.
1
17. Y= x2 - 1
2 - x
18. y=
3-x
19. Y a+x
a + 2
Y
,

a + 2
1

a +x2bx2
20. Y=
21. V= x2-3. = 2.
 Derivatives of Powers of x 37

22. = 1
Y 7 2x
23. If y = 3x2 - 2x + 1, find the value of x for which y' = 0. Arts. .

24. If f (x) = x3 - 3x2, find the values of x for which f (x) = 0.

25. For what values of x is the derivative of (2x - x-1) equal to 3?
Aits. ± 1.
26. For the function y = x1/x find the value of x for which the rate of
change of y with respect to x is 6.
27. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius
when the radius is 3 feet. Arts. 67r sq. ft./ft.
28. Find the rate of change of the area of a sphere with respect to its radius
when the radius is 6 inches.
29. Find the rate at which the volume of a right circular cylinder of constant
altitude 10 feet changes with respect to its diameter when the radius is
5 feet. Ans. 507r cu. ft./ft.
30. If f (x) is continuous at x = a, can we conclude that f' (x) exists at
x = a? Sketch two continuous curves that have no derivative at
x = a, and give their equations.

12. Derivatives of Powers of x

The four-step rule indicates the basic procedure to be followed in
determining the derivative of any given function. Continued use of
this process, however, is exceedingly laborious and consequently, in
actual practice, special rules are derived for differentiating certain
standard types of functions. Three of such rules are as follows, where
c is a constant, it a positive integer, and f (x) and g(x) denote two
differentiable functions of x.
dc
I 0.
dx

II (Cxn) = cnxn-1.

III dx If (x) + g(x)] = dxf (x) + dx g(x).

Proof of I: If y = c, by the four-step rule we have y + Ay = c,
Ay = 0, Ay/Ax = 0; hence dy/dx = do/dx = 0.
Illustration I. If y = 7, by I we have dy/dx = 0.
The converse of this rule is also true, that is, if f'(x) = 0, then
f (x) = constant. This fact will be proved in Article 76.
38 Differentiation and Applications

Proof of II: Applying the four-step rule to y = cxn and using the
binomial formula, we have
1. y+Ay=c(x+Ax)n
= C [Xn + 9txn-1Ax + 41(92 1) xn-2(AX) 2 + . . . + (Ax) nl

c41(41 - 1) xn-2(Qx) 2 -}- ... + C(AX)n'

2. Ay = Cnxn-iAX +
2!
C11(n 1) xn-2Ax + ... + C(AX)n-1,
3. = C41xn-1 +

Ax 2!

4. lira AY
Ex = Cnxn-1.
dy =
dx dx->o

Illustration 2. If y = 3x5, by II we have dy/dx = 3(5)x5-1 = 15x4.

Note: Although II has been established only for the case when it is a
positive integer, it will be proved later that the formula is valid when n is
any real number. In the meantime we shall assume its validity for all
real n's.
Illustration 3. If y = 8x-3/4, by II we have dy/dx = 8(-a)x-3/4-1

- 6x-7/4.

Proof of III: Applying the four-step rule and using Theorem 1,

Article 6, we have
y = f (x) + g(x),
y+Ay=f(x+Ox) +g(x+Ax),
AY = [f (x + Ax) - f (x)] + [g(x + Ax) - g(x)],
lim AY = lim f (x + Ax) - f (x) + lim
g(x + Ox) - g(x)
Ax
Ax-+O Ax
Jx--*0 Ax dx- O
dy _ _
dx dxg(x).

A similar proof holds for any finite number of functions. Hence the
derivative of the sum of a finite number of functions is equal to the sent of
their derivatives.
Illustration 4. Ify=2x4-x3-2x+7,then
(2x) + (7) by III
dx dx (2x4) - TX (x3) dx d-
= 8x3 - 3x2 - 2 by I and II.
 Exercise 39

Example 1. If f (x) =
3x3 -4 find f' (x).
X2

Solution: \Vriting f (x) in the form f (x) = 3x - 4x-2, by III and II we

have
f' (x) (3x) - dx (4x-2) = 3 + 8x-3.
17X

Example 2. For what values of x is the derivative of the function x3/2 -

X1/2 equal to zero?
Solutions: If y = x3/2 - x112, then
dy
dx
_ 3 x1/2
2
- 1 x-1/2.
2
(1)

Setting (1) equal to zero and solving for x, we find x = 3.

Example 3. If f (x) = x1/4, prove that f'(x) = 4x-3/4

Proof : The first two steps in the derivative rule yield

f (x + Ox) - f (x) = (x + AX) 1/4 - x114. (2)
In accordance with the algebraic identity
u4 - 714 = (11 - 71) (1t3 + 11271 + 11712 + 713),

it is clear that if we multiply the numerator and denominator of the right

side of (2) by
(x + Ox) 3/4 + (x + Ox) 2/4x1/4 + (x + AX)1/4x2/4 + x3/4,
the relation (2) can be written as
( x + Ox) - x
f (x + Ox) - f (x) = (x + AX) 3/4 + (x + Ax)1/2x1/4 + (x + Ax)1/4x1/2 + x3/4

Hence we conclude that

I
f'(x) = lim f (x + Ox) - f (x) = = 4x-3/4
dx->o AX 4x3/4

EXERCISE S
Find y' in each of the following.
1. y = x3(2x2 - 1). Ans. y' = 10x4 - 3x2.
2. y= (x- 1)(2x2+3).
3. y=axe+bx+c. y'=2ax+b.
4. y = 2x1/2 + 3x2/3.
5. y=4x-2+3x-1+7. Y'= -8x-3-3x-2.
6. Y = z(x2 - x-2).
40 Differentiation and Applications

7. y= x2 - 3Vx - 5. Ans. y' = 3x-1/3 - x-2/3

8. y=2(x+1)3.
x5-2x3-3 3x5-2x3+6
9. Y= x2 Y= x3
(2 - x) (2x + 1)

In each of the following, find y' for the given value of x.

II. y=2x3-3x2-x+5, x=2. Ans. 11.
12. y= (x- 1)(x+3)2, x= -3.
13. y=2V(3x-2), x=4. 17.
14. y=3(13/x-2)2, x= -8.
15.
y=x+1 X _1 -3.
x

16. y=(1+ Vx)(2+'fix), x=1.

IT y=x/-aV , x=a. 2V.
18. y= (x-a)(x2-a2), x=a.
19. y=13/ax2+$'a2x, x=a.
x2 a2
20. y=a2+x2, x=a.
21. If y = 2x4 - x2, find the values of x for which y' = 0. Ans. 0, ±
22. If f (x) = x3 + 4x2 - 3x - 5, find the values of x for which f'(x) = 0.
23. For what values of x is the derivative of the function 2x - 3x-1 equal
to 14? Ans. ± 2
24. For what values of x is the derivative of the function 1/x2 + 1/x equal
to 1?
25. For what values of x is the derivative of x3 equal to the derivative of
x2 + x? Ans. 1, - 3.
26. Find the area of a circle when the rate of change of the area with respect
to a diameter is 47r square feet per foot.
27. Find the rate of change of the circumference of a circle with respect to
the area, when the area equals 47r square feet. , Ans. 2 ft./sq. ft.
28. If in is a positive integer, by applying the four-step rule, prove that
(x-m) _ -inx-m-1
dx
29. If y = c f (x), where c is a constant and f (x) is a differentiable function,
prove that dy/dx = cf'(x).
30. Let f (x) and g(x) be two continuous differentiable functions such that
f'(x) = g(x) and g'(x) = -f (x). If la(x) =f2(X) + g2(x), and h(0) = 1,
find h(1).
 Slope of a Curve 41

13. Slope of a Curve

In Figure 9, if P and Q are any two distinct points of a curve C,
the line PQ is called a secant of C. If the point P is fixed and Q is
made to approach P along C, the secant PQ will usually approach a
definite line PT as a limit. This
line is called the tangent to C at P. Y

These definitions lead to the

following interpretation of the
derivative which is of basic iin- oy
portance in all applications of
the calculus to geometry. Let C
y = f (x) be the equation of C, and i
R
let (x, y) and (x + Ox, y + Ay) be i
y
the coordinates of P and Q re- 01 X
- A"
spectively. we see in Figure 9 "
that the slope of the secant PQ Figure 9
is RQ/PR = Ay/Ax. Since the
slope of the tangent PT is the limit of RQ/PR as Q approaches P, that is,
as Ox approaches zero, we have by definition*
dy
Slope of tangent at P(x,y) = dx-

The slope of the tangent line defines the slope of a curve at the
point of tangency; hence
The slope of the curve y = f (x) at the point (h,k) is f'(h).
Illustration I. If y = 3x - 2x2, we have y' = 3 - 4x. Hence the slope
of the curve at the point (2,-2) is 3 - 4(2) = -5.
Since the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at the point (h,k) has the
slope f'(h), the equation of the tangent line is
y - k = f'(h)(x - h).
The normal line to the curve y = f (x) at (h,k) is defined as the
line through (h,k) perpendicular to the tangent at that point. Hence
the slope of the normal is - l/f'(h) and its equation is

y-k= - .f ,h)(x-h).
* If dy/dx is unbounded as dx -> 0, the tangent line PT is parallel to they axis and
has no slope.
42 Differentiation and Applications
Illustration 2. The slope of the tangent to the curve y = 4x - x3 at the
point (2,0) is f'(2) = 4 - 3(2)2 = -8. Hence the equation of the tangent
is y - 0 = - 8(x - 2) or 8x + y - 16 = 0, and the equation of the normal
isy-0=$(x-2)orx-8y-2=0.
Y
Note: When f(h) = 0, the equations of
the tangent and normal are respectively
2
y = k and x = h; and when -1/f'(h) = 0,
they are respectively x = h and y = k. For
example, the tangent and normal to the
curve y = x1/3 (Figure 17, page 50) at (0,0)
are x = 0 and y = 0, respectively.
_i p I
A Example. Find the angle between the
two curves y = x2 and y = x3 + x2 + l at
Figure 10 their point of intersection.
Solution: The angle between two curves
at a point of intersection is defined as the angle between their tangent
lines at that point, and the angle between two lines having the slopes ml and
m2 is defined by the relation
1111 - 1112
tan = 1 + m11112 (1)
Solving the given equations simultaneously, we find the point of inter-
section (-1,1) shown in Figure 10. The slopes of the curves at this point
are respectively m1 = 2(- 1) = -2 and m2 = 3(- 1)2 + 2(- 1) = 1.
Hence, by substitution in (1), we obtain tan = 3 or 0 = tan-' 3 = 71.6°.
EXERCISE 6
Find the slope of the given curve at the point indicated.
I. y = 8x - 3x2, (2,4). Ans. -4.
2. y = x4 - x2 + 2, (- 1,2).
3. y = x3 - 1, (0, - 1). 0.

4. y = 8/x2, (2,2).
5. y = x + 2x-1, (2,3).
6. y = 2Fx, (-8,-4).
7. At what point is 2 the slope of the curve y = 4x + x2? (-1, - 3) .
8. At what points is 9 the slope of the curve y = x3 - 3x2?
9. Find where the slope of y = 1/x is 1. (1
42
10. Find where the slope of y = 2x-2 is 2.
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the following curves at
the point indicated.
II. y=2x-x2, (2,0). Ans. 2x+y=4, x-2y=2.
12. y = 2 + x - 3x3, (3,-4).
 Exercise 43

13. y=x(2-x)2, (1,1). Ans.x+y=2, x-y=0.

14. y = (x + 1)3, (-2,-1).
15. y=x3+3x-1, (1,4). y=4, x= 1.
16. y = x + x2/3, (0,0).
17. y=a2-x2, (a,0). 2ax+y=2a2, x - lay=a.
18. y = (ax - b)2, (b/2a, b2/4).
19. Y
X a 1 a,251 3x+ay=4a,2ax-6y=a2-15.
s
20. y = Vax2 + a2x, (a,2a).
Find the angle of intersection between the following pairs of curves.
y=x3
+2y-3=0,
21.
y=x. +x-8' Ans. 40.6°. 22. t =VX.
1, = x3 + x,
23. y = x2 + y=x+x-1.
63.4°. 24. yy=x2.
25. At what point of the parabola y = x2 - 3x - 5 is the tangent line
parallel to 3x - y = 2? Find its equation. Ans. 3x - y = 14.
26. At what point of the curve y = x4 is the normal line parallel to 2x +
y = 3? Find its equation.
27. Find the point where the normal to y = x + 1/ at (4,6) crosses the
y axis. Ans. y = 9.2.
28. For the curve y = x2 + x, at what point
does the normal line at (0,0) intersect the
tangent line at (1,2)? Y

29. The tangent to y = x3 - 6x2 + 8x at

(3,-3) intersects the curve at another Y= f (x) P(h, k)
point. Find this point. Ans. (0,0).
30. Prove that the line tangent to the curve X
O T N
y = x + 2x2 - x4 at the point (- 1,0) is
also tangent to the curve at the point Figure 11
(1,2).
31. The lengths of the line segments PT and PN in Figure 11 are called,
respectively, the tangent length and normal length of the curve
y = f (x) at the point P(h,k). Show that these lengths are given by
f(h)NI- (,t)[f ' (h)] 2I ,
PT = I PN = I f (h)
f 1 + [f ' (h)] 2I
32. Find the tangent and normal lengths for the curve y = 3x3 - x2 +
3x + 3 at the point (1,2). (See Problem 31.)
33. The lengths of the line segments TD and DN in Figure 11 are called
respectively the subtangent and subnormal of the curve y = f (x) at
the point P(h,k). Show that these lengths are given by

TD = I f-(h)1 ' DN = If (h)f '(h) I

44 Differentiation and Applications

34. Find the subtangent and subnormal for the curve y = x3 + 5x2 - 8
at the point (-2,4). (See Problem 33.)
35. If on the interval a < x < b two differentiable functions satisfy the
relation f (x) < g(x), does it necessarily follow that f'(x) < g'(x)? Give
an illustration.

14. Velocity and Acceleration

Let us suppose that a particle is moving on the straight line OA,
and passes the points P and Q (Figure 12) at the times t and t + At,
respectively. If s and s + As are
}+or the respective distances of P and
os-
}

[E- s Q from some fixed point 0, then

0 p Q A Os/At is the average velocity of
the particle during the time in-
Figure 12 terval At, and
As ds
v= lim At
=
dt
.,t-->o

is the instantaneous velocity of the particle at the time t.

Similarly, if Ov is the change in the velocity of the particle as it
moves from P to Q during the time interval At, then

a= lim
at-'o At
Ov
= -
dv
dt
is the instantaneous acceleration of the particle at the time t.
Illustration. When a particle moves in accordance with the law s = t2 -
2t + 3, its velocity and acceleration when t = 3 are v = ds/dt = [2t - 2]t=3
= 4 and a = dv/dt = [2]t=3 = 2.
If a body is thrown vertically upward with a certain initial velocity
vo (feet per second), its distance s (feet) from the starting point is given
approximately in terms of the time t (seconds) by the formula
s = vot - 16t2, (1)
where s is positive or negative according as the body is above or below
the starting point.
Example. From the top of a building 96 feet high, a ball is thrown
directly upward with a velocity of 80 feet per second. Find (a) the time
required to reach the highest point, (b) the maximum height attained, and
(c) the velocity of the ball when it reaches the ground.
Solution: Substituting vo = 80 in (1), we obtain
s = 80t - 16t2; hence v = dt = 80 - 32t. (2)
 Exercise 45

(a) At the highest point v = 0; hence from (2) we have 0 = 80 - 321, or

t = 2 seconds.
12

(b) When t = the distance above the top of the building is given by
s = 80(2) - 16(2)2 = 100 feet. Hence the height of the ball above the
ground is 196 feet.
(c) Since the ball will reach the ground when s = - 96, it follows that
- 96 = 801 - 1612 or 16(1 - 6) (1 + 1) = 0. Hence t = 6 and, by (2), the
velocity is v = 80 - 32(6) _ -112 feet per second when the ball strikes
the ground. The negative sign merely indicates that the velocity of the ball
is directed downward.

EXERCISE 7
In each of the following, find the velocity and acceleration when t = 2.
1. s=8t2-3t. Ans. 29, 16. 2. s=40-lot-
512.
3. s=13-31-5. 9,12. 4. s=160t-3213.
5. s=20-412- t4. -48, -56. 6. s= 2t+ 213.
7. s = 5t - 41-1. 6, -1. 8. S = t2 + 81-2.

9. S= 10 (13 + 8). 20, 40. 10. s = (1 + 21-1)3.

11. If s = t3 - 512 + 5t - 3, when will the velocity be 2? Ans. t = 33.

12. If s = 15 - 1012, when will the acceleration be zero?

13. Ifs = 12 - 13, find the velocity when the acceleration is zero.
Ans. 3.
14. Two particles have positions at time t given by the equations s1 = 4t - t2
and s2 = 12 - 2. Find their positions when they have the same
velocity.
15. Two particles have positions at time t given by the equations sl = t3 - t
and s2 = 612 - 13. Find their velocities when they have the same
acceleration. Ans. 2 and 9.
16. A baseball is thrown directly upward with an initial velocity of 64 feet
per second. How high will it rise?
17. A cliff 128 feet high overhangs a lake. A man on the edge of the cliff
throws a stone vertically upward with a velocity of 32 feet per second.
at what velocity does the stone strike the water? Ans. 96 ft./sec.
18. A bomb is dropped (vo = 0) from an airplane 6400 feet high. Find
when and at what velocity the bomb will strike the ground.
19. Find the initial velocity needed in order to shoot a projectile vertically
upward a distance of 10,000 feet. Ans. 800 ft./sec.
20. From a height of 64 feet a ball is thrown vertically upward with a
One second later another ball is dropped
velocity of 24 feet per second.
from the same height. At what height above the ground do the two
balls pass each other?
46 Differentiation and Applications
15. Maxima and Minima; Critical Points
A function y = f (x) is said to be an increasing function of x if its
value increases as x increases. Similarly, it is a decreasing function of
x if y decreases as x increases. Thus, in Figure 13, the function is
increasing from A to B, decreasing from B to D, and increasing from
D to F. At points, such as B, D,
and E, where the slope- of the
curve is zero, the function f (x) is
said to be stationary.
The point B of the curve,
where the function changes from
increasing to decreasing is called
X a maximum point, and the
D function is said to have a relative
Figure 13 maximum value at B. Likewise,
the point D, where the function
changes from decreasing to increasing, is called a minimum point,
and the function is said to have a relative minimum value at D.
Relative maximum and minimum values should not be confused
with absolute maximum and minimum values. Thus if a function,
say f (x) = 4x - x2, is defined only in the domain 0 < x < 3, it is
apparent from Figure 14 that f (2) = 4 is
the absolute maximum and f (0) = 0 is
the absolute minimum for f (x) in the Y
given domain. Observe especially that 4t
the derivative f'(x) = 4 - 2x exists at
x = 0 and is equal to 4, not zero! When
3+
the representation of a function is
different for different intervals the end
points should always be checked for 2+
either absolute or relative maximum and
minimum points. Note that the function
,f(x) = x + I x - 1 1 , whose graph is
shown in Figure 6, has a minimum X

value of 1 at all points of the interval 0 1 2 3

0 < x < 1.
For relative maxima and minima, we Figure 14
have the following result.
Theorem. If a function f (x) has a relative maximum or minimum
at x = a, and if the derivative f'(a) exists, then f'(a) = 0.
Proof : For f (x) to be a maximum when x = a means that
f (a + Ax) - f (a) < 0
 Maxima and Minima; Critical Points 47

for all numerically small positive or negative values of Ox. Hence it

follows that
f (a + Ax) -f (a)
< 0 when
Ox
f (a + Ax) -f(a) > 0 when
Ox
In taking the limit of these expressions as I Ax I - 0, we find that
f'(a) < 0 and f'(a) > 0, respectively, and since these two limits must
be the same, we conclude that f'(a) = 0. A similar proof holds
when f (x) has a relative minimum value for x = a.
If the function f (x) has a derivative for every value of x, we see
geometrically that
1. f (x) is increasing at x = a, when f'(a) is positive.
2. f (x) is decreasing at x = a, when f'(a) is negative.
3. f (x) is a maximum at x = a, when f'(a) = 0, and f'(x) changes
sign from + to - as x increases through a.
4. f (x) is a minimum at x = a, when f '(a) = 0, and f '(x) changes
sign from - to + as x increases through a.
Note: The above results can be established rigorously. For example,
consider part 1, where f'(a) > 0. Since the limit of [f (x) - f (a)]l(x - a)
exists as x a, it follows that for any E > 0 there is a 8 > 0 such that
f (x) f (a)
- f(a) I < E, when ix - a < S.
x-a
Taking e = 2 f'(a), we see for all x in a - 8 < x < a + 8 that
f (x) f (a) > Zf'(a) ; hence f (x) f (a) > 0.
x a x a
Thus f (x) - f (a) and x - a must have the same sign, and so if xl and x2 are
two values in the domain that satisfy a - 8 < xi < a< x2 < a + 8, we
find
f (xi) < f (a) and f (a) < f (x2) .
Hence f (x) is an increasing function at x = a. The other statements can
be proved by similar considerations.
Illustration. For the function y = x3 - 3x - 5, we have y' = 3x2 - 3 =
3 (x + 1) (x - 1). Testing with the values x = - 2, -1, 0, we find respec-
tively y' = +, 0, - ; hence (- 1, - 3) is a maximum point of the curve.
Testing with the values x = 0, 1, 2, we find respectively y' _ -, 0, + ; hence
(1, - 7) is a minimum point of the curve.
48 Differentiation and Applications

If a value xo in the domain of f (x) is such that f'(xo) is zero or

undefined, xo is called a critical value of f (x), and the corresponding
point on the curve y = f (x) is called a critical point. Thus the points
B, D, and E in Figure 13 are critical points. A point such as E where
the slope changes from + to 0 to +, or - to 0 to -, is called a point
of inflection with horizontal tangent.
Example. Find the maximum and minimum points of the curve
y=x2+ 1166.

Solution: Differentiating y = x2 + 16x-1, we have

16 2(x3 - 8) 2(x - 2) (x2 + 2x + 4)
Y' = 2x - 16x-2
= 2x - z2 = x2 - x2

Setting y' = 0, we obtain the critical value x = 2. Testing x = 2 -, 2, 2 +,

we find y' = -, 0, +. Hence this gives a
Y
minimum point (2,12) of the curve. Observe
also that y' does not exist at x = 0; hence
x = 0 is a critical value. The curve, however,
Y=Xa is not defined at x = 0, so there is no corre-
X s ponding critical point .
0
Note: A critical point may sometimes exist
Figure 15 at a point where the slope function f'(x) is
For example, the slope of the curve
undefined.
y = x2/3 (Figure 15) is undefined at x = 0, but since f (0) < f (x) for all other
values of x, it follows that (0,0) is a minimum point. Note also that a
function defined as f (x) = x2/3 for x 0 and f (0) = 1 does not have a
minimum value.
EXERCISE 8
In each of the following, find the range of x for which y (a) increases,
(b) decreases, as x increases.
y=x2-6x-7. Ans. (a) x > 3, (b) x < 3.
y=9-5x-2x2.
y=x3+3x2+3x. (a) All x, (b) None.
y =3x4-8x3+5 .

y=x4-2x2. (a) -1 < x < 0, x >1, (b)x<-1,0<x<1.

y = x2 - x-2.
Find the maximum and minimum points for each of the following curves.
7. y=x2-4x-1. Ans. (2, - 5), min.
8. y=7+3x-2x2.
9. y=x3-9x2+15x-5. (1,2), max.; (5,-30), min.
 Points of Inflection; Concavity 49

10. y=x3-3x2+4.
I. Y = 2x3 - x2 + 3x - I. Ans. None.
12. y = (x + 1)(x - 1)2.
13. y=x4+4x. (-1,-3),min.
14. Y = 3x4 - 16x3 + 24x2.
15. y = x5 - 5x3 - 20x - 2. (2,-50), min.; (-2,46), max.
16. y=x3(2-x)2.
17. Y = x + x-1. (-1,-2), max.; (1,2), min.
18. Y = 2x-2 + 3x-1 - 2.
19. Y = 1/x - x None.

20. y=x-2x1/2+2.
21. Find a and b so that the curve y= x3 + axe + b will have a critical
point at (2,5). Ans. a = - 3, b = 9.
22. _Find a and b so that y = ax + bx-1 will have a critical point at (2,4).
23. Show that the function y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d increases for all x,
when b2 < 3ac and a > 0.
24. Show that the function y= x3(x + a) attains a minimum of -27a4/256.

16. Higher Derivatives

The derivative of a function y = f (x) gives a new function which
may in turn be differentiated. If the derivative of the first derivative
exists, it is called the second derivative of the original function and is
represented by the symbols
d2y d2
f"(x), Dzy, DIf(x)
yit
,
dx2' z2f(x),

Similarly, the derivative of the second derivative is called the third

derivative, and so on. In general, the nth derivative is represented
by the symbols

dxn' xnf (x), y(n),

f(n,(x), Dzy, Dzf (x)

Illustration. If y=x3-2x2- 3x+5,then y' =3x2-4x- 3, y"

6x - 4,y=6 y(4)=y(5)=...=0.
17. Points of Inflection; Concavity
Let us suppose that the curve of Figure 16 is the graph of a function
y = f (x) which has a first and second derivative for every value of x
for which f (x) is defined. As a point P traces the curve from A to B,
the slope function is increasing and the arc AB is said to be concave
50 Differentiation and Applications

upward (holds water). From B to C, the slope function is decreasing

and the arc is said to be concave downward. The point B where
the curve changes its sense of concavity is called a point of inflection
of the curve.
Since the rate of change of any function is represented by its
derivative, the rate of change of
the slope function f'(x) is given by
the second derivative f " (x) . Hence
we have
1. Y = f (x) is concave upward
at x = a, when f"(a) is
Positive.
2. y = f (x) is concave down-
Figure 16 ward at x = a, when f"(a)
is negative.
3. y = f (x) has a Point of inflection at x = a, when f '(a) = 0, and
f"(x) changes sign as x increases through a.
Illustration. When y = x3 - 6x2 + 12, we have y' = 3x2 - 12x and
y" = 6x - 12. Setting y" = 0 gives x = 2. Since the curve changes from
concave downward (y" negative) to concave upward (y" positive) as x
increases through 2, the point (2,-4) is a point of inflection.
Note: A point of inflection may sometimes exist at a point where
f"(x) is undefined. For example, consider the
curve y = x113 (Figure 17). Differentiating, we ly
have y' = 3 x-2/3 and y" s When
x-5/3.

x < 0 we have y" > 0, and when x > 0 we

have y" < 0. This means that (0,0) is a point -OK X
of inflection, since the curve changes from con-
cave upward to concave downward as x in-
creases through 0.
Figure 17
Since a curve is usually concave upward
at a minimum point and concave downward at a maximum point,
we have the following alternate test for maximum and minimum
values.
f (x) is a maximum at x = a, if f'(a) = 0 and f"(a) is negative.
f (x) is a minimum at x = a, if f(a) = 0 and f"(a) is positive.
When f "(a) is zero or does not exist, the test given in Article 15
should be used.
 Exercise 51

Example I. For the curve y = 3x5 + 5x4, find the critical points, the
points of inflection, and trace the curve.
Solution: Computing the first and second derivatives, we have
y' = 15x4 + 20x3 = 5x3(3x + 4),
y" = 60x3 + 60x2 = 60x2 (x + 1).
Setting y' = 0, we obtain the critical points (- 3i 816) and (0,0). At the
first point y" is negative; hence this point is a
maximum. At the second point y" is zero, but
since the slope changes from - to + as x t3
increases through zero, this point is a minimum.
Setting y" = 0, we obtain x = -1 and
x = 0. As x increases thraagh -1, y" changes
sign ; hence (- 1,2) is a point of inflection. As
x increases through zero, y" does not change
sign; hence (0,0) is not a point of inflection.
Plotting these points and the additional O
X

points (- 3,0) and (0.5,0.4), we obtain the curve

shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18
Example 2. If a, b, and c are positive con-
stants, prove that ax + b/x >_ c, for all positive values of x, when 4ab >_ c2.
Proof: Consider the function f (x) = ax + bx-1 - c, and its derivatives
f'(x) = a - bx-2 andf"(x) = 2bx-3.
By setting f'(x) equal to zero, we find x = 1/b/a. Since f"(x) > 0 for
all positive values of x, it follows that f (x) has its minimum value when
x = NI-bla. Computing this minimum value, we obtain
f (Vb/a) = Vab + Vab - c,
which by hypothesis is greater than or equal to zero. Hence f (x) >_ 0, or
ax + blx > c, for all positive values of x.

EXERCISE 9
In each of the following, find y', y", and y'".
1. y=x4-2x2+5. Ans. y'=4x3-4x,y"= 12x2-4,y' =24x.
2. y = (x + 1) 3.
3. y=1(x2-3x)2.
X
y'=3x2-12x+9,y"=6x-12,ym=6.
4. y= v' .

5. y=x2-2x-1. y'=2x+2x-2,y"=2-4x-3,y'"=12x-4.
52 Differentiation and Applications
Find the points of inflection for the following curves.
6. y=5-2x-3x2-x3.
7. y=x4-24x2+75. Ans. (±2,-5).
8. y=x(x2-5)2.
9. y=x2-x-1. (1,0).

10. y = x1/2 + x-1/2.

Find the critical points, the points of inflection, and trace the following
curves.
11. y = 3x3 - 3x2 - 2x. Ans. (2, - s) min., (-1,'s) max., (1, -f) infl.
12. y = (x2 + 1)(x - 1).
13. y = 3x4 - 8x3 + 6x2. (0,0) min., (1,1) infl., (3,27) infl.
14. y = (x2 + 2) 2.
15. y = (x + 1)2/x. (1,4) min., (-1,0) max.
16. y = x1/3 + 2x4/3.

17. Sketch smooth curves y = f (x) that have the following properties:
(a) f (0) = 0, f'(x) > 0 for x < 0, f'(x) < 0 for x > 0,
(b) f(2) = 1, f"(x) > 0 for x < 2, f"(x) < 0 for x > 2.
18. Sketch a smooth curve y =f(x) that has the following properties:
f (0) = 1, f'(0) = 0, f"(0) = 0, f'(x) > 0 for x 0, f"(x) < 0 for x < 0,
f"(x) > 0 for x > 0.
19. Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve y = x3 - 6x2 +
5x + 2 at its point of inflection. Ans. 7x + y = 10.
20. Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve y = (x + 3)1V6at its
point of inflection.
21. Find the equation of the line normal to the curve y = 3x5 + 10x3 + 15x
+ 1 at its point of inflection. Ans. x + 15y = 15.
22. Find the equation of the line normal to the curve y = x(x + a) (x + 2a)
at its point of inflection.
23. Determine a and b so that the curve y = ax3 + bx2 will have a point of
inflection at (1,2). Apts. a = -1, b = 3.
24. Determine a and b so that the curve y = axe + bx-2 will have a point
of inflection at (1,3).
25. Determine a, b, and c so that the curve y = ax3 + bx2 + cx will have a
slope of 4 at its point of inflection (-1,-5). Ans. a = 1, b = 3, c = 7.
26. Determine a, b, and c so that the line 16x - y + 20 = 0 will be tangent
to curve y = ax4 + bx2 + c at its point of inflection (- 1,4).
27. Determine a, b, c, and d so that the curve y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d will
have a critical point at the origin and a point of inflection at (2,4).
Arts. a = --1,b= 2ic=d=0.
 Applications of Maxima and Minima 53

28. Determine a, b, c, and d so that the curve y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d will

have horizontal tangents at the points (1,2) and (2,3).
29. Indicate by a sketch the nature of the curve y = f (x) at the point (h,k),
when
(a) f'(x) > 0, f"(x) > 0, for x < h,
f'(x) < 0, f"(x) > 0, for x > h,
(b) f'(x) > 0, f"(x) > 0, for x < h,
f'(x) > 0, f"(x) < 0, for x > Ii.
30. Indicate by a sketch the nature of the curve y = f (x) at the point (h,k),
when
(a) lim f'(x) = + oo, f"(x) > 0, for x < la,
x-*la -
lim f'(x) = 0, f"(x) < 0, for x > h,
x--->h +

(b) lim f'(x) = + oo, f"(x) > 0, for x < h,

x-+h -
lim f'(x) = - oo, f"(x) > 0, for x > It.
x--->h+

31. If a, b, and c are positive constants, show that axe + b/x > c for all
positive values of x, when 27ab2 > 4c3.
32. If n is greater than one, prove that xn - 1 >_ n(x - 1) for all positive
values of x. Hint: Show that f (x) 0, where f (x) = xn - nx +
it - 1.
33. If the positive functions f (x) andg(x) are such thatf'(a) = 0, g'(a) = 0,
f "(a) < 0, and g"(a) < 0, prove that their product also has a relative
maximum value at x = a.
34. The functions f (x) and g(x) are such that f"(a) = 0 and g"(a) = 0. Is
the condition f'(a) = 0 or g'(a) = 0 sufficient to assure for their
product the existence of an inflection point at x = a? Consider the
functions f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x5 at x = 0.
35. If a function f (x) satisfies If (x + Ii) - f (x) 5 112 for all real h and x,
show that f (x) is a constant.

18. Applications of Maxima and Minima

In geometry and applied fields we often encounter problems in
which the maximum or minimum value of some quantity is required.
In general these values may be found by proceeding as follows.
1. Express the quantity to be maximized or minimized in terms of a
single variable.
2. Differentiate the function. determined in 1 and set the derivative
equal to zero.
3. Solve 2 for values of the variable and determine by inspection or
otherwise whether they maximize or minimize the given quantity.
54 Differentiation and Applications
Example I. Find two numbers whose sum is 10, and the sum of whose
squares is a minimum.
Solution: Let x and 10 - x represent the numbers, and y the sum of
their squares. Following the procedure outlined above, we have
1. y=x2+ (10-x)2=2x2-20x+ 100.
2. y'=4x-20=0,
3. x = 5 gives a minimum, since y" = 4 > 0.
Therefore the numbers are 5 and 5.
Occasionally the analysis of a problem is clearer when two or more
variables are used. In all cases, however, the quantity to be maxi-
mized or minimized should be expressed in
terms of a single variable before it is differen-
tiated.
Example 2. Find the altitude of the cylinder
of maximum volume which can be inscribed in a
right circular cone of radius r and height It.
Solution: If x and y represent the radius
and height, respectively, the volume of the
Figure 19 cylinder is V = 7rx2 To express V in terms
Y.

of a single variable, we observe in Figure 19

that, by similar triangles,
xla hence y =
It
(r - x) (1)
r h ' r
Thus
V = 'h (rx2 - x3),
r
and by differentiating we obtain
dV 7r T 11
dx - yjt (2rx - 3x2) = r x(2r - 3x) = 0. (2)

Therefore x = 2r,
3 and by (1) the altitude is h(r - 2r)/r
3 or . 3h.

It is clear that this solution yields a maximum volume, since, as x increases

from 0 to r, the volume increases from zero to a maximum and then decreases
to zero again. Equation (2) also has the root x = 0, but this value is rejected
since it obviously gives a cylinder of minimum volume zero.
In solving certain maxima and minima problems in which radicals
occur, it is sometimes advantageous to use the fact that if f (x) has a
maximum (or minimum) value when x = a, then [f (x)]2, [f (x)]3, and
so on, have maximum or minimum values when x = a.
 Applications of Maxima and Minima 55

Example 3. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed
7 2
in the ellipse -2 + b2 = 1.

Solution: Inscribe a rectangle in the ellipse as shown in Figure 20. If

the vertex in the first quadrant is
denoted by P(x,y), the area of the
rectangle is A = 4xy.
Since the coordinates of the point
P satisfy the equation of the ellipse,
we have ?y

y=b\/a2-x2'
a
.

hence
A= 4bx
Va2 - X2. Figure 20
a

Using the fact that A is a maximum when A 2 is a maximum, we proceed

as follows.
2 2x2 a22

A2 = 1 (a2 - x2) = (a2x2 - x4).

Hence
1a6b2
TX (A2)
= (2a2x - 4x3) = 3 ab2x (a2 - 2x2) = 0.

Since x was chosen to be positive, we obtain x = a - Hence y =

JO
2 i l
2
and the maximum area is A = 4( l ( l 2ab.
a 2 `1/21 `\/21
Example 4. The electric potential at a point (x,y) on the line segment
extending from (0,3) to (2,0) is given by P = 3x2 + 2y2. At what point on
this segment is the potential a maximum?
Solution: The equation of the line segment is readily found to be
3x + 2y = 6 with 0 < x < 2. If we solve for y and substitute into the
expression for P, we obtain

P=3x2+2 6 =2(5x2-12x+12), 0<x<_2.

23x12

By differentiation, we find
dP
dx = 3(5x - 6).
56 Differentiation and Applications
Hence it would appear that x = 6/5 and y = 6/5 is the point that we are
seeking. However, by noting that d2P/dx2 = 15, we see that the point
(6/5,6/5) gives a minimum potential and furthermore that the graph depicting
the potential in the domain 0 < x < 2 is concave upward at all points. This
means that the potential reaches its absolute maximum value at one of the
end points. Since the potentials at the points (0,3) and (2,0) are 18 and 12,
respectively, we conclude that the potential is a maximum at the point (0,3).

EXERCISE 10
I. Find two positive numbers whose product is 64, and whose sum is a
minimum. Ans. 8, 8.
2. What should be the shape of a rectangular field of given perimeter, if it
is to have a maximum area?
3. A rectangular field is to be enclosed by a fence and divided into three
lots by fences parallel to one of the sides. Find the dimensions of the
largest field that can be enclosed with 800 feet of fencing.
Ans. 100 x 200 ft.
4. A rectangular lot adjacent to a highway is to be enclosed by a fence.
If the fencing costs $2.50 per foot along the highway and $1.50 per foot
on the other sides, find the dimensions of the largest lot that can be
fenced off for $720.
5. A closed box, whose length is twice its width, is to have a surface of
192 square inches. Find the dimensions of the box when the volume
is maximum. Ans. 4 x 8 x 5 3 in.
6. An open box is formed from a piece of cardboard 12 inches square by
cutting equal squares out of the corners and turning up the sides. Find
the volume of the largest box that can be made in this way.
7. If the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is 10, find the lengths
of the other sides when the area is a maximum. Ans. 5 x 51/2.
8. Find the maximum area of an isosceles triangle whose perimeter is
18 inches.
9. Find the most economical dimensions for a closed cylindrical can con-
taining a quart. Ans. Diameter = height.
10. Find the dimensions of the largest right circular cylinder that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius 6 inches.
11. If three sides of a trapezoid are each 6 inches long, how long must the
fourth side be if the area is a maximum? Ans. 12 in.
12. Find the dimensions of the largest right circular cone that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius 12 inches.
13. A triangle has a base 12 feet long and an altitude 8 feet high. Find the
area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the triangle so that
the base of the rectangle falls on the base of the triangle.
Ans. 24 sq. ft.
 Exercise 57

14. Find the dimensions of the right circular cone of greatest lateral area
that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius a.
15. Find the dimensions of the right circular cone of least volume that can
be circumscribed about a sphere of radius a. Hint: Let x + 2a =
altitude of cone. Ans. Alt. = 4a.
16. A triangular corner lot has perpendicular sides of lengths 120 feet and
160 feet. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangular building that
can be constructed on the lot with sides parallel to the streets.
17. Find the point on the line y = x nearest to the point (4,1).
Ans. z z
18. Find the point on the parabola 4y = x2 nearest to the point (1,2).
19. Find the area of the largest rectangle with sides parallel to the co-
ordinate axes which can be inscribed in the area bounded by the two
parabolas y = 26 - x2 and y= x2 + 2. Ans. 64.
20. Find the area of the largest rectangle having one side on the x axis and
inscribed in the triangle formed by the lines y = x, y = 0, and
3x+y= 20.
21. Find the area of the largest isosceles triangle that can be inscribed in a
circle of radius 6 inches. Ans. 271/3 sq. in.
22. The strength of a rectangular beam varies as the product of the width
and the square of the depth. Find the dimensions of the strongest
beam that can be cut from a circular log of diameter 15 inches.
23. A window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle. What
shape gives the most area for a given perimeter?
Ans. Width = height.
24. A manufacturer contracts to make 50,000 articles or less at a rate of $60
per hundred. If the number of articles exceeds 50,000, the price per
hundred on the whole order is made 5 cents less for each hundred in
excess of 50,000. On how large an order will the manufacturer's gross
receipts be greatest?
25. The cost of fuel per hour for running a ship is proportional to the cube
of the speed and is $27 per hour when the speed is 12 miles per hour.
Other costs amount to $128 per hour regardless of the speed. Express
the cost per mile as a function of the speed, and find the speed that
makes this cost a minimum. V2 128
Ans. C = + ; 16 mi./hr.
64 v
26. At noon a ship S1 is 20 miles north of a ship S2. If S1 is sailing south at
a rate of 6 miles per hour and S2 is sailing east at a rate of 8 miles per
hour, find the time when they are nearest together.
27. A military courier is located on a desert 6 miles from a point P which
is the point on a long straight road nearest to him. He is ordered to
get to a point Q on the road. Assuming that he can travel 14 miles per
58 Differentiation and Applications
hour on the desert and 50 miles per hour on the road, find the point
where he should reach the road in order to get to Q in the least possible
time when (a) Q is 3 miles from P, (b) Q is 6 miles from P, (c) Q is
1 mile from P.
Ans. (a) 1.75 mi. from P, (b) 1.75 mi. from P, (c) at Q.
28. What is the greatest value of f (x) = 2x3 - 9x2 + 12x in the interval
0 <x <3?
29. Find the point on the parabola y= x2 nearest to the point (0,k), if
(a) k < (b) k > 2. Ans. (a) (0,0), (b) k- 2).

30. Prove that no one of the family of parabolas y = 4kx - 1(k4 + 16)x2
extends more than one unit above the x axis.

19. Differentials
If y = f (x), it follows from the definition of a derivative and the
meaning of a limit that
lim AX
- =f / (X);
Ax--+O

hence

Ox = f ' (x) + E'

where E is as small as we please, when Ax is sufficiently small. Thus
the increment Ay may be written
AY = f'(x) ox + E AX.
Since E is numerically small when Ax is small, we see that Ay is
given approximately by f'(x) Ax. This product is called the differ-
ential of f (x) and is denoted by
the symbol dy or df (x). Thus
dy df (x) = f'(x) Ax. (1)
If f (x) = x, we have f'(x) = 1,
I, I

an d ( 1 ) re duces t o d x = x. For
this reason, the differential of the
independent variable is defined to
be the increment Ax, and we write
the differential of a function as
dy = f'(x) dx.
Figure 21 Illustration. When y = 2x4, we
have dy = 8x3 dx.
Geometrically the differential of a function may be interpreted in
the following manner. In Figure 21 let P(x,y) and Q(x + Ax, y + Ay)
 Approximations and Errors 59

be two points on the curve y = f (x). Since the value of the derivative
at P is equal to the slope of the tangent line PT, we have

dy=f'(x)dx=PR.PR = RT.
Thus dy (= RT) is the increment of the ordinate of the tangent line
corresponding to dx, whereas °y (= RQ) is the corresponding increment
of the ordinate of the curve.
20. Approximations and Errors
From the considerations in the preceding article it follows that the
differential dy is a good approximation for °y in that dy differs but
little from °y when compared to a small change °x in the variable
x; in fact,
dy
lim °y °x = 0.

The preceding limit is correct since dy = f'(x) °x and

°y - f'(x) °x = °y _ f,(x).
°x °x
By the definition of a derivative the limit of this latter expression is
zero as °x -* 0.
Written in functional form the increment °f (x) = f (x + °x) - f (x)
is approximately given by df (x) ; hence we can write
f (x + °x) -- f (x) + df (x).
This means that the value of a function at a point of its domain can
be obtained approximately, provided we know the value of the
function and its differential at a nearby point.
Example I. If y = x4 - 2x3 + 9x + 7, using differentials find an
approximate value of y when x = 1.997.
Solution : The value 1.997 may be considered as the result of applying
an increment Ax = dx = - 0.003 to an original value of x = 2. Hence, by
differentials, we obtain
dy = (4x3 - 6x2 + 9) dx
= (32 - 24 + 9)(-0.003) = -0.051.
Since y = 25 when x = 2, and - 0.051 is the approximate change in y as
x changes from 2 to 1.997, we have
y + dy = 25 - 0.051 = 24.949
as an approximation to y when x = 1.997.
60 Differentiation and Applications
In order to obtain an estimation of the accuracy of this approximation,
let us compute the error of the approximation Ay - dy. Thus in this case
we have
Ay - dy = 6x2(Ax)2 + 4x(Ox)3 + (AX)4- 6x(Ox)2 - 2(0x)3
= [24 - 12](-0.003)2 + [8 - 2](-0.003)3 + (-0.003)4
= 0.000107838081.
Hence y + Ay = y + dy + (Ay - dy) = 24.949107838081, and we see
that the above approximation is valid to the three decimal places computed.
Example 2. Using differentials, find an approximate value of 98.
Solution: We first observe that the number 98 differs but little from the
square number 100. As a result, if we find the change in y = 1Ix corre-
sponding to a change in x from 100 to 98, we may add this change to y =
1/100 = 10, and thus find 198. Since dy = dx/21/x, an approximate
change in y for x = 100 and dx = - 2 is
-2
dy
2 /100 = - 0.1 ;

hence 98 = 100 - 0.1 = 9.9 approximately.

Relative and percentage errors. If dy is the error in y, the ratio dy/y
is called the relative error in y, and 100(dy/y) the percentage error.
Example 3. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 5 inches with a
possible error of 0.02 inch, find approximately the greatest possible error
and percentage error in the computed value of the volume.
Solution: The exact maximum error in V = 37rr3 will be the change AV
in its value as x changes from 5 to 5 ± 0.02. An approximate error is given
by the value dV; thus
dV = 47rr2 dr = 47x(5) 2(± 0.02) = ± 27r cu. in.
Since the computed value of the volume is V = 47r(5)3/3 = 5007T/3, we
have a relative error of
dV ±27r
= +0.012,
V 3(5007r
and a percentage error of ± 1.2%.

EXERCISE I I
Find the differential dy in each of the following.
1. y = x3 - 2x2 + 5. Ans. dy = (3x2 - 4x) dx.
2. Y = 2x4 - 3x3 - 5x.
 Exercise 61

2 dx
3. Y = 13/6x. Ans. dy = ,36x2

4. y=5x2+x3'
5. y = (x + a) 2. dy = 2(x + a) dx.
6. Y = ax 1/.
In each of the following, find Ay and dy for the values indicated.
7. y = x4 - Jx2, for x = 2 and Ax = 0.1. Ans. 3.2431, 3.
8. y=x3-3x2-2x-5, forx=4andAx= -0.1.
9. y = 12.8/x, for x = 10 and Ax = 0.24. - 0.03, - 0.03072.
10. Y = 1/x, for x = 4 and Ax = 0.41.
I. y = (x + 1)3, for x = -3 and Ax = -0.003. -0.036+, -0.036.
12. y= 2+2, for x = 2 and Ax 0.1.

Use differentials to find approximate values for the following radicals.

13. 1/27. Ans. 5.2. 14. V97.

15. 61. 318. 16. 13/ 122.

17. 14/83.7. 3.025. 18. 'V34.
19. If A is the area of a square of side s, find dA. Draw a figure showing
A, dA, and AA. Ans. dA = 2s ds.
20. Considering the area of a circular ring as an increment of area of a circle,
find approximately the area of a ring whose inner and outer radii are 3
inches and 3.02 inches, respectively.
21. Find approximately the difference between the areas of two spheres
whose radii are 4 feet and 4.05 feet. Ans. 1.6ir sq. ft.
22. If a particle moves in accordance with the law s = t3/2, where s is
expressed in feet and t in seconds, find the approximate change in speed
as t changes from 4 to 4.04.
23. The altitude of a certain right circular cone is the same as the radius of
the base, and is measured as 5 inches with a possible error of 0.02 inch.
Find approximately the percentage error in the calculated value of the
volume. Ans. 1.2%.
24. What is the approximate error in the volume and surface of a cube of
edge 2 feet if an error of 8 inch is made in measuring an edge?
25. Considering the volume of a spherical shell as an increment of volume
of a sphere, find approximately the volume of a spherical shell whose
outer diameter is 8 inches and whose thickness is i e inch.
Ans. 47r cu. in.
26. Find an approximate formula for the volume of a thin right circular
cylindrical shell if r, h, and t denote respectively the radius, length, and
thickness.
62 Differentiation and Applications
27. A container is to be made in the form of a cube to hold one liter (1000 cc.).
How accurately must the inner edge be made so that the volume will be
correct to within 3 cc.? Ans. Error <_ 0.01 cm.
28. Using differentials, find the allowable percentage error in the diameter
of a circle if the area is to be correct to within 4%.
29. Show that the relative error in the nth power of a measurement is
approximately n times the relative error in the measurement.
30. Show that the relative error in the nth root of a measurement is approxi-
mately I /n times the relative error in the measurement.
 CHAPTER 3

Integration of Powers

21. Antidifferentiation
In the preceding chapter we were concerned with the problem of
determining the derivative of a known function. The inverse process
of determining a function whose derivative is known is called anti-
differentiation, and the required function is called an antiderivative
of the given function. Thus x4 is an antiderivative of 4x3, because
4x3 is the derivative of x4 with respect to x. In this connection we
observe that if any constant C is added to x4, the sum x4 + C is also
an antiderivative of 4x3. This raises a question as to whether any-
thing other than a constant could be added to x4, so that we still
would obtain 4x3 as the derivative. The following theorem whose
proof will be given in Article 76 indicates that there is no such
quantity.
Theorem. Two functions F1(x) and F2(x) that have the same derivative
differ at most by a constant.
For reasons that will soon be evident, instead of saying that F(x)
is an antiderivative of f (x), we will say that F(x) is an integral of
f (x), and their relationship will be expressed in the form

f f (x) dx = F(x) + C.
We call the symbol f an integral sign, f (x) the integrand, F(x) a
particular integral, C the constant of integration, and F(x) + C
the indefinite integral of f (x).

22. Integration of Powers

The following properties of indefinite integrals may be proved by
differentiation and comparison with the corresponding properties of
derivatives.
63
64 Integration of Powers

1. Jdx = x + C.
2. f a dx = a dx, where a is a constant.
J J
3. f [f (x) + g(x)] dx = 51(x) dx + g(x) dx.
J J
r +1
4. Jxndx=n+1+C, X7
n0 -1.
J
x(2)+1
Illustration I. 52x2 A = 2 (-2) + 1 + C = -2x-1 + C.

Illustration 2. f(x3 - 6x + 4) dx = _I x4 - 3x2 + 4x + C.

Illustration 3. 5(x2 + 1)2 dx = f(x4 + 2x2 + 1) dx

= 5x5 + 3x3 + x + C.

Note 1: Observe in 2 that a must be a constant. Thus f 2x2 dx equals

2 f x2 dx, and is not equal to 2x f x dx or 2x2 f A.
It is advisable at first to check mentally each problem of integra-
Note 2:
tion by differentiating the result and comparing with the given integrand.
(' (1 + 13x) 2 A.
Example. Evaluate J
x

Solution: Substituting x112 for 1/x and writing the integrand as a sum,
we find
f (1 + ,,IT) 2 r
dx = f (x-1/2 + 2V3_ + 3x1/2) A
J

xl/2 _ x3/2
= 1 +21/3x+3 3 +C
2
= 2x1/2 + 2Vx + 2x3/2 + C.

EXERCISE 12
Find the indefinite integral in each of the following problems.

1. 5 dx. Ans. 5x + C.
J
2. f(3x2 - 5) dx.

3. 5(x_7)dx. 2x2-7x+C.
 Exercise 65

4. 5(x + 1)(2 - x) A.

5. fx - 2)2 A. Ans. 3x3 - 6x2 + 4x + C.

6. J(3x_2)2xdx.

7. f(x8 - 4x3 - x) A. 9x9 - x4 - 2x2 + C.

8. J(3x5 - 2x3 - 1) A.

9.
A 1

f T3 * -2x2+C.

10. 5(1 - x-1/3) A.

11. 2x2 - 3
+ 2x2 A. + C.
J 3 X2
1 )2
12. f(X2
- 72 dx.

13 .
J x 1/x dx.
14.
J(+ fix) dx.
15. 13i 3x dx. 3x1/
4 3x + C.
J

16 . 5(4 - 7x) /x dx.

17. 5(\/ x + V/-a-) 2 dx. 2x2 + 3xax + ax + C.

18. (1/x + Va) 2x dx.
J

19.
A
J x1/2x20.

I
x X
2 1 A.

2!. f(x\/_ 5)2 dx. 4x4 - 4x5/2 + 25x + C.

22. x-4(x - 2)2 dx.

J

23.
5x3-1 dx.
x- 1
3x3 + 2x2 + x + C.

24. 5x3 + 2x2 + x A.

66 Integration of Powers
23. Constant of Integration
We have seen that the integration of a function gives a function
that involves an arbitrary additive constant. If supplementary con-
ditions are given, this constant can be determined as is illustrated in
the following examples.
Example 1. Find the curve (a) whose slope at any point is 2x, and (b) that
passes through the point (1,2).
Solution: From the first condition, slope = dyldx = 2x, we obtain by
integration
y=x2+C. (1)
This equation represents a family of curves, as shown in Figure 22.
To determine the curve that passes through the
C=21 1 1' I po i n t (1 , 2 ) we sub s tit u t e th ese coor di nat es i n ( 1 )
and find 2 = (1)2 + C; hence C = 1 .
c=o
,, Thus the required curve is y = x2 + 1 .
C=-t,,\\ I ///, Example 2. A particle moves on a line with
a constant acceleration of 4 feet per second per
second. Find its equation of motion if s = 2
X
feet and v = - 3 feet p er second , when t = 2
seconds.
Solution: From acceleration = dvldt = 4,
Figure 22 we obtain by integration v = 4t + C1. Since
v = - 3 when t = 2, we find by substitution
that C1 = - 11. Hence the equation giving the velocity at any time t is
v=4t- 11.
From velocity = ds/dt = 4t - 11, we obtain by integration s = 2t2 -
lit + C2. Since s = 2 when t = 2, by substitution we obtain 2 = 2(2)2 -
11(2) + C2; hence C2 = 16. Thus the required equation of motion is
s=2t2-lit+16.
EXERCISE 13
Find the curve having the given slope that passes through the indicated
point.
1 . y' = 2x - 5 , (5 , 4) . Ans y . = x2 - 5x + 4 .

2. y'=x2-2x-4, (3,-6).
3. y' = 3x4 - x2, (1,1). Y = 5x5 - 3x3 + 15.
4. y' = x3 - 3x2 + 2x - 5, (2,-5).
5. y' = (x + 1) (x + 2), (-3,-5). y = 3x3 + 5x2 + 2x.
6. y' = (2 - x) 3, (- 2,10) .
 Differential of Area 67

7. y' = x2V/x, (1,0). Ans. y = ;(x3\/ - 1).

8. y' = 2/x2, (- 2,4).
9. y' = (x2 - 4)/x2, (4,1). y = (x - 2)2/x.
10. y' = x1/2 - x-1/2, (9,9).
I. If dy = (2x - 3) dx and y = 2 when x = 3, find the value of y when
x = 5. Ans. 12.
12. If dP = dxl./2ax and P = 2a when x = find the value of P when
2a3,

x=2a3.
13. Find the equation of the curve for which y" = x, and which passes
through the point (1,2) with a slope of Z. Ans. 6y = x3 + 12x - 1.
14. Find the equation of the curve for which y" = 4/x3, and which is
tangent to the line 2x + y = 5 at the point (1,3).
15. Find the equation of the curve for which y" = 6x2, and which passes
through the points (0,2) and (-1,3). Ans. 2y = x4 - x + 4.
16. Find the equation of the curve for which y' = 2, and which has a slope
of -2 at its point of inflection (1,3).
Find the equation of motion in each of the following.
17. v=2t,ands= lwhent=0. Ans. s=t2+1.
18. v=V/kt,and s= -3k2when t=k.
19. a = 12/t4, and s = 3, v = 1, when t = 2. Ans. 2s = 4t-2 + 3t - 1.
20. a = 1/t\/t, and s = 9 when t = 1, and s = 16 when t = 4.
21. A stone is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 40 feet per second
from the top of a tower 200 feet high. When will it strike the ground?
Hint: Take a = -32, and s = 0, v = 40, when t = 0.
Ans. In 5 sec.
22. A ball is dropped from the top of the Washington Monument (555 feet
high). Neglecting the resistance of the air, how long will the ball take
to reach the ground and with what speed will it strike?
23. Find how far an airplane will move in landing, if in t seconds after
touching the ground its speed in feet per second is given by the equation
v = 180 - 18t. Ans. 900 ft.
24. What constant acceleration will bring an automobile traveling 60 miles
per hour to rest in 160 feet?

24. Differential of Area

Let PQQ'R in Figure 23 be the graph of a function y = f (x) that is
continuous in the interval from x = a to x = b. Let us denote by A
the variable area PCDQ extending from the fixed ordinate CP to the
moving ordinate DQ.
When x increases by a small amount Ax, A increases by a correspond-
ing amount AA = area QDD'Q'. If, as shown in the figure, the
68 Integration of Powers

ordinate y increases* as x increases, then on completing the rectangles

QDD'N and 11IDD'Q' we see that
Area QDD'N < AA <CArea 11I DD' Q
or
(y Ax )< AA < ((Y + Dy) Ox
Dividing each member of this inequality by Ox, we have

y < Ox <Y + °y;

and letting Ox approach zero, we obtain
dA
=y or dA = y dx.
dx
Thus the differential of area between a curve and the x axis is equal
to the product of the ordinate and the differential of the abscissa.
Note 1: Observe that we have derived the above relationship only on
the basis of a "right-hand" limit, that is, Ax > 0. By taking Ox < 0, we
see that Ay < 0, AA < 0, and y > AAIOx > y + Ay, whence in the limit as
Ox -* 0 we obtain dA/dx = y. Since the limit from the left is the same as
that from the right, we are assured that the limit exists.
Vote 2: The above result is also valid even if the function is not properly
increasing or decreasing. From the continuity of f (x) we know (Theorem 3,
Article 7) that f (x) has a maximum value M and a minimum value in, each
for some x' in the interval x <_ x' <_ x + Ax. In this case it is clear that
mvx < AA < M Ax or in < AA/Ax < 1I, where for a fixed value of x the
numbers in and M will depend on Ax. However, the fact that f (x) is a
continuous function means that mn and ill both approach the value f (x) as
Ox -* 0; hence dA/dx = f (x). Again we observe that AA < 0 when Ox < 0,
so we still have in < z A/:fix < .ll, and the result is valid when Ox is either
positive or negative.

25. Area as an Integral

From dA = y dx, it follows by inspection that

A = fy dx = ff(x) dx = F(x) + C, (1)

where F(x) is a function whose derivative is f (x). The variable area

* The result is valid without this restriction. For example, when Ay is negative
we simply reverse the inequality signs.
 Calculation of Areas 69

PCDQ in Figure 23 may be found from (1) by using the condition that
A = 0 when x = a. Thus by substituting x = a in (1) we have
0 = F(a) + C; hence, in denoting the area from a to x by A (a,x), we
have
A (a,x) = F(x) - F(a).
As a result, we also have
Area PCER = A (a,b) = F(b) - F(a). (2)

The difference F(b) - F(a) is

b
often denoted by F(x) , where
a
a is called the lower limit and b I
M QL
the upper limit.
In evaluating (2) observe that
the constant of integration may
be omitted, since if we use
F(x) + C in place of F(x) we find
A (a,b) _ [F(b) + C] - [F(a) + C]
Figure 23
= F(b) - F(a).
Illustration. The area between the parabola y= x2 and the x axis from
x = -1 to x = 2 is obtained by first finding F(x) = f x2 dx = x3/3, and then
2
computing [F(x)] = F(2) - F(- 1). Thus the required area is

A(-1,2)=
[x3]2(2)3(_l)38+13 .
3 3

26. Calculation of Areas

If in the interval a <_ x <_ b, a curve y = f (x) lies on or above the
x axis, we have shown in the preceding article that the area bounded
by the curve, the x axis, and the ordinates at x = a and x = b is
given by
A (a, b) = [f f (x) dXJ b = [F(X)] b= F(b) - F(a). (1)
a

If th e curve lies on or below the x axis the value given by (1) will
be negative since f (x) is negative. The actual area in this case will be
given by the absolute value of (1). Hence if the curve y = f (x) crosses
the x axis between x = a and x = b, the total area bounded by the
curve, the x axis, and the ordinates at x = a and x = b is obtained by
considering separately the areas above and below the x axis.
70 Integration of Powers

Example. Find the area bounded by y = 2x + x'' - x3, the x axis, and
the lines x = -1 and x = 1.
Solution: The graph of y = 2x + x2 - x3
(Figure 24) indicates that the required area is in
two parts.
The area from x = -1 to x = 0 is obtained
from
0 x3
[5(2x + x2 - x3) dx, 4] -1
[x2 + 3
Figure 24 [1-3 41 2,
101

while the area from x = 0 to x = 1 is

x41_ 13 1-31
fr (2x+x2-x3)dxj0
1
= [x'+ x3
3 410-1+3-4=12
[J
Thus the required area is 2 + 13 = 2. Note that the integral from
x = -1 to x = 1 would give the algebraic sum of the above values, or 2.

EXERCISE 14
Evaluate each of the follow ing.
3

[5(2 - x) dx]o Ans. 2. 2. (2x+1)(3-x) d x '

U 1

1
(2x + x2) dx] - dx 1 1.
3.
[J
13 4.
[ J (x2 + 1) 2 '
5. [Jx(x + 1 )2 dx l
-3
- ia . 6. [J(a + x) dx].
x2 - 2

7. x2 + .) dxl 5 39.3. 8.
[J
4 1 dx]
[J( x`I 12
x 1

9.
[J-
- \)2 dx] a
0
sat. 10. [J(xl/3 - x-1/3) dxI g

Find the area bounded by the curve, the x axis, and the given ordinates.
Draw the figure.
II. y=2x+1; from x = 0 to x = 4. Ans. 20.
12. y= IOx-x2; from x = 2 to x = 5.
13. y=x3+3x2; from x = 0 to x = 2. 12.
14. y (x+2)2; from x = -2 tox=0.
from x = 0 to x = 1. 0.01.
15. y = x99;
16. y=a2-x2; fromx= -atox=a.
17. y = V; from x = 1 to x = 16. 42.
18. y3 = x2 ; from x = 0 to x = 8.
 Area as a Limit 71

19. x2y=x2-4; from x=2tox4. Ans. 1.

20. x3y=x- 1; from x= 1 tox=5.
21. Find the area in the first quadrant bounded by the x axis and the curve
y=6x+x2-x3. Ans. 154.
22. Find the area bounded by the x axis and the curve y = 4 - x2/3.
23. Find the total area between the parabola y = x2 - 4x, the x axis, and
the ordinates x = -2 and x = 3. Ans. 193.
24. Find the total area between the cubic y = 2x3 - 3x2 - 12x, the x axis,
and its maximum and minimum ordinates.
25. Find the area between the curve y = 2x4 - x2, the x axis, and its two
minimum ordinates. '-
Ans. izo
26. Find the area enclosed by the loop of the curve whose equation is y2 =
x(3 - x)2.
27. Find the area bounded by the coordinate axes and the parabolic arc
Vi + Vy = \/a. Ans. sae
28. Find the area in the first quadrant bounded by the coordinate axes and
the curve Fx + FY = Fa.
29. Show that [F(x) I b = - [F(x) ] a.
Ja b
c
30. Show that IF(x) I b = JF(x) I + IF(x) I b.
Ja a L JJc

27. Area as a Limit

In Article 3 we discussed briefly the concept of a definite integral
in order to point out its fundamental importance as a basic limiting
process in the calculus. It would be of value to reread this earlier
discussion after first reading the present article.
In contrast to the definition of area as given in Article 25, our
problem here is to find a value for the area, A(a,b), by determining
the limit that is approached by a sum of approximating rectangles as
the size of these rectangles decrease and their number increase.
In Figure 25, we indicate the graph of a function, y = f (x), that is
single-valued, positive, and continuous for a < x < b. We divide the
interval from a to b into n subintervals by inserting points xo, xi,
x2, , xn along the x axis in such a manner that a = xo < x1 < X2 <
< 'xn_1 < xn = b. These points need not be equally spaced, and
the width of the kth interval from xk_1 to xk will be denoted by Axk.
The total area is thus divided into n increments of area such, for
example, as that area above AXk and under the curve. Let the
maximum and minimum values of f (x) in the kth subinterval be Mk
and Ink, respectively. Then each increment of area may be approx-
imated by an inscribed or a circumscribed rectangular element, such as
72 Integration of Powers

the kth element with Jxk as base and Mk or Jlk as height. These
rectangles, whether inscribed or circumscribed, are called elements of
area.
If Sn denotes the sum of the inscribed elements and Sn the sum of
the circumscribed elements, we observe from the figure that
Sn = 7n10x1 + 17120X2 + ... + mn4xn < A(a,b),
Sn = 1710x1 + JI2tx2 + ... + JI nixn >_ .4 (a,b).
Since Sn underestimates the area, we call it a lower sum, and similarly,
since Sn overestimates the area, we call it an upper sum.

Xk
LX1
L X
a X1 Xk-1 Xk Xn-1 b
-" AXkH

Figure 25

Now in considering the difference (shaded area in Figure 25)

Sn - Sn = (1I1 - 7311)0x1 + (JI2 - )Y12)AX9- + ... + (1In - );In)AXn,
and letting E represent the magnitude of the largest of the n differences
Ilk - Mk, it follows that every Mk - 991k < E and so, as shown in
Figure 25, we have
Sn - Sn < E(Axl + 0x2 + ... + Oxn) = E(b - a).
However, in the limit as n --> co and every ixk 0, it follows
from the continuity of f (x) that each 1k - 971k -->0; hence E --- 0.
Thus we have proved that
lim (Sn - S n) = 0.
9t-+00

If we subtract Sn from each term of the inequality

Sn < A (a, b) < Sn, (1)
we obtain
0SA(a,b)-Sn<3 n-Sn.
 Area as a Limit 73

Hence in the limit as n > co and every AXk 0, we find that

lien [A (a,b) - S = .1(a,b).
n- 00 n-* 00

In a similar manner, by subtracting S. from each member of (1), we

can show that
lim S,L = .4 (a,b).

Furthermore, if xi denotes any value in the closed interval from a

to x1, x2 any value in the closed interval from x1 to x2, and so on, it
follows from the inequality ink < f (xl) < -Ilk that the sum
Sn = f (xl) 0x1 + f (x2) A X2 + . .. + f (xn) AXn
satisfies the inequality
Sn < Sn < Sn.
Hence in the limit as It > oo and every AXk > 0, it follows from
lim Sn = lim Sn that
lim Sn = .4 (a, b).

Theorem. Let the function y = f (x) be single-valued, positive, and

continuous for a < x <_ b. Let a = xo < xl < X2 < < Xn = b, and
d e f i n e 0xk = xk - xk-1 and xk-1 xk < xk, for k = 1, 2, ... , n. If
the number n of subintervals of the interval a < x < b increases in-
definitely in such a way that the length of the largest subinterval tends
toward zero, the limit approached by the sun
Sn = f (xl) AX1 + f (x2) Ax2 + ... + f (xn) AXn (2)
gives the area 4 (a,b) under the curve, above the x axis, and between the
ordinates at x = a and x = b.
Note: It facilitates our work in mathematics to have a more compact
notation for representing sums such as that given in (2) ; the Greek letter
7L

capital sigma, 7,, is used for this purpose. The symbol _, read as the
k=I
sum on k from 1 to n, is used to denote the sum of n terms, each term being
obtained from the expression that follows the symbol by substituting
1, 2, 3, , n successively for k. is called the sign of summation and k
the index of summation; for example,
4
uk=ui+u2+u3+u4,
k=1
n
y3= 13+23+33+...+ n3.
r=1
74 Integration of Powers
Making use of this notation, the sum given in (2) can be written as
n
{
Sn = J (xk) Oxk. (3)
k=1

28. Definite Integrals

The common value approached by any of the sums indicated in
equation (3) of the preceding article is called the definite integral of
b
f (x) from x = a to x = b, and is denoted by fa f (x) dx. Thus, by
definition,
:n
b f (x) A = lim 1 f (xk) Oxk, (1)
Ja

where xk may be any point in the subinterval xk_1 < xk < xk. The
function f (x) is called the integrand; and the numbers a and b are called
the limits of integration, a being the lower limit and b the upper limit.
Note: Because of the above relationship with sums, it is understandable
why the Old English elongated letter S was chosen to denote integration.
Thus, whereas denotes an ordinary sum, the symbol f denotes a limit-sum;
symbolically, we could write f = lim

Since the limit of the right side of (1) depends in no way on the
variable that is used, it is evident that

fa bf (x) dx = Ia bf (z) dz = fab f(t) dt.

For this reason, the variable that is used in a definite integral is often
referred to as a "dummy" variable.
The definition (1) was made under the assumption that a < b. If
a similar limit-sum were to be established for a subdivision
b = xn < xn_i < < xl < xo = a, it is apparent that each Oxk
would be negative. For this reason, if b < a, we define the integral
from a to b as

b f (x) dx
a
=-f b
f (x) dx. (2)

f (x) dx = 0.
 Fundamental Theorem 75

Interpreting the integral in (1) as the area considered in the

preceding article, it is evident that if a < h < b, then

f ahf (x) dx + fh f (x) dx = fa bf (x) dx.

By making use of (2), we see that the preceding relation is also valid
when h < a < b or a < b < h.
Other properties of definite integrals that are easily proved are

b c f (x) dx = c f b f (x) dx, c constant,

Ia a
b
b [f (x) + g(x)] dx = J f (x) dx + fa g(x) dx.
Ia J
Mean-Value Theorem for Integrals. If f (x) is continuous on the
interval of integration, then there exists a number x' such that
b
f (x) dx = (b - a) f (x'), a <_ x' < b.
fa
29. Fundamental Theorem
There does not appear to be much connection between the definite
integral defined as a limit-sum and the indefinite integral defined as an
antiderivative, but the fact that both are related to the area A (a,b) in
the following way:
A (a,b) = lim f (xk.) Oxk = Jbf(x) dx,
1

A (a, b) = [Jf(x) dxl b = [F(x)] b = F(b) - F(a),

JJ

indi cates the validity of the conclusion

limes f (xk) Oxk = Jbf(x) A = F(b) - F(a), where F(x) = f (x).

This relation shows that to evaluate a definite integral over the

interval a < x < b, one needs only to find the antiderivative of the
integrand and to substitute limits as indicated.
Illustration.
f2'4 rx-214 (4,)-2 (2)-2 _ 1 1 3
x-3dx I-212 -2 -2 32 + 8 32

Since the concept of area is not involved in the final result, we can
state this important conclusion in the following way.
76 Integration of Powers

Fundamental Theorem of the Integral Calculus. If f (x) is a

continuous function in the interval a < x _< b and I is a quantity that
can be expressed as

I = h moo Jf(x) dx,

ki J (xk) Lxk =
(1)

then I = F(b) - F(a), where

x F(x) = f (x).

Occasionally rather involved limits can be evaluated by use of this

theorem.
Example. Evaluate lim [1 + V2 + V/3 + + 1/n]/n312.
11--* 00

Solution: Consider the function y = 1/x for 0 < x < 1, as shown in

Figure 26. Divide the interval from 0 to 1 into it equal subintervals each of
length 1/n. Let x be xk; then by the Fundamental Theorem, we have
/1 1N2 1 _ [X3/21 1 2
lim
1
{nNn+nn+...+
1
/nit ff
n--p oo it fo 3/2o 3

Note: If the magnitude of a quantity I depends on a variable, such as x,

we will often represent a typical
y element in the differential form
dl = f (x) dx, where the subinterval
considered extends from x to
y x + dx. In all cases, however, it
should be realized that a sum such
as that given in (1) is actually in-
volved in the analysis.
The general operating pro-
cedure for using the Funda-
mental Theorem to compute
0 , 2 3 X some quantity I, which is defined
n n n
on the interval a < x < b, is to
Figure 26 divide the interval into sub-
intervals, and for the subinterval
Oxk to express the increment of I in the form
DIk = .f (xk) Oxk,
where xk_1 < xk < xk. In many applied problems it is difficult to
 Fundamental Theorem 77

express DIk in this precise form, but it is often simple to express the
increment as
DIk = f (xx)g(xL) Axk, (2)
where xk-1 < xL'. 5 xk and xk_1 < x," < xk. The following theorem,
attributed to the American mathematician G. A. Bliss (1876-1950),
indicates that the limit of the sum of the increments in (2) gives a
definite integral.
Theorem. Let the functions f (x) and g(x) be continuous for
a 5 x < b. Let a = xo < xl < <x,,=b, and define Oxk = Xk - xk-1
and xk_1 < X k', x;' < xk, for k = 1, 2, , n. If the number n of sub-
intervals of the interval a < x b increases indefinitely in such a way
that the length of the largest subinterval tends toward zero, then

7h m k> f (xk)g(xk) Oxk = bf (x)g(x) dx. (3)

J

Proof: Let F be a number such that If (x) I < F for a < x < b, and
let ink and Mk be the minimum and maximum values respectively of
g(x) in the subinterval Oxk. Since f (x) and g(x) are continuous func-
tions, the product f(x)g(x) is continuous and by the Fundamental
Theorem we know that
7L b
f (xk)g(xx) Oxk = J f (x)g(x) dx.
a
Now consider the difference
n
Dn = f (xk)g(xk) Oxk 21 f (xk)g(xk) Oxk
k=1 k=1
n
f (xk) [g(xk) - g(xk)] Oxk
k=1
By use of theorems on absolute values, we find
it

0< D n< k=1

I f (xk) I I g (xk) - g (xk) I Oxk

F k=1 19 (Xk") g(xk) Oxk.

Since xk and x, are points in Oxk, the greatest value that I g(xk) - g(xk)
can attain is Mk - ink, and if E denotes the greatest of the it differences
Mk - ink, we have
it n
0 < Dn < F (Mk - ink) Oxk _<_ FE Oxk = FE(b - a).
k=1 k=1
78 Integration of Powers

As it -->- oo, every R7k - Ink --* 0, and so E -->O. Hence lim D,2 = 0,
n->oo
and thus
n n
lim f (x1)g(4) Oxk = lim f (xx)g(x;') AXk
n- 00 k=1 n-+oo k=1

= f f(x)g(x)
a
b
dx.

EXERCISE 15
I . If the functions f (x) and g(x) are rcontinuous, and f (x) < g(x) for
a < x < b, prove that J f (x) dx < J b g(x) dx.
a a
2. If f (x) is an increasing function and the interval a < x < b is divided
into n subintervals each of length Ax = (b - a)ln, show that S,, - S,, =
[f (b) - f (a)] Ax.
3. If the subintervals in the preceding problem are not of equal length,
show that Sn - S,, < [f (b) - f (a)] (max Ax).
fah

4. If a < b < h, prove that (x) dx + I b f (x) dx = I b f (x) dx.

Jh Ja
5. Evaluate lim (1 + /2 + s 3 + + /n)/n4/3. Ans.
n--> o0
11
6. Evaluate lim j (n + + (n + n)21. Hint: Con-
+ 1)2 + (n + 2)2
sider the function f (x) = 1/x2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
7. In the expression for Sn, consider f (x) = x, a = 0, and b > 0. When
xk is taken to be 2(xk_1 + xk), show that Sn has a constant value that
is independent of it.
8. As for the preceding problem, when f (x) = x2, a = 0, and b > 0, what
value x' in the interval 1 xk will give a sum S. that is independent
of it?
V 9. Using the four-step rule, show that the derivative of Jf(t) dt with
a
respect to x is f (x).
10. If M and in are the maximum and minimum values of the continuous
function f (x) in the interval a < x < b, and if x' and x" are any two
values of x in this interval, show that if (x') - f (x") M - M.
I. If f (x) and g(x) are continuous functions, prove that fa b [f (x) + g(x)] dx

= fa
f (x) dx + fa g(x) dx.
12. Prove the lvlean-Value Theorem for integrals.
 Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates 79

30. Plane Areas in Rectangular Coordinates

In the determination of areas by use of the Fundamental Theorem,
it is convenient to think of dA = y dx as a typical rectangular element
of area that has height y or f (x) and a small width dx; the latter
extending from x to x + dx. We
know that a finite sum of such
elements from x = a to x = b gives
an approximation to the area, and
that the limit-sum as denoted by
the definite integral gives the area
exactly.
Thus, for the area OAP shown
in Figure 27, we have a typical
element of area dA = y dx, and so

Area OAP = J:f(x) dx.

The Fundamental Theorem may Figure 27

also be used to determine in the
same manner any plane area that is bounded by curves whose equations
are given in rectangular coordinates. The following examples illustrate
the procedure suggested below.
1. Make a sketch of the area to be
determined
0(9,6)
2. Draw a general vertical (or hori-
zontal) rectangular element of area
and express its area as a function
I

of x and dx (or y and dy).

x 3. Determine the limits of integration
from the figure and integrate to
-_
P(4,-4) obtain the area.
4. Make a rough check of the result by
estimating the area graphically.
Figure 28
Example. Find the area bounded by the
parabola y2 = 4x and the line 2x - y = 12.
Solution: 1. Solving the two equations simultaneously, we find their
points of intersection as given in Figure 28.
2. Drawing a horizontal element of area, we have
dA = [(x of line) - (x of parabola)] dy
_ [ z (y + 12) - y2] dy
1(-y2 + 2y + 24) dy.
80 Integration of Powers

3. In order to evaluate the total area OPQ the horizontal elements of

area must be summed from one extreme P to the other extreme Q ; hence by
the Fundamental Theorem
s
A = f 4(-y2+2y+24)dy=413.
4. For a rough check we observe that the area OPQ equals approximately
one-half the area of the circumscribing rectangle extending from x = 0 to
x = 9 and y = - 4 to y = 6. This observation
yields an estimate of 45 which agrees approxi-
mately with the above result.
In evaluating a plane area it is immaterial
from a theoretical point of view whether
horizontal or vertical elements of area are
chosen. The choice depends on how many
integrals are needed to determine the given
area and how difficult the integrals are to
evaluate. For instance, the area in the pre-
Figure 29 ceding example may be determined by using
vertical elements of area. In this case,
however, it is necessary to consider the area OPQ in two parts OPR
and RPQ. (Figure 29.)

Area OPR = [(1/4x) - (-1x)] dx = 4 4 x12 dx = 21 3,,

o J
9 9
Area RPQ = J[(1/4x) - (2x - 12)] dx = 2 f (x112 - x + 6) dx = 203.
4 .14

EXERCISE 16
In each of the following, draw the figures showing an element of area and
find the area bounded by the given curves.
I. y=x2, y=x.
2. y=x2+2x, y=x+2.
3. y22x, y=x-4.
4. y x2, y=2x2-3x.
5. X2 = 2ay, y = 2a.
6. x2+3y=4, x-2y=4.
7. y=x-x2, y= -x. 4
3
8. 4ay=x2, y=x+3a.
9. y2 = 4ax, x2 = 4ay. 1ea2
3

10. yx4, y=3x2+4.

 Volumes of Solids of Revolution 81

y = x3, y = 4x2. Ans. 211.

y=x(x - 1), y=2(x- 1).
13. y2=x, y=x3. 1
14. y=x3-4x, y=8(x-2).
15. y= (x- 1) 3, y=x2-x- 1. ;.
16. y=x4-2x2-6, y=2.
17. y2 = 5a2,- ax, y2 = 4ax. 3-0a2.
I8. y=x(x - 1)(x-2), x+y=2, x=0.
19. x2y=4, y=7-3x.
20. x2-2x+2y+5=0, x2-2x+y+1=0.
21. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = 5 + 2x - x2 and the chord
joining (-2,-3) and (3,2). Ans. 20g.
22. Find the area bounded by the parabolic arc 1/x + 1/y = 7 and the
chord joining (9,16) and (16,9).
23. Show that the area bounded by a parabola y2 = 4ax and any right
chord x = b is equal to two-thirds the area of the circumscribing
rectangle.
24. Show that the curve y = xn (n > 0) divides the unit square x = 0,
x = 1, y = 0, y = 1 in the ratio n: 1.
In each of the following, find the area bounded by the three given curves.
25. x+2y=2, y - x= 1, 2x+y=7. Ans. 6.
26. y=9-x2, y=4x+12, 7x+2y=24.
27. y=x2, y=8-x2, y=4x+12. 64.
28. y=x3, x-y=6, 2x-f-y=0.
29. y3=x2, 2x+y+1=0, x-y=4. 18.3.
30. y2=x, y=x3, x+y=2.
31. Volumes of Solids of Revolu-
tion
Consider the area A BCD
bounded by the x axis, two
ordinates x = a, x = b, and a con-
tinuous curve y = f (x). Let
ABCD be revolved about the x
axis, thus forming a solid of re-
volution, one quarter of which is
shown in Figure 30. ,-A b
dx l
Let this solid be divided into Figure 30
n slices of equal thickness dx by
planes perpendicular to the axis of revolution. Now, suppose that for
each slice, a circular disk is constructed having a radius equal to that
82 Integration of Powers

of the right-hand face of the slice as indicated in the figure. The

volume of this disk is Try2 dx, and as the value of dx decreases,
the volume of each disk more nearly approximates the volume of the
corresponding slice.
Since the required volume is the limit, as n -* oo, of the sum of the
n disks which lie between x = a and x = b, it follows by the Funda-
mental Theorem that
b
V = t f y2 dx, (1)
a

where the value of y in terms of x must be substituted from the equation

of the given curve.
Similarly, when an area bounded by the curve x = g(y) and the y
axis from y = c to y = d is revolved about the y
axis, we obtain the formula
d
V = n f x2 dy, (2)

where the value of x in terms of y must be sub-

stituted from the equation of the given curve.
1

d
Example I. Find the volume of the cone gene-
rated by revolving about the y axis the area (Figure
31) bounded by the line 2x + y = 2 and the co-
ordinate axes.
Figure 31
Solution: Drawing a horizontal element of area
and using (2), we obtain
V=,r f0l (2 -2 )' dy r4y-2y2+ 3310
2 7T
23.

Observe that this result is in agreement with V = 3irr2h, the formula for
the volume of a circular cone.
Example 2. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about
the x axis the smaller area bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 2 and the semi-
cubical parabola y3 = x2.
Solution: If the area as shown in Figure 32 is revolved about the x axis,
the element of volume generated by a vertical element of area is a circular
ring whose outer and inner radii are the respective ordinates of the given
curves. Hence, using (1), we have

V = 7r (y2 - yl) dx = Tr 11 [(2 - x2) - (x4/3)] dx

J 1 J
3 52
_ 7r I2x - 3 x3 - x7/3 1 1 = 21 7r.
I
 Volumes of Solids of Revolution 83

The volume of a solid of revolution may sometimes be determined

more conveniently by using a volume element in the form of a cylindrical
shell.For example, consider the
volume V of the solid formed by
revolving about the y axis the
area bounded by the curve y = f (x)
and the x axis from x = a to
x=b.
Let us suppose that the given
area is divided into n vertical strips
each of width dx. As the area is
revolved, a typical strip, as shown
in Figure 33, generates a thin
cylindrical shell whose inner and
outer radii may be taken as x and
x + dx, respectively. Since the Figure 32
base of this shell is a ring bounded
by two concentric circles, it has an area given by

7r[(x + dx) 2 - x2] = 7r[2x dx + (dx) 2] = 2ir(x + 1 dx) dx.

When the function f (x) is continuous, we know by the Mean-Value

Theorem that the shell will have a mean height given by y = f (x") for
some value x" in the interval from x to x + dx. Hence the exact
increment of volume is
AV = 2,7rx'f (x") dx,
where xx+ 2dx and
x <x" <x+dx.
Since the required volume is
the limit, as n oo, of the sum
of the n shells that lie between a
and b, it follows by the theorem
of Bliss that
b
V = 27c fa xy dx,
Figure 33
where y = f (x) .

Note: Observe that the volume element for a cylindrical shell is given
by circumference x height x thickness.
84 Integration of Powers

Illustration. Consider the solid which is

formed by revolving the area between the curve
Y=
y = x2 + 1 and the x axis from x = 0 to x = 2
=-2 about the line x = - 2. A vertical element of
area as shown in Figure 34 will generate a
cylindrical shell whose circumference, height, and
thickness are respectively 27r(x + 2), y and dx.
Hence
Y

2 92
0 X V = 27r (X + 2) (x2 + 1) ax = 3 7T.
x +2 dx2 Io

Figure 34 In summary, the volume elements gen-

erated by revolving a rectangular strip
about an axis AB are given as shown in Figures 35A and 35B.

=a l - dh h=b r=a r=b

r dr
A

Figure 35A. dV = Figure 3 5B. d V = 27rr h dr

EXERCISE 17
Find the volume generated by revolving about the x axis the areas
bounded by the following curves.
y=x3, y=0, x=2.
1. Ans. 7r.
2. y=6x-x2, y=0.
3. y=2x+1, y=0, x=1, x=2.
4. y=x2-x3, y=0.
5. y = x2, y = 2x.
6. y=x3, y2=x.
Find the volume generated by revolving about the y axis the areas
bounded by the following curves.
7. y = x3, x = 0, y = 8. Ans. e, ir.
8. y2=4x, y=4, x=0.
 Exercise 85

9. y=x2, y=x. Ans. jxr.

10. x=y(y+2)2, x=0.
II. y=x2+4, y=2x2.
12. y = 12 - x2, y = x, x = 0. (First quadrant.)
13. Find the volume of the sphere generated by revolving the area of a
circle of radius a about a diameter. Ans. 3xra3.
14. Find the volume generated by revolving the area bounded by the para-
bolic arc Vx + Vy- = Va- and the coordinate
axes about the x axis. Y
B(0, 9) P(3, 9)
15. Find Lite volume generated by revolving the
area bounded by the hypocycloid x2/3 + y2/3
= a2/3 about the y axis. Ans. 105-ira3.
16. Find the volume generated by revolving the
area of the circle x2 + y2 = 2ay about the y
axis.
17. The equation of the curve OP in Figure 36 is
y = x2. Find the volume generated when
the area OAP is revolved about (a) OX,
(b) OY, (c) AP, (d) BP. Ans. (a) 243ir/5,
(b) 81xr/2, (c) 27;x/2, (d) 567ir/5.
18. Solve Problem 17 when the equation of OP
is y2 = x3 and the coordinates of the points Figure 36
are P(4,8), A(4,0), and B(0,8).
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the indicated
axis the area bounded by the given curves.
19. y2 4x, x = 4; about x == 4. Ansi 1024ir/15.
20. y x3, x=0, y = 8; about y = 8.
21. y x2, y2 x; about x = -1. 29ir/30.
22. y2-x=2, y=x; aboutx=2.
23. y2 = 5 - x, x = 0; about x = 5. 40x-\.
24. y=x2+1, y=5; about y = -1.
25. y = 1 - x2, y = 0; about x = 1. 81T/3.
26. x3y = 1, y = 0, x = 1, x = 2; about x = 1.
27. y=4x-x2, y=x; about x = 3. 27ir/2.
28. y=x2-x, y=3-x2; about y=4.
Revolve the area bounded by the given curves about the indicated axis
and find the volume generated by dividing the solid into two or more parts.
29. y = 2x, y = x, x + y = 6; about x axis. Ans. 14x-.
30. Y = 3x, y = x, x + y = 8; about y axis.
31. Outside y = x2, and between y = 2x - 1 and y = x + 2; abouty axis.
Ans. ir.
86 Integration of Powers

32. Outside x2 + y2 = 25, and between the tangents 4x + 3y = 25 and

4y - 3x = 25; about x axis.
33. 2y = x + 3, and outside y2 + x = 0 and y2 - 4x = 0; about y = -1.
Ans. s 7r.
34. y+x3=0, y-3x3=0, y=x+2; abouty=3.
35. Pentagon with vertices (1,0), (2,2), (0,4), (-2,2), (-1,0); about x axis.
Ans. 1047/3.
36. If a cylindrical hole which is bored through the center of a sphere is of
such a size that the length of the hole is L, show that the volume of the
sphere that remains is constant and equal to the volume of a sphere of
diameter L.
 CHAPTER 4

Applications of Integration

32. Moment of Mass; Centroids

If a particle of mass m is located at a distance r from a fixed point,
line, or plane, the product m x r is called the moment of mass of m
with respect to the point, line, or plane.
If n particles of masses ml, m2, , m,z are located at the points
- -

Pl(xl,yl,zl), P2(x2,y2,z2), . . , Pn(xn,yn,zn), respectively, the moments

of mass of this system of particles with respect to the three rectangular
coordinate planes are
n n n
J1yZ = mix, MZZ = mcyi, Mzy = m{z{.

The centroid or center of gravity of this system of particles is

defined as the point C(x,y,z) whose coordinates are given by
Mx = 111YZ, My = MZZ, Mz = Mzv, (1)

where M denotes the total mass ml + m2 +'''+ mn.

Note 1: It is important to observe that the position of the centroid
depends only on the system of masses and not on the coordinate system
which is used. For example, the centroid of two equal masses is the mid-
point of the line segment joining the two masses, no matter what reference
frame is used.

By direct computation the definitions (1) lead to the following

conclusions.
1. The moment of a system of masses with respect to any plane is the
same as that obtained in considering the total mass to be con-
centrated at the centroid.
2. The moment of a mass with respect to any Plane passing through
the centroid is zero.
87
88 Applications of Integration
Illustration. lv'lasses of 1, 4, and 5 units, located at the points (-1,2),
(1, - 1), and (3,1), respectively, have the following mass-moments with respect
to the x and y axes,
My = 1(-1) + 4(1) + 5(3) = 18, Mt = 1(2) + 4(-l) + 5(1) = 3.
Since the total mass 111 is 10 units, the coordinates of the centroid are
18 - 3
x 10 = 1.8, = = 0.3.
p
In accordance with the preceding discussion, the concept of a
centroid for a continuous mass system can be derived as follows. Let
the total mass Al be subdivided into it small elements of mass which
we denote as i inl, Om2, , A91an. When the number of such elements
is large and all dimensions of each element are small, we have a discrete
mass system that approximates the given mass. The limit approached
by such a system as n --> oo gives the results desired. Thus the
centroid of a continuous mass M is defined by the equations

1172 = f xc dm, 1119 = fc dm, Mz = f zc dm,

where xc, yc, zc are the coordinates of the centroid for the element of
mass dm, and the integration extends over the whole mass.
Note 2: When a mass is homogeneous (has constant density throughout),
the density factor in the element of mass dm may be disregarded and the
centroid is determined by the geometrical nature of the mass.
33. Centroid of a Plane Area
For a plane area the general formulas of the preceding article
become

b
Ax= fx,dA, Ay= fycdA. (1)

Illustration I. For the axis PQ, in Figure 37,

d dr the moment of area for the rectangle, of dimensions
P T b and d, is *
Q d
MPQ = r dA = r(b dr) = 2bd2.

0
Figure 37 I I

Dividing by the total area bd, we see that the

centroid is located at a distance 2d from the axis PQ.
* Actually the centroid of dA is located at a distance y from PQ where r < r < r + dr.
In accordance with the Fundamental Theorem, however, f r dA and f r dA give the same
result.
 Centroid of a Plane Area 89

Example 1. Find the centroid of the area bounded by the curves y2 = 4x,
x= 0, andy=4.
Solution: For the rectangular element as shown in Figure 38, we have
dA = x dy, xc = 2x, yc=y;
hence
4 4

A foxdy=fo iy2dy= a,

4 4
Ax =
Jo
?x(x dy) = fo 32y4 dy = 62,
4 4
A9 = fo y(xdy) = fo ly3dy = 16.

Thus the coordinates of the centroid are

6
32

X = 16
6
Y
16
= 3.
3 = 13
P(4,4)
The following properties,
whose proofs are left to the
student, are often useful in the
determination of centroids. dy
I
1. The centroid must lie on
any line of symmetry of a
homogeneous figure.
2. If a homogeneous figure has
a geometrical center, that
Point is the centroid.
3. If a figure A consists of
several Parts A 1, A 2, , Figure 38
and the distances of their
centroids from an axis s are respectively ri, r2, , the centroid
of A lies at a distance r from s given by
Ar=Air1+A2r2+
Illustration 2. The area shown in Figure 39 consists of two squares and
its centroid may be found in accordance with properties 2 and 3. Thus
20z = 16(2) + 4(3) ; hence 2.2,
209 = 16(2) + 4(5) ; hence 9 = 2.6.
Example 2. Find the centroid of the area bounded by the parabola
y = x2 and the line y = 2x + 3.
90 Applications of Integration
Solution: For the vertical element of area shown in Figure 40, we have
dA = [(2x + 3) - x2] dx, xc = x, Yc = 1[(2x + 3) + x2].
Hence
AJ31(2x+3-x2)dx 3
r3
Ax x(2x+3-x2)dx= 32
J i
Ay = r3
2(2x + 3 + X2) (2x + 3 - x2) dx = 544
15
J1

6 ty

41

-- Y

0
i
.1
2
i L
4
X

Figure 39 Figure 40

Thus we obtain the centroid

32 544 17
x = 3 = 1, y = 32 = C
Note: For a rough check on the accuracy of the work, we observe by
estimation that the point (1,3.4) is approximately the center of the area.
The following theorem is useful in the determination of volumes of
revolution.
Second Theorem of Pappus.* If a Plane area, is revolved about a
coplanar axis not crossing the area, the volume generated is equal to the
product of the area by the circumference of the circle described by the
centroid of the area.
Proof: For a volume as shown in Figure 30, we have
b b
V=f and Ay = f dx;
a a

* For the first theorem of Pappus, see page 268.

 Exercise 91

hence
b
V = 27r f ?y2 dx = A 27ry.
a

Illustration 3. Revolving a circle of radius a about a tangent line, we

generate a solid whose volume is V = (Ira2) 2ira = 2ir2a3.

EXERCISE 18
Find the centroid of each of the following systems of masses.
I. Equal masses at (3,0), (2,2), (2,4), (-1,2). Ans. (Z, 2).
2. Equal masses at (1,4,3), (-1,3,5), (3,-1,1).
3. Masses of 1, 2, 3 units at (-1,3), (2,1), (3, -1), respectively. (2, 3).
4. Masses of 2, 3, 3, 4 units at (-1,-2), (1,3), (0,5), (2,1), respectively.
5. Masses of 3, 5, 7 units at (3, - 2,3), (0,1,2), (3, - 2,3), respectively.
Ans. (2, -1, 3).
6. Masses of 2, 5, 9 units at (3,0,1), (-2,3,2), (4,1,4), respectively.
7. Show that the centroid of three equal masses lies at the intersection of
the medians of the triangle formed by the masses.
8. Find in two ways the centroid of the area in Figure C.
9. Find in two ways the centroid of the area in Figure 42. Ans. (ii, ii}
10. Find in two ways the centroid of the area in Figure 43.

2"
IE2'H H2'LH
I 2"

9,, 13-

-4'L---I

Ok 6 I O 2'=-1
Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 43

Find the centroid of each of the areas bounded by the following curves.
II.2x+y=6, x=0, y=0.
12. y=x+5, y=0, x=1, x=4.
13. y=2x+1, x+y=7, x=8.
14. y=x2, y=4.
15. y2=x, y=x-2.
16. 1=x3, x=0, y=8.
17. y = x3, y = 4x. (First quadrant.) R6b, 64
2'1)
92 Applications of Integration
I8. y2=x3, x=4.
19. y2 = x3, y = 2x. Ans. (2i, a l )
20. y=4-x2, 2y=4-x2.
21. y=x2, y=x3. (s,as)
22. y= 1 -x2, y=2+2x, y=2-2x.
23. y=x2-4, y=2x-x2. ( -z).
24. y3=x2, x-y=2, x+y=2, x=0.
25. y+x2=0, y+2=x, y+2= -x, y=2. (0, zos)
26. y2 = 4ax, x2 = 4by.
27. Vx + Vy- = Va-, x = 0, y = 0. (s a, s a)
28. The first-quadrant area of the circle x2 + y2 = a2. Hint: Assume the
known fact that A = 47ra2.
29. The first-quadrant area of the ellipse b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2. Hint:
4a, 4b
Assume the known fact that A = 7rab. Ans.
(3Tr 3ir).
30. Prove that the centroid for the area of any triangle is at the point of
intersection of the medians.
Solve the following problems using the theorem of Pappus.
31. Find the volume generated by revolving a rectangle of sides a and b
about the side a. Ans. 7rab2.
32. Find the volume generated by revolving a triangle of base b and altitude
It about its base. (See Problem 30.)
33. Find the volume generated by revolving an ellipse about its major axis.
(See Problem 29.) Ans. nab2.
34. Find the volume of the torus formed by revolving the area of a circle of
radius a about a coplanar line whose distance from the center of the
circle is b (b > a).
35. An ellipse whose major and minor semiaxes are a and b, respectively, is
revolved about a tangent which is parallel to the major axis. Find the
volume generated. Ans. 2ir2ab2.

34. Centroid of a Solid of Revolution

Because of symmetry the centroid of a homogeneous solid of revolu-
tion lies on its axis. Hence only one coordinate is needed to determine
its exact position. If the x axis is taken as the axis of revolution, the
general formulas of Article 32 reduce to

Vx = fxc dv, (1)

where dv is any element of volume, usually a disk, ring, or shell, and x,

is the x coordinate of the centroid for the element selected.
 Centroid of a Solid of Revolution 93

Example 1. Find the centroid of the solid formed by revolving about the
y axis the first-quadrant area bounded by the parabola y2 = 4ax and the
lines y = 0 and x = a.

First Solution: Selecting a vertical strip as indicated in Figure 44, we

obtain as the element of volume a circular shell whose volume dv is 2Trx y dx
and whose centroidal coordinate yc is -y. Hence
fa fa 2a1/2x3/2 dx = 5,ra3,
V= A= (2Trxy dx) = 2-7T
J
fa fa
Vy = J yc A = zy(2Trxy A) = Tr 4ax2 dx = 3ira4.
0 0

Figure 44 Figure 45

Thus the centroid is on the y axis and such that

_ 3Tra4 5
ya3 = 6 a.
Second Solution: Selecting a horizontal strip as indicated in Figure 45, we
get as the element of volume a circular ring whose volume dv is 7r(a2 - x2) dy
and whose centroidal coordinate ye is y. Hence, in computing V and V9,
12a (a2
V = rr f02a (a2 - x2) dy = 7ra3,
- 16a2) dy =
a fZ (a2y
Vy = fo y[ir(a2 - x2) dy] = _ 16a2) dy ra4,

we obtain the same result as before.

94 Applications of Integration

EXERCISE 19
Find the centroid of the solid generated by revolving about the indicated
axis the area bounded by the given curves.
1. 2x+y=2, x=0, y=0; about x=0. Ans. y=4.
2. y2=4x, x=1, y=0; about y=0.
3. y=4x=x2, y=0; about x=0. y=b.
4. y=x2, y=2x+3; about y=0.
5. y3=x2, y=4; aboutx=0. y= s
6. y=x3, x+y=2, y=0; about y=0.
7. x4y=1, y=1, y=4; about x=0. 3-
8. First-quadrant arc of x2 + y2 = a2, x = 0, y = 0; about y = 0.
9. y2 = 4ax, y = mx; about x = 0. Ans. y = 5a/2m.
10. First-quadrant arc of y = 4 - x2, x = 0, y = 0; about x 2.
I. y = x3, x = 2, y = 0; about x = 2. Ans. (2, 1,°).
12. y=x2, y=x+2; abouty=4.
13. First-quadrant arc of x2 + y2 = a2, fourth-quadrant arc of 2x - y = 2a,
x = 0; about x = 0. Ans. y = -a/16.
14. First-quadrant arc of y = 3 + 2x - x2, x = 0, y = 0; about x = 0.
15. y-x, y=2x, x+y=6; aboutx=0. Ans. y=1s
16. y2 x, 2y = x, y = x; about y = 0.
Find the center of gravity of the following solids of revolution when the
densities vary as indicated. For an element of mass use p dv where p repre-
sents the density factor.
17. Cone of Problem 1 when p = ky. Ans. y = b.
18. Solid of Problem 2 when p = k(1 - x).
94
19. Solid of Problem 5 when p = kx. Y - 13
20. Hemisphere of Problem 8 when p = k(a - x).

35. Moment of Inertia; Radius of Gyration

If a particle of mass in is located at a distance r from a fixed line, or
axis, the product in x r2 is called the second moment, or moment of
inertia, of in with respect to the axis.
If n particles of masses ml, m2, , in,, are located respectively at
distances Ti, r2, , rn from a fixed axis, the moment of inertia of this
system of particles with respect to the axis is

I= miy2. (1)
i=1
 Moment of Inertia of an Area 95

If Al denotes the total mass of the system, the positive number k

defined by
I = Mk2 or

is called the radius of gyration of M with respect to the axis.

Illustration. If masses of 2 and 3 units are located at the points (1,2,-1)
and (0,3,5), respectively, their moments of inertia with respect to the z axis
are computed from the relation IZ = mr2 = m(x2 + y2) ; thus
IZ=2(1+4)+3(0+9)=37.
Since the total mass is 5 units, the radius of gyration with respect to the
z axis is
kZ=NM=135=2.72.
When a continuous mass M is divided into n small elements
in], Amt, , Omn, its moment of inertia is given approximately by
n
Omk, where rk is the radius of gyration of Lmk. The limit
k=1
approached by this sum as n -* oo and every dimension of Omk -- 0
gives the desired result. Hence we define the moment of inertia of a
continuous mass M by the relation
I= J'r2 dm,

where r is the radius of gyration for the element of mass dm, and the
integration extends over the whole mass.
Note: If the density factor in a mass is uniform and equal to 1, we refer
to I as the moment of inertia of a volume, an area, etc., depending on the
geometrical nature of the element.
As an immediate consequence of the definition, we have the
following result.
Theorem. If a mass is divided in any way into two or more parts,
the moment of inertia of the whole mass with respect to an axis is equal to
the sum of the moments of inertia of its parts.

36. Moment of Inertia of an Area

For a plane area the general formula of the preceding article becomes
I = f r2 dA,
where r is the radius of gyration for the element of area dA.
96 Applications of Integration
Illustration I. For the axis PQ the moment of inertia of the rectangle
shown in Figure 37 (page 88) is
r rd
IPQ = r2 dA = r2(b dr) = 3bd3.

J J0
The preceding illustration leads to the following conclusions which
we summarize for future reference.

dr

I I

I I

- dh - I h

Figure 46A. Figure 46B. Figure 46C.

dI = s r3 A, dl = s (r3 - ri) A, dI = r2h dr,
k = r/ V-3 k = 1/ i(r2 + rlr2 + r1) k=r
Example. Find the moment of inertia of the first-quadrant area bounded
by the curves y2 = 4ax and x = a with respect to the y axis.
First Solution: Selecting a vertical strip as shown in Figure 47 and com-
paring with the preceding summary, we have r = x, h = y, and dr = dx; hence
fa fa
Iy = x2y dx = 2a1/2 x5/2 dx = 4 a4.
0

Figure 47 Figure 48

Second Solution: Selecting a horizontal strip as shown in Figure 48 and

comparing with the preceding summary, we have r2 = a, rl = x, and dh = dy ;
hence
Iy
_ f 2a 1 3(a3 _ x3)dy _ 1 f2a (a3 y
-4 4
dy=a.
-J0 3J0 64a3
 Exercise 97

If the moment of inertia of an area with respect to a coplanar axis

is known, the moment of inertia of the area with respect to a parallel
coplanar axis can be found without
integration by use of the following dA
theorem.
Theorem. The moment of inertia
of an area with respect to any
coplanar line equals the moment of b
inertia of the area with respect to the
parallel centroidal line plus the area
times the square of the distance D
between the lines; symbolically, a
Is = Ic + AD 2. S

Proof: For the element of area Figure 49

shown in Figure 49, we have
dIs = r2 dA. Since r = r' + D, it follows that
r=b
Is= (r'+D)2dA
r=a

= Jr'2 dA + 2D Jr' dA + D2 fdA

=Ic+0+D2A.
The second integral in the right-hand member of the equation above is
zero, since fr'dA = y'A and for the centroidal axis r' = 0.
Illustration 2. Since by Illustration 1 the moment of inertia of a rectangle
about its base is it follows by the theorem above that the moment of
3bd3,

inertia of a rectangle about a line through its center and parallel to the base is
Ic = Is - AD2 = 3bd3 - (bd)(3d)2 = 12bd3.

EXERCISE 20
In each of the following, find the moment of inertia and the radius of
gyration with respect to each coordinate axis.
I. Unit masses at (2,0), (-1,3), (4,2), (3,1).
Ans. Ix= 14,kx= 1.9;Iy=30,ky=2.7.
2. Masses of 1, 2, 4 units at (- 1,2), (3, - 2), (4,3), respectively.
3. Masses of 2, 4, 5 units at (1,0,0), (2,1, -1), (3,2,4), respectively.
Ans. Ix=108,kx=3.1;Iy= 147,ky=3.7;Iz=87,kz=2.8.
4. Masses of 3, 5, 6 units at (2,1,-1), (0,2,0), (-1,3,2), respectively.
 98 Applications of Integration
For each of the following areas, find the moment of inertia and the radius
of gyration with respect to the axis s.
5. The area shown in Figure 50. Ans. I = 245 3, k = 3.92.
6. The area shown in Figure 51.
7. The area shown in Figure 52. I = 3063, k = 3.43.

-2'H
2"
T
4" I
2'

I
4"
1
2"
S i6"
N,
I
Figure 50 Figure 51 Figure 52

In each of the following, find the moment of inertia of the area bounded
by the given curves with respect to the axis indicated.
8. 3x+2y=6, x=0, y=0; axisOY.
9. y = x, x = 0, y = 1; axis OX. Ans. .

10. y = 2x, x = 0, y = 2, y = 6; axis OX.

11. x+y=3, x=0, y=0; axis x z= 3. 81
12. y = x2, y = 1; axis OX.
13. y2x+4, x=0; axisOY. A- 5
105
14. y = axe, y = ax; axis OX.
15. y3x-x2, y=x; axis OX. 135
16. y x3, x=0, y = 8; axis OX.
17. yx3, x = 2, y = 0; axis x = 2. is
18. y3 = x2, y = 1; axis y = 1.
19. y x2, y = X3; axis OY. so*
20. 2y = x2 + 4, y = x2; axis OX.
21. y2 = ax, x2 = ay; axis OX. 3 ba4.
22. y3 = x2, y = 2 - x2; axis OY.
23. Show that the moment of inertia of a triangle of base b and altitude h
with respect to its base is 2 bh3.
24. Show that the moment of inertia of a rectangle of dimensions b and d
with respect to a diagonal is b3d3/6(b2 + d2).
25. Show that the moment of inertia of a straight rod or wire of length l
with respect to a perpendicular axis through one end is 1M12.
 Moment of Inertia of a Solid of Revolution 99

26. If the moment of inertia of a triangle with respect to its base is 2bh3,
find its moment of inertia with respect to a line through the centroid
parallel to the base.
27. If the moment of inertia of a circle with respect to a diameter is j7rr4,
find its moment of inertia with respect to a tangent. Ans. 4-i r4.
28. Using the answer to Problem 9, find the moment of inertia of the given
area with respect to the axis y = 1.
29. Using the answer to Problem 11, find the moment of inertia of the given
area with respect to the y axis. Ans. 4 .
30. Using the answer to Problem 21, find the moment of inertia of the given
area with respect to the centroidal axis y = Zoa.
In each of the following, find the moment of inertia of the area bounded
by the given curves with respect to the axis indicated.
31. y = x, y = 2x, x + y = 12; axis OY. Ans. 152.
32. y = x, x + y = 8, 5x + y = 12; axis OX.
33. y = 2x3, y + x3 = 0, 2y = x + 3; axis OX.
34. y3 x2, y=2x+3, x + y = 12; axis OX.
35. y=x2, y=2x-1, 4x+y=-4; axisx=1. 160,

37. Moment of Inertia of a Solid of Revolution

For a homogeneous solid of constant unit density, the general
formula of Article 35 becomes

I = Jr2 dv, (1)

where r is the radius of gyration for the element of volume dv.

Illustration. Consider the right circular
cylinder, one-fourth of which is shown in Figure
53. If the cylinder is divided into elements of
volume in the form of cylindrical shells, by Q
(1) the moment of inertia of the cylinder with
respect to its axis is
fa
IPQ = r2 dv = r2.27rrh dr = 27ra4h = 2Va2.
Figure 53
J 0

Thus the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder with respect

to its axis is one-half the volume times the square of the radius.
The preceding illustration leads to the following conclusions which
we summarize for future reference.
100 Applications of Integration

t -dh H Hdh

Figure 54A. Disk Figure 54B. Ring Figure 54C. Shell

dl = 27rr4dh, dl = ri) dh, dl = 27rr3h dr,
k=r/1f2 h = 1/2(72+ri) k=r

Example. If the first-quadrant area bounded by the parabola y2 = 4ax

and the line x = a is revolved about the x axis, find the moment of inertia
of the solid formed with respect to the axis of revolution.
First Solution: Selecting a vertical strip (Figure 47) which generates an
element of volume in the form of a disk, we see on comparison with the
preceding summary that r = y and dh = dx ; hence
fa fa
Ix = 277 y4 dx = 277 16a2x2 dx = 37ra5.
0 0

Second Solution: Selecting a horizontal strip (Figure 48) which generates

an element of volume in the form of a shell, we see on comparison with the
preceding summary that r = y, h = a - x, and dr = dy ; hence
2a y3(a-x)dy=277 2a y3a-4aly=37ra5.
Ix=277 fo fo ` /

EXERCISE 21
If the areas bounded by the following curves are revolved about the
indicated axis, find the moment of inertia of the solid formed with respect
to the axis of revolution.
I. y=x, x=2, y=0; abouty=0. Ans. 1677.
2. 2x+y=4, x=0, y=0; aboutx=0.
3. y=x+1, x=1, x=2, y=0;abouty=0. 10 IT.
4. x+2y=8, x=2, y=2; about y=0.
5. y=x2, x=2, y=0; abouty=0. 29677.
6. y=x2, x=2, y=0; aboutx=0.
7. y=x-x2, y=0; abouty=0. 7r/1260.
8. y2 = 4ax, x = a ; about x = 0.
9. y=x3, x=1, x=2, y=0; aboutx=0.
 Fluid Pressure 101

10. xy= 1, x= 1, x=4, y=0; aboutx=0.

I I . y = x3, x = 1, y = 0; about x = -1. A ns. I o$7r.
12. y3 = x2, y = 1; about x = 0.
13. x112 + y1/2 = al/2, x = 0, y = 0; about y = 0. 7ra5/90.
14. x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3; about x = 0.
Find the moment of inertia of each of the following homogeneous solids of
revolution with respect to its axis. Express the result as a multiple of its
mass.
15. A right circular cone. Ans. 10 Ma2.
16. A frustum of a right circular cone.
17. A sphere. SMa2.
18. A prolate spheroid. (Ellipse revolved about its major axis.)
19. An oblate spheroid. (Ellipse revolved about its minor axis.) SMa2.
20. A paraboloid of revolution.

38. Fluid Pressure

In hydrostatics it is shown that the pressure p (force per unit area)
at a point h units below the surface of a fluid is given by
P=wh, (1)

where w, the specific weight, is the weight of a unit volume of the fluid.
Illustration 1. Water weighs
62.4 pounds per cubic foot; hence
the water pressure at a depth of
10 feet is 62.4 x 10 or 624 pounds
per square foot.
In accordance with (1), if a
horizontal area A is located at a
uniform depth of h, the force
exerted by the fluid on one side
of the area is
F = whA. x
To determine the force ex- Figure 55
erted by a fluid on a vertical
plane area, such as ABCD in Figure 55, we proceed as follows. Draw
the axes as shown in the figure with the y axis lying in the surface of
the fluid and the positive x axis downward. Divide A B into n in-
tervals, each of width dx, and construct horizontal rectangular elements
within the area.
102 Applications of Integration

Since the pressure at the top of an element of area is wx, the force
exerted by the fluid on the rectangle is approximately wx dA. Thus,
in accordance with the Fundamental Theorem, an element of force
may be taken as
dF = wx dA = wxy dx.
Since the total force F is the limit of the sum of the force-elements as
n -- oo, it follows by the Fundamental Theorem that
b
F = w f xy dx. (2)
a

Example I. The vertical end of a water trough is an isosceles triangle

with a width of 6 feet and depth of 3 feet. Find the force on one end when
the trough is filled with water.
Solution: The equation of the line AB in Figure 56 is x + y = 3.
Hence, substituting w = 62.4,
y = 3 - x, a = 0, and b = 3 in (2),
we obtain
03

IF = 62.4 J x(3 - x) dx = 281.

Thus the required force is

2 x 281 or 562 pounds.

x
Since the depth x in the in-
tegral (2) may be considered as a
Figure 56 moment arm for the area y dx,
we have the following result.
Theorem. The force on a submerged plane area equals the product of
the specific weight of the fluid, the area, and the depth of the centroid of
the area below the surface; symbolically,

F = wAx. (3)

Illustration 2. For the example above, we have w = 62.4, A = 9, and

x = 1. Hence the total force is (62.4)(9)(1) or 562 pounds.
Occasionally the work is simpler if the system of axes is chosen in
some other way than that suggested above. In all cases, however, the
force is to be computed from the relation
Force = Specific weight x Depth x Area. (4)
 Exercise 103

Example 2. The cross section of a trough is a parabolic segment 8 feet

wide and 4 feet deep. If the trough
is filled with a liquid weighing 45
pounds per cubic foot, find the total
force on one end.
Solution : Choosing axes as
shown in Figure 57, the equation of
the parabola is x2 = 4y. Then, in
accordance with (4), we have the
element of force.
dF = 45 x (4 -- y) x 2x dy. Figure 57
Hence the total force on one end is

F = 90 x(4 - y) dy = 180 fo (4y'/2 - y3/2) dy = 1536 pounds.

I

EXERCISE 22
In each of Problems 1-10, the given surfaces are submerged vertically in a
fluid of specific weight w. Find the force on one side of the surface by
integration and check the result using equation (3). Express answers in
terms of w.
I. A rectangle 10 feet wide and 8 feet deep with the upper edge lying in
the surface. Ans. 320 w.
2. Solve Problem 1, if the upper edge is 6 feet below the surface.
3. An equilateral triangle of sides 4 feet with one edge lying in the surface.
Ans. 8 w.
4. Solve Problem 3, if one vertex lies in the surface and the opposite side
is horizontal.
5. An isosceles right triangle with legs 6 feet long and one leg lying in the
surface. Ans. 36 w.
6. Solve Problem 5, if one vertex lies in the surface and the opposite leg is
horizontal.
7. An isosceles trapezoid of height 4 feet and bases 6 feet and 12 feet with
the smaller base lying in the surface. Ans. 80 w.
8. Solve Problem 7, if the larger base lies in the surface.
9. A triangle of base 6 feet and altitude 3 feet with the vertex and base
lying respectively 2 feet and 5 feet below the surface. Ans. 36 w.
10. A square of sides 2 feet with one diagonal horizontal and lying 2 feet
below the surface.
I. Find the force on one side of a plane parabolic segment of base 8 feet
104 Applications of Integration
and altitude 4 feet when the segment is submerged vertically in water
with its base horizontal, and the base and vertex are respectively 4 feet
and 8 feet under the surface. Ans. 7450 lb.
12. Solve Problem 11 when the vertex lies in the surface and the base is
4 feet under the surface.
13. Solve Problem 11 when the vertex lies in the surface and the base is
vertical. Ans. 998 lb.
14. Solve Problem 11 when the vertex lies 2 feet under the surface and the
base is vertical.
15. Solve Problem 11 when the vertex lies
dy 4 feet under the surface and the base is
Surface d
Y
vertical. Ans. 5320 lb.
16. Solve Problem 7 using centroids when
one of the equal sides lies in the sur-
face.
17. A vertical cylindrical tank of diameter
X 20 feet and height 30 feet, is full of water.
Figure 58 Find the total force normal to the curved
surface. Ans. 882 tons.
18. Show that for an area submerged as in Figure 58 the force is

F = ?w f
d
x2 dy.

19. Using the result of Problem 18, find the force on a face of a vertical
semicircle of radius a whose base diameter lies in the surface.
Ans. 2wa3.
20. Using the result of Problem 18, find the force on a face of a vertical
semielliptical segment of base 10 feet and depth 3 feet when the base
is in the surface of oil weighing 60 pounds per cubic foot.

39. Work
If the application of a constant force F to a body results in a
displacement s in the line of action of the force F, the force is said to
do work on the body amounting in magnitude to the product Fs.
Illustration I. The work required to raise a 50-pound weight to a height
of 4 feet is 50 x 4 or 200 foot-pounds.
Let us now consider the work done by a variable force acting in the
direction of and along a straight line segment. We assume that the
magnitude of the force is a continuous function F(x) of its position x
on the line.
 Work 105

In order to determine the work done by the force as the point of

application moves from x = a to x = b, we divide the interval into it
increments each of length A. Since the force changes but little in
the interval from x to x + dx, we conclude from the definition that
the work done is approximately F(x) A. Thus, in accordance with the
Fundamental Theorem, an ele-
ment of work dtil' may be
taken as 0
X dx
a a X

dW = F(x) dx. Figure 59

The total work done by the variable force from x = a to x = b is

the limit, as n oo, of the sum of the elements of work. Hence it
follows by the Fundamental Theorem that
b
W = f F(x) dx.
a

Illustration 2. Hooke's law states that within the limits of elasticity the
displacement produced in a body is proportional to the force applied, that is,
F = kx, where the constant k is called the modulus. Thus if the modulus of
a spring is 20 pounds per inch, the work required to stretch or compress the
spring a distance of 6 inches is
r6
W= 20x dx = 360 in-lb. = 30 ft-lb.
J0
Example. A hemispherical tank of radius 10 feet is full of water. Find
the work done in pumping the
water to the top of the tank.
Solution:If the water in the
tank is divided into elementary
disks as indicated in Figure 60, it
follows from the relation W = Fs
that the element of work needed to
raise a disk of water to the top of
X
the tank is
Figure 60
dW = 62.4 x ,rye dx x x.
Hence the total work done in pumping all the water to the top of the
tank is
10
W = 62.47r xy2 dx.
J0
106 Applications of Integration
Since the equation of the curve AB is x2 + v2 = 100, we obtain
10
W = 62.4ir f x(100 - x2) dx = 245 ft-tons.
0

EXERCISE 23
1.A spring whose normal length is 10 inches has a modulus of 12 pounds
per inch. How much work is done in stretching this spring from a
length of 12 inches to a length of 15 inches? Ans. 126 in-lb.
2. Find the work required to compress a spring of modulus 72,000 pounds
per foot a distance of 2 inch.
3. Find the work required to compress the spring of Problem 2 an addi-
tional 2 inch. Ans. 1872 ft-lb.
4. What is the modulus of a spring if 120 inch-pounds of work are required
to stretch it a distance of 4 inches?
5. A cable 100 feet long and weighing 3 pounds per foot hangs from a wind-
lass. Find the work done in winding it up. Ans. 72 ft-tons.
6. A cage of weight 1l7 pounds is to be lifted from the bottom of a mine
shaft h feet deep. If the weight of the cable used to hoist it is w pounds
per foot, find the work done.
7. The force of attraction between two masses is k/x2 pounds, where k is a
constant and x feet is the distance between them. How much work
must be done to increase the distance between the masses from 50 to
100 feet? Ans. k/100 ft-lb.
8. A right circular tank of depth 15 feet and radius 5 feet is full of water.
Find the work done in pumping the water to the top of the tank.
9. A right circular tank of depth 12 feet and radius 4 feet is half full of oil
weighing 60 pounds per cubic foot. Find the work done in pumping
the oil to a height 6 feet above the tank. Ans. 136 ft-tons.
10. A tank in the form of an inverted right circular cone of depth 10 feet and
radius 4 feet is full of water. Find the work done in pumping the water
to a point 1 foot above the tank.
I. A hemispherical tank of radius 6 feet is filled with water to a depth of
4 feet. Find the work done in pumping the water to the top of the tank.
Ans. 25.1 ft-tons.
12. A hemispherical tank of radius 20 feet is filled with water. Find the
work done in pumping the water to the top of the tank.
13. A tank in the form of a frustum of a right circular cone is filled with oil
weighing 50 pounds per cubic foot. If the height of the tank is 10 feet,
the base radius 6 feet, and the top radius 4 feet, find the work required
to pump the oil to a height 10 feet above the tank. Ans. 312 ft-tons.
 Exercise 107

14. Find the work done in pumping out a semielliptical tank of water, if the
top is a circle of radius 4 feet and the depth is 5 feet.
15. A tank filled with water has the form of a paraboloid of revolution
whose axis is vertical. If the depth of the tank is 12 feet and the dia-
meter of the top is 8 feet, find the work done in pumping the water to
the top of the tank. Ans. 37.6 ft-tons.
 CHAPTER 5

Differentiation of Algebraic Functions

40. Introduction
The definition of a derivative, as it is summarized by the four-step
rule, gives the basic method for differentiating functions of a single
variable. To save labor, however, we develop in this and subsequent
chapters a set of standard formulas by means of which the derivatives of
most elementary functions can be determined with less difficulty.
Although these formulas are valid for any differentiable functions,
in this chapter we shall limit their use to explicit algebraic functions*
of the form obtained by applying to a variable a finite number of
additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and extractions of
roots. For example, x(x + 1) -1 and 'x2 - 1 are algebraic functions,
whereas 2x and log x are not.

41. Formulas for Differentiation

In the following formulas it and v will be used to denote any func-
tions of x that are differentiable.
Formula D1. The derivative of a constant is zero.

dx=0.

D1
This was proved in Article 12.
Formula D2. The derivative of the product of a constant and a function
is equal to the product of the constant and the derivative of the function.

Proof: If y = cu, and Du and Ay are the increments of it and y

corresponding to the increment Ox of x, by the four-step rule we have

y+Ay=c(u+Du), Dy=ciu, and

oy=cAu
Ox Ox
* For a general definition of an algebraic function, see Article 85.
108
 Formulas for Differentiation 109

By Theorem 1, Article 6, we obtain D2 when Ox approaches zero.

Formula D3. The derivative of an algebraic sum of two functions is
equal to the sum of their derivatives.
d
D3
d
(u+v)= dx+dx.
This was proved in Article 12.
Formula D4. The derivative of the product of two functions is equal
to the sum of the products obtained in multiplying each function by the
derivative of the other.

D4 dx(uv)=udx+v x-.
Proof: If y = uv, and Ay, Du, and Ov are the increments of y, it,
and v corresponding to the increment Ox of x, we have
y+Dy= (u+Alt) (v+Ov) =uv+It AV +vAu+DuAv,
AY = It Ov + v Du + zit Ov,
= iiA°Ax Ex- + DuAx
Ox
Taking the limit as Ax approaches zero, we obtain D4, since
dz
lim Lit Ox = lim Du lim Oz = 0.- = 0.
Illustration I. If y = (x2 + 1)(x3 - x2), then by D4

dy (x3 - x2) + (x3 - x2) dx (x2 + 1)

dx (x2 + 1) dx
(x2 + 1)(3x2 - 2x) + (x3 - x2) 2x
= 5x4 - 4x3 + 3x2 - 2x.

Note 1: If we write D4 in the form

d du dv
(ZCV)
dx
uv
=-+-,dx
it
dx
V

we see for a product of three functions that

d du d du dv dw
dx (uvw)
dx dx (vw) dx dx dx
uvw it vw u V w
or
d dw
- (uvw) = - vw + It 7 w + uv
110 Differentiation of Algebraic Functions
In like manner, if y = ulu2 un, it can be shown that
y, = uiu2 ... tin + ulu2 ... tin + ... + ulu2 ... un, (1)

where the primes indicate differentiation with respect to the independent

variable.

Formula D5. The derivative of the nth power of a function is equal to

it times the product of the (n - 1)1h power of the. function and the derivative
of the function.
du
D5 d (un) = nun-'
dx dx
Proof: If the it factors ul, u2, , tin in (1) are each set equal to it,
we have the result as stated above.
Although this proof establishes D5 only for the case in which n is a
positive integer, it will be proved later that D5 is valid when n is any
real number. In the meantime we shall assume its validity for all
real values of it.

Illustration 2. If y = (x2 + 1)4, then by D5

4.(x2 + 1) = 8x(x2 + 1)3.

TX

Note 2: The two cases in which is = -1 and n = z occur frequently

and it is advisable to learn them in the following forms
d (1) 1 du d 1 du
dx (u) - - u2 dx' dx (Vii) = 21'u dx (2)

Illustration 3. If y = x4 - 3, then by (2)

dy _ 1 d (x4
dx
- 3) = 2x3
21/x4 - 3 dx x4 - 3

Formula Ds. The derivative of the quotient of two functions is equal to

the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator
times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the
denominator.
du dv
u
d u dx dx
D6
Ix (v) V2
 Formulas for Differentiation

Proof: Letting y = u/v and giving x an increment Ax, we have by

the four-step rule
+AU
1. y+Ay =itV + Ov
2.
oy - u+Duu vAu - uAv
V + Ov v v(v + AV)
Du Ov
Ay
3.
Ox v(v + Ov)
du dv
d.Y=vdx-2ydx
4.
dx v2

Illustration 4. If y = (x2 - 4)/(x2 + x), then by D6

d
(x2 + x) TX (x2 - 4) - (x2 - 4) (x2 + x)
dx
dx (x2 + X)2

(x2+x)2x-
(x2(x2-4)(2x+
+ x)2 x2+$x+4
1) - x2(x + 1)2

Example I. Find dy/dx, when y= x2 - -,'2x + 1.

Solution:
Y= d (x)2 d
dx dx - YX_
1/2x + 1 by D3

=2x- 2 2x+ 1 dx
d
--(2x+1)
1
by D5

=2x- 1
1/2x + 1
by D2 and D1

Example 2. Find dy/dx, when y = il

1+x
GI X 1/3
Solution: Writing y = we have
+ x) ,

dy1 1-x -2/3d 1-x by D5

dx 3 (1 +x) dx\l +x)
_ 1 1 + X2/3 (1 + X)(-J) - (1 - x)(1)
-3 (1 - x) (1 + x)2
by D6

-2
3(1 - x)2/3(1 + x)4/3.
1 12 Differentiation of Algebraic Functions
Note 3: A given expression should be reduced to its simplest form before
differentiating. Thus, to obtain the derivative of y = (x4 - 9)/(x2 + 3),
we differentiate the equivalent relation y= x2 - 3 and find y' = 2x.

EXERCISE 24
Find the derivatives of the following functions with respect to x and
simplify the results.
I. (1 + 3x)5. Ans. 15(1 + 3x)4. 2. (5 - 2x)4.
3. (x2 - 4) 3. 6x(x2 - 4)2. 4. (3 - 2x)2(x2 - 2).
5. A/9 - x2. -x/1/9 --X 2. 6. 1/2x + 13I3x.

7. x+1
x+2 1
8.
(x - 1)2
x
(x + 2)2
9. (x2 - 1)(2x2 - 3). 8x3 - 1Ox. 10. X5(1 + x)5.
I. A/(3x + 1)4. 41/3x + 1. 12. (2x - 3) -3.
13.
x 2+3x2 14.
4x2-9
2 - 3x2 (2 - 3x2)2 2x+3
15. x. 2
2-3x
16. x21/1 - x2.
17. (2x + 1)48. 96(2x + 1)47. 18. x3(x + 1)2(x + 2).
4x 1
19. 2 20.
x2-1 (x2-1)2 A/4x - 3
1-x -1 1 -x2
21.
J1 + x (1 + x)1/1 - x2
22. J3
1 + x2

23.
a2 + x2
x2 (a24a2x
- x2)2 24.
1/a + 1/x
a2 - 1/a - 1/x
x3 + a3 a - x
25.
x + a
2x - a. 26.
A/a 1/x

27. (a2/3 - x2/3)3/2. -x-1/3(a2/3 - x2/3)1/2. 28.

fax + b
cx+d
In each of the following, find the value of dy/dx for the given value of x.
2
29. y= 2x
+x3)
x = -1. Ans. -4.
30. y = (3x)1/3 + (3x)2/3, x = 9.
31. y=xA/1 +x3, x=2. 7.

32. y = V'5 - Vx, x = 1.

 Exercise 1 13

Find the equations of the tangent and 'normal to each of the following
curves at the point indicated.
33. y = 1/25 - x2, (3,4). Ans. 3x + 4y = 25, 4x - 3y = 0.
34. y = (x3 - 7)5, (2,1).
35. y=1/1/x+3, (1,2). x + 16y = 9, 32x - 2y = 31.
36. y(x+2)2=x, (-1,-1).
Find the angle of intersection between the two given curves at the point
indicated.
x 2
37. y= 1 x2' y= 1 x x; (0,0). Ans. 45°.
38. y-x, xy=(x+2)2; (-1,-1).
39. y= 1/x+2, y x+2= 1; (-1,1). 53.10.

40. y=x-1, x2 +y2=25; (4,3).

Find the maximum and minimum points for each of the following curves.
41. x2y = x3 - 4. Ans. (- 2,- 3), max.
42. y 2x+ 1 =x.
43. Y = x1/x + 1. (- -1 1/3), min.
3,

44. In the isosceles triangle ABC, AB = AC = 5 units, and BC = 6 units.

Find the location of the point D on the altitude from A to BC for which
the sum DA + DB + DC is a minimum.
45. A farmer estimates that if he digs his potatoes now he will have 120
bushels, which he can sell at $1.75 per bushel. If he expects his crop
to increase 8 bushels per week, but the price to drop 5 cents per bushel
per week, in how many weeks should he sell to realize the maximum
amount for his crop? Ans. 10 weeks.
46. Find the point of the parabola 9y = x2 that is closest to the point
(5,-2).
47. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be constructed with its
base on the x axis and two vertices on the witch y = 8a3/(x2 + 4a2).
Ans. 4a2.
48. If P is the price per unit at which x units of a certain commodity can be
sold, then P is usually a decreasing function of x called the demand
function, R = fix is the total revenue, and dR/dx is called the marginal
revenue. Determine reasonable domains for the following demand
functions and find the production number that gives a maximum
revenue.
2
(b) P =x+8-10.
1 14 Differentiation of Algebraic Functions

49. If C is the total cost at which x units of a certain commodity can be

produced, then C is usually an increasing function of x called the cost
function, c = Clx is the average cost per unit, and AT = dCldx is called
the marginal cost. Determine a reasonable domain for the cost function
C = 6000 + 24x - 0.004x2, and find (a) the average cost and (b) the
marginal cost when 300 units are being produced.
Ans. (a) $42.80, (b) $21.60.
50. If n is a positive integer prove that the derivative of x-n is -nx-n-1.

Hint: Write x-n in the form 1/xn and use D6.

42. Formulas for Differentiation (Continued)

If y is a function of u, and it is a function of x, then y is dependent
on x and its derivative with respect to x is determined as follows in
what is called the chain rule of differentiation.
Formula D7. If y = f (u) and u = O(x), the derivative of y with
respect to x is equal to the product of the derivative of y with respect to it
by the derivative of it with respect to x.
dy -dydu
dx = f'(u) O'(x)
or
D7 dx du dx'
Proof : An increment Ax in x produces an increment Du in u, which
in turn gives an increment Ay in y. These increments satisfy the
algebraic identity
AY Dy Du
Ax Du Ax
Taking the limit as Ax approaches zero, by Theorem 1, Article 6, we
obtain
dy = dy du = f, (u) , (x)
dx du dx
provided f (u) and c(x) are differentiable functions..
Illustration I. If y = u/(u + 1) and u = x/(x + 1), we have
dy - 1 du 1
and
du (u + 1)2 dx = (x + 1)2
Hence by D7
dy 1 1 1

dx (u + 1)2 (x -} 1)2 (2x + 1)2.

 Differentiation of Implicit Functions 115

The following two formulas may be proved in a similar manner.

Formula D8. The derivative of y with respect to x is equal to the
reciprocal of the derivative of x with respect to y.

D8
dy- 1
(dy # o
dx dx'
dy
Illustration 2. If x = yam, we have
dx y
dy y2 + 1
Hence by D8
dy 1/y2 + 1
dx y

Formula D9. If y = f (u) and x = g(u), the derivative of y with

respect to x is equal to the ratio of the derivative of y with respect to u
divided by the derivative of x with respect to u.
dy
D9 dy = du or dy = f ,(u), g'(u) 0.
dx dx dx g(u)
du
Illustration 3. If y = u/(1 - u) and x = u/(1 - u2), we have
dy- 1
and
dx 1+u2
u2) 2
du (1 - u) 2 du (1 -
Hence by D9
1

dy _ (1 - u)2 (1 + u)2
dx 1 +u2 1 +u2
(1. -u2)2
43. Differentiation of Implicit Functions
An equation, such as y = f (x), is said to define y as an explicit
function of x for some domain R. Not all functions are defined in
such an explicit way. For example, an equation in x and y, such as
x3-2x2=y4-y+5,
is not easily solved for y in terms of x. However, if a function f (x)
exists such that
x3-2x2=f4(x) -f(x) + 5
holds for every x in the domain of f (x), then the function y = f (x) is
said to be defined implicitly by the given equation.
1 16 Differentiation of Algebraic Functions

Illustration I. The equation 4x2 + 9y2 = 36 defines either variable im-

plicitly in terms of the other. If the equation is solved for x or y, we obtain
the equivalent explicit equations
x= ±2 - y2 or y= ±3 9-x2.
It is often inconvenient or impossible to solve a given equation for
one of the variables. Hence, in order to find the derivative of an
implied* function, we proceed in accordance with the following rule.
Rule. Differentiate each term of the equation F(x,y) = 0 with respect
to x, considering y to be a function of x.
I Ilustration 2. Applying the above rule to x3 + y3 - 3xy = 0 and solving
for dy/dx, we obtain
d
ax (x3) + dx (y3) -3Y X- = 0,

3x2 + 3y2dx = 0,
- 3(y + x dx)

3(y2 - x)
d
dx
3(y - X2),

Example I.
d-x'
dyy-x2
X y2

If x2 + y2 = a2, find y' and y".

Y2-x#0.

Solution: Differentiating implicitly, we obtain

2x + 2yy' = 0;
hence

y'=- , y 0.

Differentiating again, we obtain by D6

Y "= -y - Y2xy'
Since y' x/y and x2 + y2 = a2, the second derivative can be expressed
in the following simplified form

Y
"--y-x(-x/Y) = y2 y3
+ x2 a2
y3.
Y2

The equation x + yy' = 0 may itself be differentiated implicitly

Note:
giving 1 + (y') 2 + yy" = 0. Thus, as above, we obtain
X2
y =-y2a
YY"=-(1+) 2
 Differentiation of Implicit Functions 117

y3When
hence
y ,, - - a2

one is solving a problem concerning a maximum or minimum,

it is advisable in general to express the quantity which is to be maxi-
Such problems can,
mized (or minimized) in terms of a single variable.
however, be solved implicitly by using more than one variable. This
method is illustrated in the following example.
Example 2. An isosceles triangle with vertex at (0, - 1) is to be inscribed
in the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 4. Find the largest area that the triangle can
have.
Solution: If the base of the triangle intersects the ellipse at the point
P(x,y), it follows from Figure 61 that the area to be maximized is
A = x(y + 1), where x2 + 4y2 = 4. (1)

Differentiating each of these equations with respect to x, we have

dx -y+ 1 +xdx
x+4ydz=0. (2)

Since A is to be a maximum, we
set dA/dx = 0. Then eliminating
dy/dx between the two equations in
(2), we obtain
Figure 61
4y2+4y=x2. (3)

This equation we solve simultaneously with the second equation of (1).

Thus, on eliminating x, we find
y=:

The value y = -1 is rejected since it obviously gives a minimum area of

zero.Hence substituting y = 2 in (3), we obtain x = \/3, and from (1) the
maximum area is found to be -\/3 (2 + 1) or 2 .
Rule. To find the values of x and y which satisfy c(x, y) = 0 and
make the function M = f (x, y) a maximum or minimum, we proceed as
follows.
(a) Differentiate each of the given equations with respect to one of the
variables, say x.
1 18 Differentiation of Algebraic Functions

(b) Set d 11/dx = 0, and eliminate dy/dx between the two equations
obtained in (a).
(c) Solve the equation obtained in (b) simultaneously with O(x,y) = 0.

44. Summary of Formulas

The differentiation formulas which have been derived in this
chapter are of fundamental importance and should be memorized. For
convenience, we repeat the list here, and write the first six formulas in
their equivalent differential forms.
D1 do=0. D6
d ( U = v du - u dv
vJ v2

D2 d(cu) = c du. D7 dy _ dy du
dx du dx *

D3 d(u + v) = du + dv.
dy Idx.
D4 d(uv) = u dv + v du. D8 d dy
D5 d(un) = nun-1 du. D9
dy _ dy dx
dx du/du
EXERCISE 25
In each of the following find dy/dx.
U2+6u-2 , y=u1'u+1 ,
1.
zc=4x2+8x+1. Ans. 64(x + 1)3. 2.
{u=2x2-3.
fy=1/(1-it),
Y -u2+2u,
3.
+ X)-
-1/x2. 4. at=v2+ 2v,
v=x2+2x.
5. X = 3 y3 + y. 1/(y2 + 1). 6. x = 13/y + 3y.
7. x y
2y Vy- 8. x= 3y
+ 2y 2
Y 2-y2
r x=2u3-3zc2 , it + 1
u= 1. 10.
X = u/(1 + u3) ,
9.
y=u3-3u. 2u " y = u2/(1 + u3).
11.
fx=t+t-l, 2(t + t-1) . 12 .
fx = 1/(t - 1) ,
= t2 + t-2. = 1/(t2 - 1).
Find dyldx in each of the following by implicit differentiation. Also find
d2y/dx2 in the first four problems.
13. x2-4y2=4. Ayes. x/4y, -1/4y3.
14. 5x2 + 2y2 = 10.
I5. X1/2 + yl/2 = al/2. -yl/2/x1/2 al/2/2x3/2
16. X2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3
17. y3+y=x4. 4x3/(3y2 + 1).
 Exercise 1 19

18. X3 + 3y = 3xy.
19. xy = (x - y)2. Ans. (3y - 2x)/(2y - 3x).
20. X4 + y3 = 2x2y2.

21. X2 + y2 = 2xy. 1.
22. (x + y)1/2 + (x - y) 1/2 = a.
23. (x + y) 2 = 2ay (x + y) /(a - x - y).

1+ dt
Y 2
24. When x = f t2'
show that dx2 = Y.
0

Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the following curves
at the point indicated.
25. x3+y3=9; (1,2). Ans. x+4y=9,4x-y=2.
26. x2+y2-2x-6y+8=0; (0,4).
27. y+1'x+y=x; (3,1). 3x-5y=4,5x+3y=18.
28. X2 - 2xy - 2y2 = 1; (-3,-1).
Find the angle of intersection of the following pairs of curves.

x5 +2x= Ans. 67.0°.

Y=x+1,

29. 30.
.
y5 33. 1x2-2xy+y2=x.
fy + x2y = 1,
31. xy + y 78 7° . 32 .
y3 = (x + 1)2. y + x2y = X.
33. Find the points on the ellipse x2 - 2xy + 4y2 = 12 where the abscissa
x has its greatest and least values. Ans. (4,1) and (-4,-1).
34. Find the points of inflection of the curve x2 + y2/3 = 2.
35. Find by differentials an approximate value of 3.98. Ans. 1.995.
36. An isosceles trapezoid has constant bases of 6 and 12 inches, respectively.
Find the approximate change in its area when the equal sides change
from 5 to 5.2 inches.
37. A point moves along the parabola y2 = 3x. Find the approximate
change in its distance from the origin as its x coordinate changes from
1 to 1.1. Ans. 0.125.
38. Find the area of the largest isosceles triangle which can be cut from a
semicircular board, the vertex of the triangle being at the mid-point
of the diameter.
39. The strength of a rectangular beam is proportional to the product of its
breadth and the square of its depth. Find the dimensions of the
strongest rectangular beam that can be cut from a circular log of dia-
meter 18 inches. Ans. 613 x 6V6 in.
40. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the
curve x2/3 + y2/5 = 8
120 Differentiation of Algebraic Functions

a2
41. If + - = 1, where a and b are positive constants, show that the sum
x y
(x + y) has a relative maximum of (a - b)2 and a relative minimum of
(a + b) 2.
42. A right circular cone is generated by revolving an isosceles triangle of
constant perimeter about its altitude. Show that the cone of greatest
volume is obtained when the length of a side of the triangle is three-
fourths the length of the base.
43. ABCD is a rectangle, and a straight line APQ cuts BC in P and DC
extended in Q. Find BP so that the sum of the areas of the two
triangles ABP and PCQ will be a minimum. Ans. BP = -1V2 BC.
44. Writing the expression y = xl/q in the form yq = x, where q is a positive
integer, show by use of D8 that
dy = 1x(1/q)-1.
dx q
2
45. Find a formula for dx2 (uv). Ans. st"v + 21t'v' + uv".
2
46. Find a formula for
dx2 (v
lddv,
47. Using the fact that dz = 1 show that dx2 dyel I3
`dy

2
49. If x and y are functions of time t, show that dz2 = (xy - zy)/z3.
See Note 1, page 161.
n
50. If y = x f (x), show that dxn = x f (n) (x) + it f (n-1)(x).
 CHAPTER 6

Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

45. Transcendental Functions

A function which is not algebraic is called a transcendental func-
tion. In this chapter differentiation formulas will be derived for the
following elementary transcendental functions: trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, logarithmic, and exponential functions.

46. Properties of Trigonometric Functions

In trigonometry, we recall that two different units were used for
measuring angles, namely degees and radians. By definition a radian
is that central angle of a circle whose arc is equal in length to a radius.
Hence, from the measure of a straight angle, we have the conversion
relation
IT radians = 180°.
Although degrees are used in many applications, the radian measure is
better adapted for theoretical work. For this reason radians are used
almost exclusively in calculus.
The sine curve, y = sin x, as shown in 51, page 7, illustrates
graphically that the sine function is single-valued, continuous, and
Periodic with period 27T and amplitude 1.
Illustration 1. To draw a graph of the equation y = 3 sin (2x - 27r), we
first determine the beginning and end of a period by setting the whole angle
2x - 27T equal to 0 and 27r, respectively. Doing this, we find x = 417T and
X= 47T.

Since the multiplicative factor 3 gives the amplitude of the curve, we

draw one period of a sine curve as shown in Figure 62. The remainder of
the curve is determined by its periodicity.
Note 1: As illustrated in 51 and 52, page 7, the graph of a cosine curve
can always be obtained by moving the graph of the corresponding sine curve
to the left a distance equal to one-fourth of a period. Thus, if the curve
121
122 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions
shown in Figure 62 is shifted to the left a distance its equation will be
y = 3 cos (2x - 17r)
The tangent curve, y = tan x, as shown in 53, page 7, illustrates
graphically that the tangent function is single-valued, continuous ex-
cept for x = ± (n + ?)7r, and periodic with period 7r. As a branch of
the curve recedes to infinity, we observe that
it becomes and remains arbitrarily close to
3 ty one of the vertical lines x = ± (ii + 1))7r.
These lines are called asymptotes of the
curve.
From the relation cot x = -tan (x + 17r),
x it is apparent that a cotangent curve has
characteristics similar to those of a tangent
curve.
The secant curve, y = sec x, as shown
-31 V in 54, page 7, illustrates graphically that the
secant function is single-valued, continuous
Figure 62 except at x = ± (n + 2)7r, periodic with
period 27r, and asymptotic to the vertical
lines x = ± (n + ' )7r.
As for the preceding cofunctions, the cosecant function has prop-
erties similar to those of the secant function.
Example. Plot the curve y = cost X.
Solution: Although points on the graph of this curve can be obtained
directly by substitution, it is simpler to proceed as follows. First we trans-
form the given equation using the half-angle formula 30, page 3; thus
y = + 2 cos 2x.
The graph of this equation is readily obtained by composition of ordi-
nates. That is, we plot the two curves y = ? and y = 1-1, cos 2x, and add
their corresponding ordinates. Doing this, we obtain the graph shown in
Figure 63.

Figure 63
 Limit of sin 8/0 123

Note 2: The trigonometric formulas 24-34, pages 2-4, are used, fre-
quently in calculus, and it is advisable to memorize at least formulas 26 and
29.

47. Limit of sin 9/6

In order to develop differentiation formulas for the trigonometric
functions we shall need the following theorem.
Theorem. If the angle 0 is expressed in radians, the ratio sin 0/0
approaches unity as 0 approaches zero. That is,
sin 6
lim = 1.
6-->o 6

Proof: Let 0 be a positive acute angle as shown in Figure 64.

Construct a circular arc PB of radius r,
draw PA perpendicular to OB, and PC
tangent to the arc PB. By geometry, it
is clear that
Area AOP < Area BOP < Area COP. (1)

By trigonometry, we have OA = r
cos 0, AP = r sin 0, and PC = r tan 0. Figure 64
Hence, by substitution in (1), we obtain
r cos 8-r sin 0 < ?r29 < r r tan 0, (2)

when 0, as given in formula 5, page 1, is measured in radians.

Dividing each term of (2) by 2r2 sin 0 and taking reciprocals, we
obtain
1 98

cos8 > s1
> cos

Since sin 0/0 lies between two values both of which approach 1 as 0
approaches zero, it follows that
sin 8
lim
8
= 1.
0-+0

If the preceding limit is taken through negative values, it is clear from

the relations
sin (- 0) - sin 0 sin 0
lim = lim = lim =1
0--*0 (- 0) 0,0 8 -
0-+0 8

that we obtain the same result.

124 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

48. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Let y = sin x, where x is measured in radians. By the four-step
rule, we have
1. y + Ay = sin (x + Ax),
2. Ay = sin (x + Ax) - sin x.
Making use of 31, page 4, we obtain
Ay = 2 cos (x + 20x) sin !Ax;
and thus
sin
3. AY = Cos (x -I- )

where 0 = 20x.

As Ox approaches zero, 0 also approaches zero. Hence, by the

theorem in the preceding article, we have
sin 6
4. dy = lim Cos (x + 0) lim = Cos X.
dx e,0 o-*0 0

If u is any differentiable function of x, it follows by D7 that

D1o dx sin u = cos u du.

Illustration 1. If y = sin 7x, then y' = cos 7x ddxx) = 7 cos 7x.

Note: Suppose that an angle is measured in degrees as x°. Since

x° = 7rx/180 radians, we see that
d ° 7rx d 7rx 7r °
sin x0 = cos cos x
dx 180 dx (180) 180

To avoid the complication of the factor 7r/180 we use radian measure when
handling trigonometric functions in calculus.
The derivative of cos it can also be obtained using the four-step rule.
However, it is more readily found by using D10. Thus, to differentiate
cos u, we have
d d
d Cos u = sin (27r - it) = cos (27r - u) (27r - 4t)
TX TX dx
hence
d du
D11
dx
cos u = - sin u dx
 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 125

By expressing each of the remaining trigonometric functions in

terms of the sine and cosine, we can establish the following formulas.
du,
D 12 dx tan u = sect u

d du
D13 Cot U = -CSC2 U
d
dx,

d
D 14 x sec u = sec u an u du,

d
CSC U = - CSC U Cot U
du
D15
dx ax
For example, if y = tan it, we write y = sin u/cos u, and it follows
that
cos it dx (sin it) - sin u dx (cos it)
dy cos2 u + sin2 u du
dx - cos2 u = cos2 u dx
1 du du
_ cos2 u dx = sec2u-
dx
Example I. If y = tan3 2x, find dy/dx.
Solution: Thinking of the given equation as a series of relations in the
form y = u3, it = tan v, v = 2x, we obtain
dy dx
= 3 tang 2x (tan 2x) by D5

dx
= 3 tan2 2x sec2 2x (2x) by D12

= 6 tan2 2x sec2 2x. by D2

Example 2. If y = sin 2x sec x, find dy/dx.
Solution: Differentiating as a product, we obtain
dx = sin 2x (sec x tan x) + sec x (2 cos 2x).

Note: It is advisable to write a given expression in its simplest form

before differentiating. Thus, in the above example, since sin 2x = 2 sin x
cos x and sec x = 1/cos x, the given equation can be written as y = 2 sin x.
Hence y' = 2 cos x.
Example 3. If y = sin 5x sin5 x, find dy/dx.
126 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

Solution: In this example, we use 28, page 3, to simplify the result.

Thus
dy
= (5 cos 5x) sin5 x + sin 5x (5 sin4 x cos x)
= 5 sin4 x (sin x cos 5x + cos x sin 5x)
= 5 sin4 x sin 6x.
Example 4. If sin x + sin y = xy, find dy/dx.
Solution: Differentiating implicitly, we obtain

cosx+cOSIT =y+xdx;

hence
dy cos x - y
dx x - cos y
EXERCISE 26
Simplify each of the following expressions.
I. sin 2x cos 2x. Ans. 1 sin 4x. 2. (sin x+ cos X)2.
3. cos4 x - sin4 X. cos 2x. 4. 2 sin x csc 2x.
2 cot x cos 3x + sin 3x
5. sin 2x. 6.
I + cot2 x sin x cos x
7. cot x - tan x. 2 cot 2x. 8. 2COS2(27r-x) - 1.
9. sin (47r + x) + cos (47T + x). Ans. 1/2 cos x.
10. sin x (cos 4x + 4 cost x cos 2x).
Plot each of the following equations.
Y = 2 sin 4x. 12. y = tan 2x.
13. y = sin x + sin 2x. 14. y = x - cos x.
In each of the following, find dyldx.
15. Y = 2 sin R. Ans. 6 cos R. 16. y = cos (x2 + 1) .
17. y = 4 cot (3 - 2x). 8 csc2 (3 - 2x). 18. y = 2 sec .

19. Y = lx - 1 sin 2x. sin2 X. 20. y = x sec x.

21. y = 2 tan 2x - x. tang lx. 22. y = sec x sec 2x.
23 y_
sin x 1+ 2 cos x
24. y
- 1 + tan x
2 + COS x (2 + COS X)2 1 - tan x
25. Y = x sin x + (1 - 1x2) cos X. Ans. 1x2 sin x.
26. Y = x - tan x + 3 tan3 X.
27. y = 2 coS x sin 2x - sin x cos 2x. 3 cos x cos 2x.
28. Y = z sect 3x (tan2 3x - 1).
29. y = x3 - x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x. x2(3 + sin x).
30. v = simmn x cosh X.
 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 127

31. y = sin nix cos nx. A its. in cos nix cos nx - n sin nix sin nx.
32. y = sin (ax + b) cos (ax - b).
33. x = sect y. cost y cot y.
34. x = y + cot y.
35. y= 1
1+- it,
u
it = cos 2x. 2 tan x sect X.
36. y=412-2u+4, u= 1 +sec2x.
37. x = cos it + it sin it, y = sin it - it cos it. tan u.
38. x=0-sin0, y= 1 -cos0.
39. y = tan (x + y). -csc2 (x + y) _ - (1 + y-2).
40. y sin x + x sin y = 5.
41. sin (x + y) + sin (x - y) = 1. cot x cot Y.
42. y = 2x + sin (y - 2x%) .
In each of the following, find d2y/dx2.
43. y = x sin x. 2 cos x - x sin x.
44. y = a sec kx.
45. y = cos3 2x. 24 cos 2x - 36 cos3 2x.
46. y = x2 sin x + 2x cos x - 2 sin x.
47. y = /1 - cos 4x 8 sect 2x1tan 2x1.
N 1 + cos 4x
48. y = 2 sin x sin 2x. Hint: Write as a sum.
49. Show that lim
1 - cos 0 = Hint: Multiply numerator and de-
B->.0
0.
nominator by 1 + cos 0.
50. Show that sin xlx decreases steadily as x increases from 0 to 7r.
n
5I . Show by mathematical induction thatxn (sin x) = sin X+- and
l
n
develop a similar formula forxn (cos x).
52. Using the formula, sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x, determine by differentiation
the corresponding formula for cos 2x.
53. Derive formula D11 using D10 and the relation cos x = ± 1/1 - sine X.
54. Derive formula D14 using D11 and the relation sec x = 1/cos x.
55. Prove the theorem stated in Article 47 by assuming in Figure 64 that
PA < Arc PB < PC.
49. Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
If y is a function of x determined by the relation sin y = x, y is called
the inverse sine function of x and is denoted by
y = arc sin x or y = sin-1 x,
where the symbols are read as "the angle whose sine is x."
 128 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions
Similarly we have the definitions*
Y = cos-l x if cosy = x,
y= tan-' x if tan y = x,
and so on. These expressions are called the inverse trigonometric
functions.
The inverse sine curve, as shown in Figure 65, is obtained by
taking the reflection of the sine curve, y = sin x, with respect to the
line y = x, that is, by interchanging x and
Y y. The graph illustrates that the inverse
2Tr sine function is continuous, multiple-
valued, and defined only in the interval
Cl IT from -1 to 1.
z
. rr In order to consider the differentiation
of a function it is necessary that it be single-
valued. For this reason we define the arc
AB in Figure 65 to be the principal
X branch of the curve y = sin-' x, and we
indicate that we mean the principal branch
A - z IT by capitalizing the first letter in the notation
of the function. Thus the equation of the
'r
arc AB is y = Sin-' x: or y = Arc sin x, and
Figure 65 the single value given by the function Sin-'

x is called the principal value of sin-' x.

Illustration. The value of Sin-1 (-1) is - ?ir whereas sin-' (-1) repre-
sents any one of an infinite set of numbers including - 27r, }r, Z7r,

As indicated in 56, 57, and 58, page 8, the principal values of the
other inverse trigonometric functions are taken in the following
intervals:
0 5 Cos-' x 5 ,r, - 2,r < Tan-' x < 27r, 0 < Cot-' x < z,
-,r < Sec-' x < - ?rr, x 0 < Sec-' x < 2,r, x
-7T < Csc-1 x < - err, x < -1; 0 < CSC-' x 5 ?rr, x
Thus, for example,
Cos-' 3r r, Tan-' (-1) 4rr, Sec-' (- 2) 37r.

Note: In accordance with the above definitions, observe that the

equation of the arc BC in Figure 65 is y = 1,r + Cos-' x.
* In this text we shall use the notation approved by the American Engineering
Standards Committee. See "American Standard Mathematical Symbols," Amer. Math.
Monthly, vol. 35 (1928), pp. 300-304.
 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 129

Combinations of inverse trigonometric functions may be simplified

by use of the formulas listed in 33, page 4.
Example. Simplify Tan-' 2 + Tan-' (- 3).

Solution: Using the third and tenth formulas given in 33, we obtain
Tan-1 2 + Tan-1 (- 2) = Tan-1 2 - Tan-1 3
= Tan-' ) = Tan-1 ;.
\1 2 + X1
3
2 3

50. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

To determine the derivative of the function y = Sin-1 x, we first
write the equation in the equivalent form
sin y = x, - 27r < y < 27r.

Differentiating with respect to y,* and making use of formula D8, we

obtain
dx dy = 1
COSY = dy or
dx cos y
By trigonometry, we have

cosy= +V/i -sin2y= -x2,

where the positive sign of the radical is taken since cosy is positive for
all values of y between - 27r and 27r. Thus
dy 1

dx -\/1 __X2'
and by D 7, we have

D16 dxSin-'u = 1 du
1/1 u 2 dx
where u is a differentiable function of x.
Illustration I. If y = Sin-' 2x, then by D16
dy
dx
1
d (2x) = 2
1/1 - (2x)2dx V/1 - 4x2

* We differentiate here with respect to y in order to avoid making the assumption

that dy/dx exists.
130 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

In a similar manner, we derive the following:

d 1 du
D17 Cos-1 U =
dx V1 - u2 dx1

D18 d Tan-' u =
1+u2dx1
du

du
D,9 Cot-' u =
dx 1+u2dx
1 du
u u2 - 1 dx1

du
D 2, d CSC-1 U =
dx u\/u2 - 1 dx
Illustration 2. If y = Sec-'1/l + x2, then by D20
dy - 1 d 1

(1 + x2) - l dx 1+x2= -
dx 1/1 .+ x2 1 + x2
x>-0.

Note: For x >_ 0, we see from Figure 66 that

y = Sec-11/1 + x2 = Tan-' x; hence the above result
could have been obtained by using D18-
1 Example. If y = a2 - x2 - a Cos-1 -' find L.
Figure 66 Solution:
dy
dx
(-2x) 21/a2-x2a - /l-x2a1a
1 1 xa2 a-x
a+x'
N a2
for 0 < x < a
EXERCISE 27
1. Evaluate Sin-1 (0), Tan-1(V), Sec-1 (-1). Alas. 0, fir, -ir.
2. Evaluate Cos-' (-1), Cot-' (1), Csc-1 (-2).
3. Evaluate Sin-1 (i), Tan-' (-5). 0.848, --1.373.
4. Evaluate Cos-1 (-0.1), Sec-1 (3).

Simplify the following expressions.

5. Cos-' s + Cos-1 5. Ans. ?Tr. 6. Tan-' 2 + Tan-'
a

7. Tan-' 2 - Tan-1 (-3). 37r. 8. Sin-1 s + Cos-1 ia.

9. Sin-' 1 4 + Sin-' (- 3). Ans. Sin-1 169-
10. Tan-' 3 + Tan-1 113-
11. If a > 0, show that Csc-1 a = Sin-' (1/a), Sec-1 a = Cos-1 (1/a), and
Cot-' a = Tan-1 (1/a).
 Exercise 131

12. Derive formula D18- 13. Derive formula D19.

14. Derive formula D20. 15. Derive formula D21-
16. Derive formula D17 using D16 and the relation Cos-' it = 27T - Sin-1 it.

Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x, (a > 0).

17. Tan-1 R. Ans. 18. Sec-1 4x.

1 + 9x2
19. Cos-' (1 - x). 1 20. Sin-' (2/x).
2x- x2.
_ -1
21. CSC-11/x. 22. Cot-11/x2 - 2x.
2x1 x - 1
8 Sin-' 4x x
23. (Sin-' 4x)2. 24. Tan-' Zx.
1/1 - 16x2
Tan-1/3x - 4
25. Cos-' (sin x). -1 or + ? . 26.
N 4
27. Cot-'1/x2 - 1 + Sec-' x. 0. 28. Sin-' (21/x - x2).
X a
29. Sin-' \/j-2+ a2
Ans. x2
+ a2

30. xVa2 - x2 + a2 Sin-' a -

x

x2
31. - Sin-' a. (a2 - x2)3/2
1/a2x x2
x 1/a2 __X 2
32. Sin-1
a
+
x
X a
33. Tan-' a
+ Tan-' x 0.

Tan-'(a+x
34.
1 - ax)
x 1
35. Tan-'
a-1/a2-x2 21/a2 -
x
36. a Cos-' 1- a
+ 112ax - x2.

Find dyldx for the given value of x.

37. y = xCos-'x; x = -2. Ans. 2.672.
38. y = x/Tan-' x; x = 1.
39. y = x2 Sec-'Vx; x = 2. 4.142.
40. y=VVSin-'1/x; x=-.
41. y= XTan-' x x= -1. 1.285.

42. y = x(Cos-' 2x)2; x = 0.1.

132 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

43. If 1x2 - y2 + Sin-1 (y/x) = 0, find dy/dx.

Ans. y' = (y ± x2)/(x ± xy), x >`' 0.
44. Find the smallest value attained by the function Tan-1 (1 + x) +
Tan-' (1 - x) in the interval from x = -1 to x = 1.
45. If y = sin (n Sin-1 x), show that (1 - x2) y" - xy' + n2y = 0.

51. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

A function y defined by the relation,
y = ax, (1)

where a is a positive number other than one, is called an exponential

function of x. The graph, as shown in
Y Figure 67 for a > 1, indicates that the
function (1) is positive, single-valued, con-
tinuous, and asymptotic to the x axis. The
function also has these properties when
0 < a < 1.
O
X By the definition of a logarithm, the re-
lation (1) is equivalent to
Figure 67
x = logs Y. (2)

Thus ax and logs x are inverse functions, and it follows that

aloe. x = x and logs ax = x.
Illustration 1. If y = 2sin 3x, we may solve for x by applying a series of
inverse operations; thus
sin 3x = loge y, Y

3x = sin-1 (loge y),

x = 3 sin-1 (loge Y)
1 /
A function y defined by the relation o
Y = log,, x, (3) 1
x

where a is a positive number other than

one, is called a logarithmic function of x.
The graph of (3), as shown in Figure 68, Figure 68
is the reflection of (2) with respect to the
line y = x. We see from this graph that the logarithmic function
is single-valued, continuous, asymptotic to the y axis, and defined only
in the interval 0 < x < oo.
Operations involving logarithms are governed by the properties listed
in 18, page 2.
 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 133

Illustration 2. If loglo x = 1 - 3 logio 2 + logio 5, by use of the laws

of logarithms, we obtain
logio x = logio 10 - logio 23 + logio
and
10V-5
loglo x = logio 8

hence
X= 41/5.

In the next article we will find that the differentiation formula for a
logarithmic function involves an irrational number which is denoted
by e and is defined by the limit
e = lim (1 + z)1/z.
z-*o

A mathematical proof determining the existence of this limit is

rather involved, and hence will be omitted. Nevertheless, the ac-
companying table of values indicates that the limit does exist and that
approximately e = 2.718. .

z (1 + z)1/z

0.1 2.5937
0.01 2.7048
0.001 2.7169
0 ?

-0.001 2.7196
-0.01 2.7320
-0.1 2.8680

In mathematics two systems of logarithms are particularly impor-

tant. For computational work, logarithms having the base 10 are the
most convenient to use. These are called common, or Briggsian,
logarithms. For theoretical work, logarithms having the base e are
usually used. These are called natural, or Napierian, logarithms.
We shall denote the common logarithm of N by log N and the natural
logarithm* by In N. Thus y = log x means x = 10y, whereas y = In x
means x = ey. The relationship between log N and In N can be deter-
mined by taking the common and natural logarithms of the expression
N = ex ; thus
log N = x log e and In N = x In e = x.
* In some books the symbol log N is used to denote a natural logarithm.
134 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

Hence, on eliminating x,
log N = In N log e,
and since log e = log 2.718 = 0.4343, we obtain
log N = 0.4343 In N and In N = 2.303 log N.
The coefficient Al = 0.4343 is called the modulus of common log-
arithms.
Example I. If y = ex - e-x, find x in terms of y.
Solution: Multiplying by ex, we have
e2x - 1 = yex, or (ex)2 - y(ex) - 1 = 0.
Solving, by use of the quadratic formula, we obtain
ex = 2(y+ \/y2+4),
where the root ex = (y - 1/ y2 + 4) is rejected since ex is never negative.
2
Then, by taking logarithms, we find
x=lnI(y+\/y2+4).
Example 2. Show that log (1/x + 1 - \/x) = -log (1/x + 1 + 1/x).
Solution: Multiplying the numerator and denominator by 1/x + 1 +
1/x and making use of the value log 1 = 0, we have

log (1/x + 1 - 1/x) =log VT-+l + 1/x = - log (1/x + 1 + 1/x) .

Example 3. Sketch a graph of y = x2e-x.
Solution: We first observe that y = 0 when
x = 0, and that y is positive for all other values
of x. Next we observe that y 0 as x -> oo
and y --> oo as x --> - oo.
Drawing the curve in accordance with these
characteristics and estimating that y = 2.7 when
x = -1, and y = z when x = 2, we obtain the
Figure 69 graph shown in Figure 69.

EXERCISE 28
Solve for x in each of the following.
I. logo x = - 2. Ans. $. 2. In x = 3.
3. logx=2-log 2. 50. 4. logax=0.
5. 2x = 4x-2. 4. 6. ex = 3.
 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 135

7. 3x+1 = 5x. Ans. 2.150. 8. (0.015)2X = (0.34)x-1.

9. Inx = 1 + 21n 2. 4e. 10. In Inx = 1.

I I . 41n tan-' x = 1. 3.391. 12. In sin x = 1 + In cos x.
13. ex - 5e-x = 4. 1.609. 14. 3e2x + 3e-2x = 10.
15. 2x+4x=8x. 0.694. 16. 4x+4-x=4.
17. 9x-3x+1= 54. 18. 1+Inx=1n (1+x).
2.
19. log x + Inx = 1. 2.008. 20. Inx + In (x + 2) = 2.
21. If (in x)lx = (In 2)/2 and (In y)/y = (In does it necessarily follow 2)/Z,

that x = 2 and y = 2? Justify your answers. Ans. x = 2 or 4.

In each of the following, solve for x in terms of y.
22. Y =
ext.

23. Y = 105x. Ans. x log Y.

24. y = esin x.
25. y = log R. X = 3 10y.
26. Y = In 9x2.
27. y = In sin x. x= sin-1 ey.

28. y = tan-' (log 2x).

29. y = 1(ex + e-x). x = In (y ± v'y2 - 1).
30. y = tan ex + cot ex.
31. Y = e3x - 3e2x + 3ex. x = In (1 + /y - 1).
32. y=1n(x± V/x2- 1).
33. y=Inx+ln(x-2). x= 1 +\/1 +ey.
34. Y = In sin x + In cos x.
Sketch a graph of each of the following equations.
35. y=e-x2. 36. y=1nx2. 37. y2 ex.
38. y2 = In x. 39. Y = e'/x. 40. y = In (1/x).
41. Y = xex. 42. y = x In x. 43. y = ex/x.
44. y = (In x)/x. 45. y = esin x. 46. y = In sin x.

52. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Let us apply the four-step rule to the function y = logs x. Thus,
for a fixed value of x, we have
1 . Y AX),

2. AY = logs (x + Ox) - logs X

x+AX=logo,l1 AX
=log" X
+ x
_AAY 1 Ox
3. r1 +
x Ox logs
136 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

Letting z = Ox/x, 3 may be written in the form

Ay = 1 logs (1 + z) = 1x logs (1 + Z) 1/Z.
Ox xz
Since z approaches zero as Ax approaches zero, from the continuity
of the logarithmic function and the limit given in the preceding article
it follows that
dy
4. = 1 lim logs (1 + Z) 1/Z
dx x z,o
= 1 logs lim (1 + Z) 1/Z = 1 log,, e.
X z-+o x
By D7 this result gives
d log,, a dug
D22 toga u =
dx u dx
and for natural logarithms the above formula becomes
I du
D23 dx In u =
u dxIllustration.
2log el (2) = 0 +86
If y = log (2x + 1), then dx =
+ 2x
dy d cos x
If y = In sin x, then = 1 (sin x) = = cot X.
dx sin x dx sin x

Example. If y = In (x3AJX dx-

+ 1), find
Solution: Making use of the properties of logarithms, we may write the
given expression in the form
y = 3 In x + 1 In (x - 1) - - In (x + 1).
Hence, using D23, we obtain
dy3 1 _ 1 3x2+x-3
dx x + 2(x - 1) x(x2 - 1)
2(x + 1)
Note: When n is any real constant, formula D5 can be proved in the
following manner, if we assume that dyldx exists. Let y = un, then
In y = n In u. Differentiating implicitly, we obtain
1dy_ndu.
y dx u dx'
hence
du
dy
dx
= nun-1

dx
 Exercise 137

EXERCISE 29
Differentiate each of the following functions.
1. In (x - 1)3. Ans. 3/(x - 1). 2. logs (x2 + 3x).
3. In s 2x3 - S. 2x2/(2x3 - 5). 4. In (x1/x -}- 1).
x log e
5. l og 1 +
x
x(1 + x) 6 . In (x+1/x2+1).
In
x2(x + 1)
7. n
I
Jx + 1 x2 1 1 8 .

(x + 2) 3
9. In cos R. - 3 tan R. 10. log (x sin x).

1. In (sec x + tan x). sec x. 12. In (In x).

log e
13. log x. 14.
2x1/log x *

15. x Tan-1 x - In /x2 + 1. Ans. Tan-1 x.

1 + sin x
16. In
1 + sin x + cos x
Find dyldx for the given value of x.
17. y = In (x2 - 8) ; x = 4. Ans. 1.
18. y=xln(1 +x); x= 1.
19. y=log(3x-2); x=2. 0.326.
20. y = (In X)2; x = 2.
21. y = (In x) /x ; x = 2. 0.077.
22. y = In (sin x) ; x = 4Tr.
23. y = sin (In x) ; x = 1. 1.

24. y = 1/x In V ; x = 4.
25. y = Tan-1 (In x) ; x = 11e. le.
26. y = log (log x) ; x = 10.

Find the second derivative of the following functions.

27. x In x. Ans. 1/x. 28. X2 In x2.
29. log (3/x). (log e)/x2. 30. In cot 2x.

Find the maximum and minimum values of the following functions.

31. x - In x. Ans. 1, min. 32. x + In cos x.
3
33. log
x
2 3 log 3, min. 34. In x2 + 1

1 - In x + I
35. 72 ) m in 36 . x(I n x) 2 .
x
138 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

53. Derivatives of Exponential Functions

The derivative of the exponential function y = ax, (a > 0, a 1),
may be found in the following manner. Taking natural logarithms of
both sides, we have
In y = x In a.
Differentiating this equation with respect toy, we find
1
= dxIna;
y y
hence by D8
dy
ax In a.
dx

Thus by I this result gives

D 24 dx au = au In a ,
du
x

and for the base e the above formula becomes

d eu = eu du
D25
dx dx
Illustration I. If y = 23x, then dy/dx = (23x)(ln 2)(3) = 23x In 8. If
y = etan 5x, then dy/dx = (etan 5x) (sec2 5x) (5) = 5etan 5x sec2 5x.
To find the derivative of an exponential function of the form uv
where it and v are both functions of x, we differentiate the logarithm of
the function.
Illustration 2. If y = xx, then In y = x In x. Differentiating, we obtain

y dy = (1) (In x) + (x) z

xx(1 + In x).
dx =
The work involved in differentiating an algebraic function is often
simpler if logarithms are used.
(x - 1)3/2(2- 3)1/2
Example I. Find dx, if y =
(x 2)2

Solution: Taking natural logarithms, we have

Iny=zln(x-1) +1In(x-3)-2In(x-2).
 Derivatives of Exponential Functions
Differentiating, we obtain
ldy3
ydx
_
2(x-1)+2(x-3) (x-2)
1 2

_3(x2-5x+6)+ (x2-3x+2)-4(x2-4x+3)
2(x - 1) (x - 2) (x - 3)

x-4
(x - 1) (x - 2) (x - 3)

Multiplying both sides by y and simplifying, we find

dy _ (x - 1)1/2(x - 4)
dx (x - 3)1/2(x - 2)3
A situation frequently encountered in certain problems of biology,
chemistry, and economics is one in which the rate of change of a sub-
stance with respect to time is proportional to the amount of the
substance present at a given time. Such is the case, for example, in
considering the decomposition of a radioactive substance or the growth
of a bacteria culture under ideal circumstances.
If the positive function f (t) represents the amount of substance
present at time t, the preceding law can be stated mathematically as
f'(t) = k f (t), (1)

where k is a constant and t > 0. The function f (t) can be determined

explicitly by writing (1) in the form

f '(t) = k,
whence In f (t) = kt + c.
f(t)
By finding the antilogarithm of this latter expression, we obtain
.f (t) = Aekt, (2)
where A = ec is a positive constant.
If the constant k is positive, the function f (t) increases in what is
called an exponential law of growth. If k is negative, f (t) decreases in
what is called an exponential law of decay.
Example 2. If the half-life of radium is 1600 years and we start with
100 milligrams, find the amount of radium remaining after t years.
Solution: To say that the half-life of radium is 1600 years means that
half of the original amount or 50 milligrams will remain after 1600 years.
Thus, by substitution in (2), we find
100 = AeO and 50 = Ae1600k.
140 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions
Hence A = 100, and from e1600x = 2 we have

1600k = In ; therefore k = 16002 = - 0.00043.

2
This gives
f (t) = 100e-0.00043t
as the law of decay for the given quantity of radium.

EXERCISE 30
Differentiate each of the following functions.
I. e4z. Ans. 4e4z. 2. 32x.
3. a-x2. - 2xe-x2. 4. x2e3z.
5. ex/x. ex(x - 1)/x2. 6. (1 - a-x)2.
7. ex(x2 - 2x + 2). x2ex. 8. e3x COS 5x.
9. esin x. esin x cos X. 10. ex+ln x.
ex - e-x 4 ex - 1
11. ex + e-x (ex + e-x)2 12. In ex + 1.

13. In sin ex. ex cot ex. 14. Tan-1 2x.

15. x5e-3 in x 2x. 16. xeex.
xx2.
17. xx2+1(2 In x + 1). 18. (cos x) cos x.

19. xez. xezexl In x + 1) 20. (sin x) x.

X
21. 1/x + 1/"/x + 2. Ans. (x + 4)/6(x + 1)1/2(x + 2)4/3.
22. (1 - x)2(1 - 2x)2/(1 - 3x)4.
23. Show that y = eax sin bx satisfies the differential equation y" - 2ay' +
(a2+b2)y=0.
24. If ex + ey = ex+y, show that dy/dx = -- ey-x.
Find dyldx for the given value of x.
25. y = e2x(x - 2) ; x = . Ans. 0.824.
26. y = In (ex + e-x) ; x = 2
27. Y = e3x log 2x; x = 1. 26.86.
28. y=tan ex; x=0.
Find d2y/dx2 for the given value of x.
29. y=e3z; x0.1. Ans. 12.15.
30. y=ex2; x=
31. y=x2ex; x = -1. - 0.368.
32. Y = excosx; x = 1.'
Find the maximum and minimum values of the following functions.
33. ex2-4x. Ans. e-4, min. 34. x8e-x2.
35. ex(x2 - 3). 6e-3, max., -2e, min. 36. e2x + e-2x.
 Summary and Applications 141

37. xel/x. Ans. e, min. 38. tan (ex - 3x).

39. In the chemical processing of a certain mineral, the rate of change of
the amount of mineral present varies as the amount of the mineral
remaining. If, after 8 hours, 100 pounds of mineral have been reduced
to 70 pounds, what quantity of the mineral will remain after 24 hours?
Ans. 34.3 lb.
40. If in a certain city the rate of increase in population is proportional to
the population at any time, and if in the last ten years the population
increased from 100,000 to 120,000, what will be the population of the
city ten years from now?

54. Summary and Applications

For convenience in reference the differentiation formulas derived in
this chapter are listed below in their differential form.
D10 d sin u = cos u du. Dil d cos u = - sin u du.
D12 d tan u = sec2 u du. D13 d cot u = - csc2 u du.
D14 d sec u = sec u tan u du. D,5 d csc u = - csc u cot u du.
D16 dSin-'u= du D,7 d Cos-1 u =
1/1 - u2
duu2.
D18 d Tan-1 u = 1 D19 dCot-'u=1+u2.
+
D20 d Sec-1 u =
du
D'1 d Csc-1 u =
- du
u1/u2 -1 uV u2 -1
D22 d log,, u = logs ed -. D23 d In u = du
U U
D24 d au = au In a du. D25 d eu = eu du.
Example I. Find an approximate value for cos 31° using differentials.
Solution : Let y = cos x ; then by D11 we have
dy = -sin x dx.
The formulas D10 through D2, are valid only when the angles are ex-
pressed in radians. Hence, taking x = 30° = 17r and dx = 1 ° = 0.0175, we
obtain
y = cos 7r = 10 = 0.8660,
dy = - (sin snr) (0.0175) = --1(0.0175) = -0.0087.
Thus an approximate value of cos 31 ° is given by
y + dy = 0.8660 - 0.0087 = 0.8573.
Note 1: Four place tables give cos 31 ° = 0.8572.
142 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions

Example 2. In the right triangle ABC (Figure 70), AB = 2, BC = 4,

and ED is parallel to AB. Find the angle 0 = angle BAD which minimizes
the distance L = AD + ED.
Solution: Since AB = 2, in triangle ABD we find AD = 2 sec 0 and
BD = 2 tan 0; hence DC = 4 - 2 tan 0.
By similar triangles we have
ED 4 - 2 tan 0
2 .4

hence
ED = 2 - tan 0.
Thus the distance L is given by
L=2sec0+2- tan 0.
Differentiating, we obtain
dL
Figure 70 = 2 sec 0 tan 0 - sect 0.
d0

Setting dL/d0 = 0 and solving, we find

sin 0 = 2
hence
0 = 30°.

Example 3. At what point on the line y = b does the line segment from
(0,0) to (a,0) subtend the greatest angle?
Solution: As shown in Figure 71, let P(x,b)
be a point on the line y = b such that
0 < x < a. It follows from the figure that the
acute angles AOP and OAP are given by
X x,
Cot-1 and Cot-1 a respectively; hence
b

a x Figure 71
-Cot-1 b-
0 = 7r Cot-'
b

Differentiating, we obtain
1 1

dO b b
dx x2+1+
1+ () (a-x2
b )

Setting d0/dx = 0, it follows that b = a b x Hence 0 is a maximum

when x = la.
 Exercise 143

Note 2: Inverse trigonometric functions should be used with caution,

since their principal values are defined for different regions. Thus Tan-1 (- 2)
represents a negative acute angle, whereas Cot-1 (-2) represents a positive
obtuse angle. For this reason, whenever possible, it is advisable to consider
only positive acute angles.
Example 4. Find the minimum value of the function f (x) = x + in xj.
Solution: Since In x is negative for 0 < x < 1, the given function,
except for f(1) = 1, can be written as
f(x) x - In x, 0 < x < 1,
x+Inx, 1 <x.
Hence, from

f'(x) =

we conclude that f (x) is decreasing for 0 < x < 1 and increasing for 1 < x.
Therefore x = 1 gives the minimum value 1 for the function.

EXERCISE 31
Find the critical points and sketch the following curves.
1. Y = xe-x. Ans. (1,1/e), max. 2. y = x In x.
3. y = In (2x - x2). (1,0), max. 4. y = el/x.

Find the angles of intersection of the following pairs of curves.

5 y = In X' Ans. 53.1 °. 6.
J)' = sin x,
y = In (1 - x). y = sin 2x.
f yy == e_x2
e-x, y = Tan-1 x,
7. 45°, 16.1°. 8. {y = Cot-1 X.

Find the equation of the line tangent to the following curves at the point
indicated.
9. y = xe2x, (1,e2). Ans. y = e2(3x - 2).
10. y = sin7rx, (-s,-2). V_y
11. y = In cos x, (3 Tr, -in 2). 3x + =7r - VS In 2.
12. ex + ey = 1, (- In 2, - In 2).
13. For the curve y = 2x2 + 2 sin x, find the first point of inflection to the
right of the y axis. Ans. (2Tr, 7 2 7r2 + 1) .
14. Find the point of inflection of the curve xy = 41n 2x.
15. Find d2y/dx2 when In (x2 + y2) = 2 Tan-1 (y/x).
Ans. 2(x2 + y2)/(x - y)3.
144 Differentiation of Transcendental Functions
d(ln y)
16. If y = sin x, show that = x cot X.
d(ln x)
Find the maximum values attained by the following functions when a
and b are positive constants.
17. sin (a + x) + sin (a - x). Ans. 21sin al.
18. alnx+bIn(1 - x).
19. a sin kx + b cos kx. Va2 + b2.
20. - (aekx + be-kX).
Use differentials to find approximate values for the following expressions.
21. sin 32°, if sin 30° = 0.5. Ans. 0.530.
22. In 10.2, if In 10 = 2.303.
23. Sin-1 0.48, if Sin-1 0.5 = s7r. 0.501.
24. e3.1, if e3 = 20.
25. Prove by mathematical induction that do+l(xn In x)ldxn+l = n!/x.
26. If a particle moves on a straight line so that s = e-t(sin t + cos t), find
expressions for the velocity and acceleration. Describe the motion.
27. Find the minimum value of x2 + In x l. Ans. 2 + In 2.
2
28. Find the area of the largest rectangle that has one side on the x axis and
two vertices on the curve y = e-z2
29. Find the area of the largest triangle cut from the first quadrant by a
line tangent to the curve y = e-z. Ans. 2/e.
30. Find the volume of the largest right circular cone which can be inscribed
in a sphere of radius 9 inches. Hint: Let 0 be the central angle
subtending a radius of the base of the cone, then r = 9 sin 0 and
h=9+9cos0.
31. Solve Problem 30 using the same variables, if the lateral surface of the
cone is to be a maximum. Ans. 288ir cu. in.
32. A statue 10 feet high is standing on a base 13 feet high. If an observer's
eye is 5 feet above the ground, how far should he stand from the base in
order that the angle between his lines of sight to the top and bottom of
the statue be a maximum?
33. The range, height, and time of flight of a projectile are given by
R= v2 sin 20 h = v2 sin2 0) 2v sin 0
2g
and t-
g g
where v and g are constants. Find the angle of projection 0 which will
make each of these in turn a maximum. Ans. 45°, 90°, and 90°.
34. The range of a projectile up an inclined plane is given by
R = 2v2 cos 0 sin (0 - a)
g COS2 a
where v and g are constants and a is the inclination of the plane with the
horizontal. Find the angle of projection 0 which makes R a maximum.
 Exercise 145

35. A building is to be braced by means of a beam which must pass over a

wall. If the wall is 33 feet high and stands 8 feet from the building, find
the shortest beam that can be used. Ans. 15t ft.
36. A steel girder 27 feet long is to be moved on rollers along a passageway 8
feet in width and into a corridor at right angles to the passageway. If
the horizontal width of the girder is neglected, how wide must the
corridor be in order that the girder can go around the corner?
37. At what point on the y axis does the line segment joining (1,1) and (9,7)
subtend the greatest angle? Hint: For 1 < y < 7, 0 = (7 - y)
Tan-1

+ Tan-1 (y - 1). Ans.9 Y = 4.

38. Two line segments AB and AC of lengths 2 and 2 + 213, respectively,
form an angle of 60°. At what angle 0 with AB should a line through A
be drawn so that the sum of the projections of AB and AC on this line
will be a maximum?
39. Prove that the curve y = 2 cos x passes through all the points of in-
flection of the curve y = x sin x.
40. Show that the segment of the tangent to the tractrix
a
x-21na+
a- \/a2_ y
a-1'a2-y2,
2

included between the point of tangency and the x axis, is constant and
equal to a. (See 72, page 10.)
 CHAPTER 7

Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots

55. Parametric Representations

If the rectangular coordinates of a point on a plane curve can be
expressed as functions of a common variable it in the form
x = f (u), y = g(u), (1)
the equations (1) are called parametric equations of the curve and the
variable it is called a parameter. If we eliminate it from the equations
in (1), we obtain the rectangular or Cartesian equation of the curve.
Illustration. Eliminating the parameter 8 from the equations x = 2 sin 8
and y = 3 cos 8, we obtain the rectangular equation of an ellipse. Thus
(x)2 ()2
+ = sine 8 + cos2 8;
hence
X2
+ 9 = 1.
Note: The elimination of the parameter assures us that any point
satisfying the parametric equations will satisfy the rectangular equation,
but the converse is not necessarily true. For example, the equations
x = sine 8 and y = cos2 8 represent only the line segment from (0,1) to (1,0),
whereas the corresponding rectangular equation x + y = 1 represents the
whole line.
When the functions f (it) and g(u) in (1) are continuous at a value
it = uo, we know from this continuity that for each number E > 0,
there exists a number 8 > 0 such that
if (it) - f (zto) I < E/1/2, and I g(u) - g(uo) I < E/V2,
provided lit - ftol < S. Thus, if Po and P are the points of the curve
(1) corresponding to the parametric values uo and it, respectively, we
find for the distance from P to Po
VLJ
(21) - J (Zto)]2 + [g(u)
{
IPPoI g(uo)]2 < A/17-
2 E2 + 2E2 = E.
146
 Parametric Representations 147

This means that all points P on the curve are arbitrarily close to Po
whenever is is close enough to U. Thus the
Y
curve corresponding to the equation (1) is
continuous at those points where f (it) and 10

g(u) are continuous functions.

Example I. Trace the curve whose para- S
metric equations are
x=41-t2, y=412-t3.
Solution: Select arbitrary values for t, com- _s O s X
pute the corresponding values of x and y, and
arrange these three numbers in tabular form as
indicated.

t -1 0 1 2 3 4 42

x -5 0 3 4 3 0 -9/4
y 5 0 3 8 9 0 -81/8 Figure 72

Plotting the points, we obtain the curve shown in Figure 72.

Example 2. The curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle
as it rolls on a straight line is called a cycloid. Find parametric equations
for a cycloid.
Solution: Consider a circle of radius a starting with the fixed point P
at the origin and rolling on the x axis. When the radius CP has turned

Figure 73

through an angle 0 in radians, the circle has rolled to the point A and we
have OA = arc AP = a0. Hence, from Figure 73, we obtain the co-
ordinates for P,
x = a(0 - sin 0), y = all - cos 0).
148 Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots
By eliminating 0, the equation of the cycloid becomes

x = a cos-1 a - y ± 2ay - y2,

a

but this equation is less convenient to use than the parametric equations.
Example 3. Find parametric equations for the folium of Descartes
x3+y3-3axy=0. (2)

Solution: When an algebraic equation in x and y contains only terms

of two different degrees, an equivalent parametric representation can be
found by making the substitution mx for y. When this is done, (2) becomes
x3 + m3x3 - 3amx2 = 0.
Dividing by x2 and solving for x, we obtain
3am
1 + m3
Since y = mx, it follows that parametric equations of the folium are

x= 13am
+m3' y 13am2
+m3' (3)

where m is the parameter.

Graphing equations (3), we obtain curve 67 shown on page 9.

56. Derivatives in Parametric Form

If the equation of a curve is given by the parametric equations
x = f (u), y = g(u), then by D9, the slope of the curve for each value of
u is given by
dy
dy du g'(u)
Y' dx dx f'(u) g1(u)'
du
provided thatf'(u) 0.
Illustration I. If x = 3 sin 0 and y = 5 - 9 cos 0, then
dy
dy - d9 _ 9 sin 0 = 3 tan B.
dx dx 3 cos 0
TO
 Exercise 149

Higher derivatives may be found by continuing this process as

follows.
dy'

dy' du _f'(u)
gi'(u)
Y dx T g2(u),
du

dy"
dy" du g2'(u)
y dx dx 77(U) = g3 (u) .
du

The sequence of parametric functions gi(u), g2(u), g3(u), defined in

the above manner gives the respective parametric representations for
the derivatives y', y", y"
For the curve of Illustration 1, we have
dy'
d2y - d9 _ 3 sect 0 =sec3 0,
dx2 dx 3 cos 0
TO

dy"
d3y - d9 _ 3 sec3 0 tan 0
= sec4 0 tan 0.
dx3 dx 3 cos 8
dO

Note: The above analysis is sometimes clearer if differentials are used.

Thus, in Illustration 1, since dx = 3 cos 0 d9 and dy = 9 sin 0 d9, we have
dy - 9 sin 6 d9 3 tan 9.
dx 3 cos 9 dO -

EXERCISE 32
Trace the following curves by assigning values to the parameter.

x=1+u y=Vu-1.
1
2. x=1+t3' y=1+t3
3t 3t2

3. x=sec9, y=tan0. 4. x = sin 0, y = sin 20.

Find the rectangular equation of each of the following curves.

5. Ans. x2=6x+y-7. 6.
x = 1 - u2,
{yx
t2 2. y=u+u3.
7.
X 1/(1 +v2, x2+2xy=x+y. 8.
fx = sin + cos
y=vf(1 -v). y = sin
150 Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots

9.
x = tan 0, Ans. x2y = y - 2x. 10.
rx = sin 0,
y = tan 20. y = cos 20.
x = In t, y = e2x - 1 12 .
fx=ev+e-v,
11 .
y=t2- 1. .

y=ev - e-v.
Obtain parametric equations equivalent to the following rectangular
equations, and trace the curve.
13. X2 + y3 = 4xy. Ans. x =
4in-14m-1
_
M2 ) y
m3
14. x2 + y4 = 4xy.
x
_ 8 _ 8m
15. X2 + 2xy + 4y2 = 8x.
1 + 2m + 41n2 y 1 + 2m + 4M2
16. x3+y3=x2+y2.
For each of the following curves, find dyldx and d2yldx2 in terms of the
parameter.
17. x=Yt3+1, y=u2+1. Ans. 2/3u, -2/9U4.
1 _ t
y
19. x=t - 1' y'=t2-t
1 t2 + 1
(t + 1)2'
rt-+111
-2It
3
.

20. x=u U- _ U2
1, y u2 - 1
2 2 1 + 3v2 3(1 + v2)3
21. x=
1 + v2' y v(1 + v2) 2v3 ' 8v5
22. X = cos3 0, y = sin3 0.
sin 0 - 1
23. x = 0 - sin 0, y= 1 - cos 0.
1 - cos 0' (1 - cos 0)2.
24. x = cos 0 + 0 sin y = sin - cos
25. x = 1 - In u, y = u - In u. 1 - u,u.
26. x = et(cos t - sin t), y = et(cos t + sin t).
Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the following curves
at the point indicated.
27. x=t2-2t, y=t3-3t; t=2.
Ans. 2y - 9x = 4, 9y + 2x = 18.
28. x = sin 0, y = tan 0; 0=4Tr.
29. x = et, y=2e-t; t = 0. y + 2x = 4, 2y - x = 3.
30. x=zt2-1, y=ulnu; a=e.
Find the parametric coordinates of the maximum and minimum points of
the following curves.
31. x=t2+3t+2, y=t2- 1. Ans. 0, min.
32. x = ev, y = vev.
 Differential of Arc Length 151

33. x = 3 cos 0, y = 4 sin 0. Ans. 17r, max.; 2 7r, min.

34. x = sin 0 + cos y = sin - cos .
35. Show that the parametric equations of the curve traced by a point on
the radius CP (Figure 73), or on the radius extended, are
x=a0-bsin0, y=a-bcos0,
where b is the distance of the tracing point from the center of the
circle. When b a, the curve is called a trochoid.
36. The curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle of radius b
as it rolls on the outside of another circle of radius a is called an epi-
cycloid. Let the fixed circle be taken with center at the origin and
let the tracing point P(x,y) start at (a,0). If 0 denotes the angle
between the x axis and the line drawn to the center C of the rolling
circle, show that the parametric equations of the epicycloid are

x= (a+b)cos0-bcosa b b0,

y = (a + b) sin 0 - b sin a b 0.
b
Hint: Since the arcs of contact are equal, it follows that angle
OCP = a0/b.

57. Differential of Arc Length

Let s denote the length of arc of the plane curve

x = f (it), y = g(u)
measured from some initial point Po(uo) to the point P(u), and suppose
that s increases as it increases. The arc length s is clearly a function of
it, and referring to Figure 74, its
derivative with respect to it may
be obtained from the relation
As As PQ
All - PQ All
AS V(AX)2 + (Ay)2
- p0 Lit

Dy 2.
= As COx 2
PQQ^^ll Du) + (Du Figure 74
152 Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots
Thus, since the fraction zs/PQ approaches unity* as Du approaches
zero, we obtain
ds dx 2 dyl 2
du N C
dulI + \I
du (1)

Multiplying (1) by du, we obtain the differential form for arc length

ds = ± V(dx)2 + (dy)2. (2)

Thus ds may be considered as the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose

sides are dx and dy.

58. Curvature
Let P(x,y) and Q(x + Ox, y + Ay) be two points on the curve
y = f (x). When a tangent line
describes the arc As between P and
Q, we see, as indicated in Figure
75, that the tangent line turns
oa through an angle Da. The ratio
A5A \--- 0a/0 s is ca11e d th e average curva-
ture of the arc PQ, and we make
the following definition.
The curvature K at a Point P
of a curve is the absolute value of the
Figure 75 limit of the average curvature of the
arc PQ as Q approaches P, that is,
Da da
K= lim
ds--*o Os ds
= curvature at P.

In order to obtain a more usable formula for K, we calculate da/ds

as a ratio of differentials. Thus, since a = Tan-' y' we find by
differentiation
y
do: = dx,
1 + (y') 2
and from (2), Article 57, we have
ds = ± -V/1 + (y') 2 dx.

* If the curve has a continuous turning tangent this follows from the definition that
a length of arc is equal to the limit approached by the total length of a chain of chords
as each chord of the chain approaches zero. See Article 107 for further details.
 Circle of Curvature 153

Hence, by division, the curvature at a point P(x,y) of the curve

y=f(x)is
K = dds
+ ly"I
[1 (y')2]312

Note: Observe that K is given approximately by I y"I when the slope y'
is very small. This approximation is assumed in many formulas used in
engineering and physics.
Illustration I. For the parabola y = x2, we have y' = 2x and y" = 2;
hence by (1) the curvature is
2
K 4x2)3/2'
(1 +
and at the vertex (0,0), by taking x = 0, we find K = 2 radians per unit
length.

When the equation of a curve is given in the form

x = f (u), y = g(u)
we have dy/dx = g' (u) If '(u) and
d2y
dx2
f p(u)g (u) - f"(u)g'(u)

[f'(u)] 3.
Hence in parametric form the curvature is
f'g" - I

K I

(f,2 + g'2)3/2 (2)

Illustration 2. For the circle x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0 of radius r, we have

f = -r sin 0, f " = -r cos 0, g' = r cos 0, and g" = -r sin 0; hence by (2)
Y2 sin2 0 + r2 COS2 0 1
K (3)
(r2 Sln2 0 + r2 COS2 0)3/2 r
Thus the curvature at any point of a circle is constant and equal to the
reciprocal of the radius of the circle.

59. Circle of Curvature

Consider the curve y = f (x), having at the point P a tangent line L
and a curvature K. Let us construct a circle, as shown in Figure 76,
so that (a) it is tangent to L at P, (b) it lies on the same side of L as the
curve, and (c) it has the curvature K. This circle is called the circle of
 154 Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots
curvature, its radius the radius of curvature, and its center the
center of curvature of the
given curve at the point P.
Denoting the radius of curva-
ture by R, it follows from (3)
of the preceding article that
R = 1 /K ; hence

R = 1 +y2"3/2
ly l

Illustration. For the curve

y = In sec x, we have y' = tan x
and y" = sect x ; hence
(1 + tang x) 3/2
R= sect x
= sec x.
Figure 76

EXERCISE 33
Find the radius of curvature for each of the following curves at the point
indicated.
I . 3y = x3; (1, 2). Ans. V-2.
2. y=x-x2; (0,0).
3. y2 = x3; (4'8) 96
4. X2 - 3y2 = 1; (2,1).
5. y = sin x; (27x,1). 1.
6. y = tan 4x; (7r,1).
7. y = ex; (0,1). 2V22.
8. y = In sin x; (27x,0).
9. x=u2-2u, y=u3-u; u= 1. 2.
10. x=t2- 1, y = 2t3-t; t=2.
I. x = 1/(1 + u), y = 1/(1 - u); it = 0. 2V22.
12. x = 4 sin 0, y=3cos0; 00.
13. x = sin 0, y = sin 20; 0 = 27r. 4.
14. x = 0 - s i n g , y= 1 - cosh; 0 =7r.
15. x=et+e-t, y=et - e-t; t =0. 2.
16. x=1+Inu, y=u2lnu; a=1.
Find the radius of curvature at a general point on each of the following
curves.
17. Inverse sine y = Sin-1 x. Ans. (2 - x2)3/2/IxI.

x2 y2
18. Ellipse + = 1.
a2 b2
 Center of Curvature 155

19. Astroid x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3. Ans. 3 1 (axy)1/3I .

20. Parabolic arc x112 + y1/2 = a112.
21. Catenary y = ja(exla + e-xla). y2/a.
a a2 - x2
+ _111a2-x2-
22. Tractrix y=2Ina a2-x2.

23. Cycloid x = a(0 - sin 0), y = a(l - cos 0). 4alsin 201.
24. Hybocycloid x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t.
Find the points of the following curves where the curvature is maximum.
25. Y = 4x - x2. Ans. (2,4). 26. Y = sin x.
27. Y = In sec x. (0,0). 28. y = ex.
{y== sin t,
29. {y-?2- 1. zi=0. 30.
2cost.
31. 6y = x3 + 3. (± 0.61/4, ± 0.63/4). 32. y = 4x2 - In x.
X 2

60. Center of Curvature

Consider a curve y = f (x) which at the point P(x,y) has a positive
slope (y' > 0) and is concave upward (y" > 0). It follows from
Figure 76 that the coordinates (X,Y) of its center of curvature are
X = x - R sin a, Y = y + R cos a. (1)

From the preceding article we have

R = (1 + y'2)3/2/y",
and from the relation tan a = y', we can show that
1
,,in a = y COs a =
+ y'2 1/1 + y'2
When these expressions are substituted in (1), we obtain
X=x-y'(1+y'2), Y=y+1+y'2
y
, (2)
y
In this way the center of curvature of a curve is determined para-
metrically in terms of the abscissa of the point P. It can be shown that
(2) is valid in all cases, that is, without the restriction that y' > 0 and
y">0.
Illustration. For the parabola y = 2x - x2, we have y' = 2 - 2x and
y" = -2. Thus at the point x = 1, y = 1, we find y' = 0 and y" = -2.
Substituting these values in (2) we obtain the center of curvature, X = 1
andY= 12 .
156 Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots
61. Evolutes
As a point P moves along a curve K1 the center of curvature cor-
responding to P describes a second curve K2. The curve K2 is called
the evolute of K1, and conversely K1 is called an involute of K2.
The equation of the evolute
corresponding to the curve
y = f (x) is given in parametric
form by the equation (2) of the
preceding article.
Illustration. For the parabola
2y = x2, we have y' = x and y" = 1.
Substituting in (2), Article 60, we
obtained the following parametric
equation for the evolute of the para-
bola.
X = x - x(1 + x2) _ -x3,
Figure 77 Y=2x2+(1+x2)=2x2+1.
Eliminating the parameter x, we obtain the rectangular equation
X2 = 27 (Y - 1)3.
The given parabola and its evolute, the semicubical parabola, are shown in
Figure 77.

EXERCISE 34
Find the center of curvature for the following curves at the point indicated.
1. y = x4 - x2; (0,0). Ans. (0,-12 ). 2. y = sin x; (17r,1).
2
8a3

3. Y= x + (0,0). (1, -1). 4. y = x2 + 4a2' (0,2a).

e_x2;
5. y= (0,1). (0,2). 6. X1/2 + y1/2 = 3; (1,4).
7. x3-Fy3=4xy; (2,2). 8.
{x=u+1nu,
(4,4). y=it In u; u=1.
Find parametric equations for the evolutes of the following curves.
9. y = x3. Ans. X = ix - 2x5, Y = 2x3 + sx-1.
10. y=xn.
II. y=ex. X=x-1-e2x,Y=2ex+e-x.
12. Y = In sec x.
13. y3 = a2x. X = (a4 + 15y4)/6a2y, Y = (a4y - 9y5)/2a4.
14. 9y2 = W.

15. X = 4t4, y = 5t5. X is - 4t4, Y = Sts + t3.

16. x=a(0-sin0), y=a(1 -cos0).

 Newton's Method 157

Find rectangular equations for the evolutes of the following curves.

17. y2 = 2ax. Ans. 27aY2 = 8(X - a)3.
18. b2x2 - a2y2 = a2b2.
19. x = a cos 0, y = b sin 0. (aX)213 + (by)2/3 = (a2 - b2)2/3.
20. x = a(cos t + t sin t), y = a(sin t - t cos t).

62. Newton's Method

In elementary courses graphical and interpolative methods are given
for determining approximate values for
the irrational real roots of equations. Y

Illustration I. An approximate value for 1

the root of the equation x = cos x is deter-

mined graphically as follows. Plot the curves
y = x and y = cos x (Figure 78). The
abscissa of their point of intersection gives us O
X
an approximation x = 0.7 which is correct to 0.5 1.0 1.5
one decimal place. To obtain greater accuracy
it is necessary to construct the graphs on a Figure 78
larger scale.
An approximate value for the root of the equation
Illustration 2.
x = cos x is determined by interpolation as follows. We write f (x) =
x - cos x and observe in Table IV (page 509) that f (0.7330) _ -0.0101 and
f (0.7505) = 0.0191. Then, by interpolation, we obtain
h 0.0101
0.0175 0.0292' x f (x)
hence,
h = 0.006. 0.7330 -0.0101
Thus x = 0.7330 + 0.006 = 0.739 gives an 0.7330 + h 0
approximation which is correct to three 0.7505 0.0191
decimal places.

Y
It is the purpose of this article
to consider another process,
known as Newton's method, by
means of which the irrational
y=f(x) roots can be determined approxi-
mately to any desired accuracy.
x Consider the curve y = f (x)
in Figure 79 and suppose that
O,
x = al is a first approximation to
Figure 79 the root r of the equation f (x) = 0.
158 Parametric Equations, Curvature, and Roots
The equation of the tangent line to the curve at P is
y - f(al) = f'(al)(x - al). (1)

When al is near to the value r, this tangent line will usually intersect
the x axis at a point Q whose abscissa a2 is a closer approximation to
r than is al. Thus, setting x = a2 and y = 0 in (1), we obtain
Newton's formula
al
a2 = a1 - f, (al) (2)

Now considering a2 as the initial approximation, by use of (2) we

obtain a third approximation

a3 = a2
f a2

Repeated use of Newton's formula (2) will give a root to any desired
accuracy.
Note: If the initial approxima-
Y tion al is not sufficiently close to
r, Newton's formula may lead to an
absurd result. Such a situation is
indicated in Figure 80.
. ,
___>_
Example. Find a root of the
az a3a,
X equation In x - cos x = 0 correct to
0 r
three decimal places.
Figure 80 Solution: A comparison of
Tables II and IV (pages 506, 509)
indicates that there is a root in the neighborhood of x = 1.3. For Newton's
formula we have

f (x) = In x - cos x and f'(x) = 1 + sin x.

X

Hence, taking a1 = 1.3, we obtain

In 1.3 - cos 1.3
a2 = 1.3 - 1.303.
(1/1.3) + sin 1.3 =

The substitution of 1.303 in formula (2) gives a corrective term which is

too small to affect the third decimal place; hence the required root is
1.303.
 Exercise 159

EXERCISE 35
Determine graphically the number of real roots to each of the following
equations.
1. 3sinx-x=0. Ans. 3. 2. cos2x-x2=0.
3. e-x2-lnx=0. 1. 4. tanx-lnx=0.
5. ex + x3 = 4x. 3. 6. x + 1 = x In x.
Each of the following equations has one irrational root. Find it to two
decimal places, using Newton's method.
7. x3+2x-5=0. Ans. 1.33. 8. x3+x2+ 10=0.
9. x4+x3+x2=1. 0.68. 10. x4-4x2-4x=8.
11. x5+x3+2x=5. 1.09. 12. x5+2x3= 17.
Using Newton's method, find the smallest positive root of the following
equations to three decimal places.
13. cos x - x = 0. Ans. 0.739. 14. ex - 2x2 = 0.
15. e-x-lnx=0. 1.310. 16. x+logx=2.
17. 2 sin 2x - x = 1. 0.381. 18. x + Tan-1 x = 1.
19. Find, to two decimal places, the maximum value of the function x2 sin x
for x between 0 and 7r. Ans. 3.95.
20. Find, to two decimal places, the coordinates of the point of intersection
of the hyperbola xy = 1 and the catenary y = 2(ex + e-x).
21. If y = xx, find the value of x to two decimal places when y = 10.
Hint: Consider the common logarithm of y. Ans. 2.51.
22. A chord of a circle is 10 inches long and it subtends an arc 12 inches long.
Find the central angle which subtends the chord, in radians to two
decimal places.
23. The volume of a spherical segment is given by the formula V = 7rrh2 -
37rh3, where r is the radius of the sphere and h is the height of the seg-
ment. Find the height of a segment whose volume is one-third that
of the sphere. Ans. 0.774r.
24. If the sum of the sines of two complementary angles is equal to the ratio
of the angles, find the angles in radians to two decimal places.
 CHAPTER 8

Differentiation with Respect to Time

63. Time-Rates
If the value of a variable x is dependent on the time t, then dx/dt is
called its time-rate or rate of change with respect to time. If two or
more variables are related by an equation and each of the variables
depends on the time, a relation among their respective time-rates may
be obtained by differentiating the given equation with respect to the
time.
dy dx
Illustration I. If xy = 6, then x
+ y dt = 0.
dt
If at any instant all but one of the variables and all but one of the
time-rates are known, we can determine the unknown quantities from
the given equation and its derived equation.
Illustration 2. If dx/dt = 4 when x = 2, in Illustration 1 we obtain y = 3
from the given equation and then dy/dt = - 6 from the derived equation.
A general procedure for solving time-rate problems may be sum-
marized as follows:
1. Find an equation involving the variables which is trace for any
time t.
2. Differentiate the equation in 1 with respect to t.
3. Determine the unknown time-rate from 2, using 1 if needed.
Example 1. At a certain instant the dimensions of a rectangular parallele-
piped are 4, 5, and 6 feet, and they are each increasing, respectively, at the
rates 1, 2, and 3 feet per second. At what rate is the volume increasing?
Solution: 1. If x, y, and z denote the dimensions of the parallelepiped,
the volume at all times is given by V = xyz.
2. Differentiating with respect to time, we have

(1)
dt =yzdt +xzdt +xydt
160
 Time-Rates 161

3. When x = 4, y = 5, and z = 6, it is given that dx/dt = 1, dy/dt = 2,

and dz/dt = 3; hence

dV = (5)(6)(1) + (4)(6)(2) + (4)(5)(3) = 138 cu. ft./sec.

Note 1: In applied fields the time-rate of a variable is often denoted by

placing a dot above the variable. Thus x means dx/dt. Using this notation,
(1) would be written as
V = xyz + xyz + xyi.
Example 2. A kite, at a height of 60 feet, is moving horizontally at a
rate of 5 feet per second away from the boy who flies it. How fast is the
cord being released when 100 feet are out?
Solution: Denoting the horizontal displace-
ment of the kite by x and the length of the
cord by y, we see from Figure 81 that
y2 = x2 + 602.
Differentiating with respect to the time and
dividing by 2, we obtain
dy
I_X 71

Y = x dt' (2) Figure 81

Since x = 1002 - 602 = 80 and dx/dt = 5 when y = 100, we find on

substitution in (2) that dy/dt = 4. Thus the speed at which the cord is
being released is 4 feet per second.
Note 2: It is sometimes more convenient to represent the variables of a
problem directly in terms of the time t. Thus, in the example above, if x
is denoted by 80 + 5t, then y becomes (80 + 5t)2 + 602, and
dy 5(80 + 5t)
dt -5t)2+
(80 + 602 (3)

Hence, when t = 0, by substitution in (3) we obtain 4

feet per second.
b Example 3. The base and the base angles of an
Figure 82 isosceles triangle are increasing at the respective rates
of 2 feet per second and 5° per second. When the base
is 10 feet long and the base angles are 45°, find the rate at which the
altitude is increasing.
Solution: If the altitude, base, and base angles are denoted by h, b, and 0,
respectively, we see from Figure 82 that
h = 2b tan 0.
162 Differentiation with Respect to Time
Differentiating with respect to the time, we have
dh
dt
-=
2
1
tan 6 ddt + 12 b sect 6 dO
dt
Substituting b = 10, db/dt = 2, 0 = 7r/4, d9/dt = 7r/36, we obtain the
required result

dt = 2(tan 4)(2) + 2(10) (sect 1 + 18 = 1.87 ft./sec.

4)(36)

EXERCISE 36
I. If the radius of a circle increases at a rate of 0.01 inch per second, find
the rate of change of the area when the radius is 3 inches long.
Ans. 0.19 sq. in./sec.
2. At a certain instant the dimensions of a rectangle are 8 and 12 feet, and
they are increasing at the rates 3 and 2 feet per second, respectively.
How fast is the area changing?
3. A point moves on the parabola y = xt so that its abscissa increases at a
rate of 3 feet per second. At what rate is the ordinate increasing when
x = 2? Ans. 12 ft./sec.
4. If an angle 0 increases uniformly, find the smallest positive value of 0 for
which tan 0 increases 8 times as fast as sin 0.
5. One leg of a right triangle is always 6 feet long, and the other leg is
increasing at a rate of 2 feet per second. Find the rate of change of
the hypotenuse when it is 10 feet long. Ans. 1.6 ft./sec.
6. One end of a ladder 34 feet long slides down a vertical wall while the
other end moves away from the wall horizontally at a rate of 3 feet per
second. How fast is the top of the ladder descending when its foot is
16 feet from the wall?
7. One ship is sailing south at a rate of 5 knots, and another is sailing east
at a rate of 10 knots. At 2 P.m. the second ship was at the place
occupied by the first ship one hour before. At what time was the
distance between the ships not changing? Ans. 1:48 P.ri.
8. Air expands adiabatically in accordance with the law PV 1.4 = Const.
If at a given time the volume is 14 cubic feet and the pressure is 40
pounds per square inch, at what rate is the pressure changing when the
volume is decreasing 1 cubic foot per second?
9. If the altitude is 6 feet
The base of an isosceles triangle is 8 feet long.
long and is increasing 3 inches per minute, at what rate are the base
angles changing? Alas. -i-
5 rad./min.
0. A triangular trough is 12 feet long, 3 feet wide at the top, and 3 feet deep.
If water is poured into the trough at a rate of 10 cubic feet per minute,
find how fast the surface is rising when the depth is 2 feet.
 Exercise 163

1 1. A light hangs 15 feet directly above a straight walk on which a man

6 feet tall is walking. How fast is the end of the man's shadow traveling
when he is walking away from the light at a rate of 3 miles per hour?
Ans. 5 m.p.h.
12. In Problem 11, how fast is the man's shadow lengthening?
13. If the light in Problem 11 is located 24 feet to one side of the walk, how
fast is the man's shadow lengthening when he is 32 feet from the point
directly opposite the light? Ans. 2;b ft./sec.
14. If y = 3x - x3 and x is increasing at the rate of 3 unit per second, how
fast is the slope of the curve changing when x = 3?
15. A conical cistern is 10 feet across the top and 12 feet deep. If water is
poured into the cistern at the rate of 1 cubic foot per second, how fast is
the surface rising when the water is 8 feet deep? Ans. 20.6 in./min.
16. The two bases of an isosceles trapezoid are 12 and 20 feet long, respec-
tively. Find the rate at which the area is changing when the equal
sides are 5 feet long and are increasing at the rate of 2 feet per minute.
17. A particle travels along the parabola y = axe + x + b. At what point
do its abscissa and ordinate change at the same rate? Ans. (0,b) .
18. A man on a pier holds a rope that is attached to a boat at a level 12 feet
below the man's hands. If 20 feet of rope are out and the boat is
drifting away at a rate of 2 feet per second, find the rate at which the
rope is passing through the man's hands.
19. The base of an isosceles triangle is 10 feet long and the base angles are
decreasing at a rate of 2° per second. Find the rate of change of the
area when the base angles are 45°. Ans. - 1.75 sq. ft./sec.
20. The area of an ellipse is given by A = 7rab, where a and b are the semi-
axes. At a certain instant a = 6, b = 8, and a is increasing 3 unit each
minute. At what rate is b decreasing if the area remains constant?
21. The base diameter and altitude of a right circular cone are observed at
a certain instant to be 10 and 20 inches, respectively. If the lateral area
is constant and the base diameter is increasing at a rate of 1 inch per
minute, find the rate at which the altitude is decreasing.
Ans. 2.25 in./min.
22. A searchlight revolving once each minute is located at a distance of
I mile from a straight beach. How fast is the light moving along the
beach when the beam makes an angle of 60° with the shore line?
23. A weight is attached to one end of a 33-foot rope which passes over a
pulley 18 feet above the ground. The other end is attached to a truck
at a point 3 feet above the ground. If the truck moves away at a rate
of 2 feet per second, how fast is the weight rising when the truck is
8 feet from the spot directly under the pulley? Ans. ;; ft./sec.
164 Differentiation with Respect to Time
24. A man walking 3 miles per hour on a bridge 44 feet above a river is
directly over a boat traveling 51 miles per hour at right angles to the
bridge. How fast are the man and the boat separating after 10 seconds?
25. A light is placed on the ground 32 feet from a building. A man 6 feet
tall walks from the light toward the building at a rate of 6 feet per
second. Find the rate at which his shadow on the building is decreasing
when he is 16 feet from the building. Ans. 42 ft./sec.
26. Solve Problem 25 when the light is placed 3 feet above the ground.
27. Each of two sides of a triangle are increasing at the rate of 2 foot per
second, and the included angle is decreasing 2° per second. Find the
rate of change of the area when the sides and included angle are respec-
tively 5 feet, 8 feet, and 60°. Ans. 2.47 sq. ft./sec.
28. In Problem 27, find the rate of change of the third side of the triangle.
29. One ship is 1 mile north of a certain pier and is traveling N 30° E at a
rate of 3 miles per hour. Another ship is 4 mile east of the pier and is
traveling east at a rate of 7 miles per hour. How fast are the ships
separating? Ans. 5.4 m.p.h.
30. A particle moves along the curve y = In x so that its abscissa is in-
creasing at a rate of 2 units per second. At what rate is the particle
moving away from the origin as it passes through the point (e,1)?
31. Water drains from a hemispherical basin of diameter 20 inches at the
rate of 3 cubic inches per second. How fast is the water level falling
when the depth of water is 5 inches? Ans. 0.76 in./min.
32. One particle starts at the origin and travels up the line y = x at a
rate of 5 feet per second. Two seconds later another particle starts at
the origin and travels up the line y = x at a rate of 10 feet per second
At what rate are they separating 2 seconds after the last particle
started?
33. If the x intercept of the tangent to the curve y = e_x is increasing at a
rate of 4 units per second, find the rate of change of the y intercept when
the x intercept is 6 units. Ans. -0.135 un./sec.
34. Starting at the same time from the origin one particle travels up the
y axis at a rate of 2 units per second, while another particle travels up
the parabola y = \x at a rate such that its abscissa changes 2 units per
second. How fast are the particles separating 2 seconds after they
start?
35. A clock has hands 1 and 1 inches long respectively. At what rate are
s
the ends of the hands approaching each other when the time is 2 o'clock?
Ans. 0.095 in./min.
36. A chord of a circle of diameter 10 feet is decreasing in length 1 foot per
minute. Find the rate of change of the smaller arc subtended by the
chord when the chord is 8 feet long.
 Curvilinear Motion 165

64. Curvilinear Motion

If a particle P moves along the curved arc A B in Figure 83, a vector
v is determined whose horizontal and vertical
components are the time rates of change of y
the abscissa and ordinate of P, respectively. B

This vector v is called the velocity of the

particle P and its magnitude v the speed. A VY

Since, by definition, P '"x

vx = t, and vy = d t' o X

it follows from the figure and Article 57 that Figure 83

/2 2
(dx)2 dy 2 dS
= +'
+ (dt) dt
dy
-vx = dt _ dy
= tan 0.
dx dx
dl

These relations show that the velocity of P is directed along a line

tangent to the curve with a magnitude equal to the time-gate of P as it moves
along the curve.
Example I. A particle moves along the
parabola y = x2 so that vx = 5. Find the
speed of the particle when its abscissa is 5.
Solution: Differentiating the equation of
the parabola with respect to the time t, we
obtain
d
Figure 84 dt = 2x t (1)

When x = 5 and dx/dt = vx = 5, we find dy/dt = vy = 12, so that

v = \/vx+v`'= 52_+122 = 13.
In a similar manner a vector a is determined whose horizontal and
vertical components are the time rates of change of vx and vy, respec-
tively. This vector a, as shown in Figure 84, is called the acceleration
of the particle P, and its components
d
d2 2y
and ay = dt2
ax =
166 Differentiation with Respect to Time

yield the magnitude a and the direction angle 0 given by

a = -/ax +a,2, tan 0 = ay (2)

Illustration. To obtain a relation in Example 1 between the components

of acceleration, we differentiate (1) with respect to t; thus ay = 2v2 + 2xax.
Since vx is constant it follows that ax is zero, and since vx = 5 we obtain
ay = 2(5)2 = 50. Thus the acceleration vector a has a constant magnitude
of \/02 + 502 = 50 and is directed vertically upward.
Example 2. If the coordinates at time t of a particle P on a circle are
given by x = k cos mt, y = k sin mt, show that the acceleration of P is always
directed toward the center of the circle.
Solution : Differentiating twice with respect to t, we obtain
ax = -km2 cos mt, ay = - km2 sin mt. (3)

A comparison of (3) with the given equations shows that

ax = -mn2x, ay = -m2y;
hence
ay y
x (4)
ax
The relation (4) shows that the direction of the acceleration is along the line
OP; since ax and ay have signs opposite to x and y, respectively, it follows
that the acceleration is directed toward the origin.
In addition we see from (2) that the magnitude of the acceleration is
constant and equal to -%/(- m2x) 2 + (-m2y) 2 = mn2 x2 + y2 = m2k.

EXERCISE 37
A particle moves on a plane curve, its coordinates being determined by
the following equations where t denotes the time. Find the magnitude and
direction of the vectors v and a at the time indicated.
I. X = t2, y = 6t + 1; t = 3. Ans. (6-\/2, 47r), (2,0).
2. x=t2, y=t3; t= 2.
3. x = sin t, y = sin 2t; t = 1-1,7r. (2, 277-), (1, 7r).
4. x = 2 sin t, y = 4 cost ; t = 47r.
5. x=2lnt, y=t+t-1; t= 3.
Ans. (10, -Tan-1 3(18V/10, 7r - Tan-1 3).
6. x=2t, y=et; t=0.
7. A particle moves along the curve y = -\/x. Find the point at which
Vx is twice as large as vy. Ans. (1,1).
 Exercise 167

8. A particle moves clockwise around the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 8 with a

constant speed of 5 feet per second. Find vx and vy as the particle
passes through (2,1).
9. A particle moves along the curve y = x3 - X. If vx = 2 feet per
second and ax = - 3 feet per second per second as the particle passes
through the point (1,0), find v and a at that instant.
Ans. 21/5 ft./sec., 3N/-37 ft./sec.2.
10. A particle moves clockwise around the ellipse 4x2 + 9y2 = 52 with
vx = 12 feet per second. Find a when x = 2. Hint: ax = 0.
I I . A particle moves clockwise around the circle x2 + y2 = 16 with vx = 2
feet per second. When x = 2, find a and Ans. (91/3, Z7r) .
12. Solve Problem 11 with v instead of vx equal to 2 feet per second.
13. A particle moves along the sine curve y = sin x. If vx = 0 and ax = 2
feet per second per second as the particle passes through (0,0), find v
and a at that instant. Ans. 0, 21/2 ft./sec.2.
14. A particle moves to the right along the parabola y = 21/x with a
constant speed of 6 feet per second. Find a as the particle passes
through the point (1,2).
15. A ladder 25 feet long has its upper end against a vertical wall and its
lower end on a horizontal floor. If the lower end is moved away from
the wall at a constant rate of 3 feet per second, find the velocity and
acceleration of the middle point of the ladder when its foot is 15 feet
from the wall. Hint: Express the coordinates of the mid-point of
the ladder as functions of the time t. Ans. 18 ft./sec., i 8 ft./sec.2.
16. Neglecting the resistance of the air, the equation of motion for a
projectile is
y = Vol sin 0 - 16t2,
x = Vol cos 0,
where vo is the initial velocity in feet per second, 0 the angle of pro-
jection with the horizontal, and t the time of flight in seconds. Find
the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at any time t.
17. Show that the projectile of Problem 16 attains a minimum velocity of
vo cos 0 at the top of its flight.
18. A point moves along a cycloid in accordance with the equations x =
k(t - sin t), y = k(1 - cos t) where t denotes the time. Show that the
magnitude of its acceleration is constant.
19. When a point moves along a curve with constant speed v = k, prove
that its acceleration is always directed along the normal to the curve.
Hint: Differentiate the relation vx + v2 = k2.
20. If a particle moves along the circle x2 + y2 = r2 with a constant speed
v, show that
xax + yay = _V2, yax - xay = 0;
and then determine a as a function of v and Y.
168 Differentiation with Respect to Time
65. Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration
At a given point P of a curve the tangential component at of the
acceleration vector a is the projection of a on the directed tangent at P,
the positive direction of the tangent being the direction of v at P.
Since the angle from v to a as shown in Figure 85 is 0 - 0, we have
at = a cos (0 - 0) = a cos ¢ cos 0 + a sin 0 sin 0
= ax cos 0 + ay sin 0. (1)

Differentiating the equation v2 = vx + vy with respect to t and

dividing by 2, we obtain

v d = vxax + vyay = (v cos 0)ax + (v sin 0)ay

t
= v(ax cos 0 + ay sin 0). (2)

From (1) and (2) it follows that

dv
at = dt (3)

Similarly, the normal component an

of the acceleration vector a is the projec-
tion of a on the directed normal at P, the
.X positive direction of the normal being
toward the concave side of the curve.
Figure 85 Thus, as for (1), we have
an = a sin (0 - 0) = a sin 0 cos 0 - a cos 0 sin 0
ay cos 0 - ax sin 0. (4)

Differentiating the relation tan 0 = vy/vx with respect to the arc

length s, we obtain
dB _ vxay - vyax dt
SeC2 e
ds v2x ds
(v cos 8) ay - (v sin 0) ax 1
v2COS28 v
ay cos 0 - ax sin 0 (5)
V2 COS2 0

ds
From (4) and (5), and the fact that is the radius of curvature R
TO
of the curve at P, it follows that

l an l = (6)

R
 Angular Velocity and Acceleration 169

Example I I. A particle moves along the parabola y = 2x2 with a constant

speed of 5 feet per second. Find at and l and as the particle passes through
the point (3i ),
Solution : Since the speed v is constant, we have dv/dt = 0. Hence, by
(3), at = 0.
To find la,,l we compute the radius of curvature at the point (A,s),
16)3/2 _ 125
R = (1 + y'2)3/2
it
Y
_ (1 + x2)3/2 =
1 (1 + 92T
Hence, by (6),
2
5.4 ft./sec.?.
l ani 125 =
27

Note: Substituting cos 0 = vx/v and sin 0 = vy/v in (1) and (4), we see
that the tangential and normal components of the acceleration may also be
expressed in the form

at = vxax vyay, land = I vxay v (7)

v
vyaxl.

Example 2. A particle moves along the parabola y = 2x2. Find at and

l and if vx = 3 and ax = -3 as the particle passes through the point (a,s)
Solution: Differentiating the equation y = 2x2 twice with respect to
the time t, we obtain
2 2 2

dt - x dt, and
dt2
= (dt) + x dt2,

or
vy = xvx, and ay = vx + xax. (8)

Substituting x = 3V X = 3, and ax = - 3 in (8), we obtain

vy = (A)(3) = 4, ay = (3)2 + (s)(-3) = 5;
thus
v=1/vx+vY2 =1/32+42=5.
Therefore, by (7), we have
at _ (3)(-3)5+ (4)(5) = 2.2,
land = I(3)(5) 5(4)(-3) = 5.4.

66. Angular Velocity and Acceleration

Consider a point P which moves along a curve in accordance with
some law of motion. Since the angle 0 between the radius vector OP
and the positive x axis is dependent on the position of P, it follows that
170 Differentiation with Respect to Time
0 is a function of the time t. The instantaneous rate at which 0 is
changing with respect to t is called the angular velocity of OP and is
denoted by w; thus
(1)

The rate at which the angular velocity of OP changes with respect

to t is called the angular acceleration of OP and is denoted by a ; thus
dw d20
a = (2)
dt d12'

Example. A particle P moves along the parabola y = x2 with vz = 5

and ax = 0. Find the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the
radius vector OP as the particle passes through the point (2,4).
Solution: If 0 is the inclination of the radius
vector as shown in Figure 86, then

0 = Tan-' 1-y = Tan-1 x.

x
Hence by (1) the angular velocity of OP at time
t is
dO 1 dx vx
CO dt 1-}-x2.dt-1+x2. (3)

X By (2) the angular acceleration of OP at

time t is

Figure 86 a- dw
= (1 + x2)ax - vx(2xvx) (4)
dt (1 + x2)2
When x = 2, vx = 5, and ax = 0, by substitution in (3) and (4) we find
w = 1 rad./sec., a = -4 rad./sec.2.

EXERCISE 38
I. A particle moves to the right along the curve y = 3x3 with a constant
speed of 4 feet per second. Find at and a n as it passes through the
point (1,3). Ans. 0, 11.3 ft./sec.2.
2. A particle moves to the right along the curve y = 2/ with a constant
speed of 5 feet per second. Find at and an1 as it passes through the
point (4,4).
3. A particle moves to the left along the curve y = ex with a constant
speed of 4 feet per second. Find at and an j as it passes through the
point (0,1). Ans. 0, 5.66 ft./sec.2.
 Exercise 171

4. A particle moves along the curve y = 4x2/3. Find at and janj if vx = 6

and ax = 3 as the particle passes through the point (8,16).
5. A particle moves clockwise around the circle x2 + y2 = 25. Find at
and l ani if vx = 3 and ax = 0 as the particle passes through the point
(4,3). Ans. 63, 5.
6. A particle moves along the curve y = sin x. Find at and j a n l if vx = 4
and ax = 0 as the particle passes through the point (17T, 21/2).
7. A particle P moves upward along the line x = 4 with a constant speed
of 2 units per second. Find the angular velocity and acceleration of
the radius vector OP when the particle is 4 units above the x axis.
Ans. 4 rad./sec., --I rad./sec.2.
If P denotes the particle and 0 the origin of coordinates, find the angular
velocity and acceleration of the radius vector OP for the time and conditions
stated in the indicated problems.
8. Problem 4.
9. Problem 5. Ans. -1, - 3-
10. Problem 2.
I I. An airplane traveling at a constant altitude of 1000 feet with a speed
of 300 miles per hour is approaching an observer on the ground. At
what angular velocity is the observer's line of sight being elevated at
the instant when it makes an angle of 30° with the horizon?
Ans. 0.11 rad./sec.
12. A particle moves on the circle x2 + y2 = r2. If the angle XOP = 0 is
dependent on the time t, show that
v = rw, lani = rw2, at = ra.
Hint: Consider the relation s = rO.
13. A particle moves along the circle x2 + y2 = 9 in accordance with
0 = t + t2 where t denotes the time. Find the direction and magnitude
of its acceleration when t = 0. See Problem 12.
Ans. 31/5, - - Tan-' 2.
14. A particle moves along the circle x2 + y2 = 25 in accordance with
0 = te-t. Find the velocity of the particle when an is a minimum.
See Problem 12.
15. A particle moves so that its position at time t (seconds) is given by the
equation x = 4 cos 3t, y = 4 sin 3t, where x and y are expressed in feet.
Show that the particle traverses a circle, and find at and l an! for the
particle. Ans. 0, 36 ft./sec.2.
16. Two points that always have the same positive abscissa move in such
a manner that each generates one of the curves y = 2x - x2 and y =
16x - 4x3. When are the points moving with equal speed in the
172 Differentiation with Respect to Time
direction of the y axis? What is true of the tangent lines to the curves
at these points?
17. A line tangent to the curve x = \ at the point P intersects the x axis
at the point Q. If P travels up the curve at a rate of 2 units per second,
how fast is the point Q traveling when P passes through (2,4)?
Ans. 1/ 17 un./sec.
18. A man walks across the diameter of a circular courtyard of radius r at a
constant rate c. A lamp, at one extremity of the diameter perpendicular
to the one on which he walks, throws his shadow on the wall. Find the
velocity of the shadow along the wall in terms of some parameter.
 CHAPTER 9

Polar Coordinates

67. Polar Coordinates

The analysis of points and curves in a plane is often simplified if
some type of coordinate system is used other than rectangular co-
ordinates. There are many such possibilities, and in this chapter we
shall study one that is called a system of polar coordinates.
If a fixed point 0 on a line OX is selected,
it is evident that the position of any point P
in the plane can be described, as shown in
Figure 87, by giving the distance OP and
the magnitude of the angle X OP. These
values denoted by r, the radius vector, and Y
U, the polar angle, are callea the polar co-
ordinates of P and are written (r,9). The Figure 87
polar angle is positive when measured counter-
clockwise from OX, and negative when taken clockwise ; the radius vector
is positive if measured from 0 along the terminal side of 0, and negative
when taken in the opposite direction. The fixed line OX is called the
initial line or polar axis, and the point 0 is the pole or origin.
If the polar coordinates of a point are known, the work involved in
plotting the point is considerably simplified if a special type of graph
paper, called polar coordinate paper, is used. The coordinate di-
visions on this paper consist of a set of radial lines passing through the
pole and a set of concentric circles having the pole as center. The
points A (5,30°), B(- 7,60°), C(9,-90') and D(- 8,-45') are plotted on
such a system in Figure 88.
If the polar axis is taken along the positive x axis, as shown in
Figure 89, it is evident that the relations between the polar co-
ordinates (r,9) of P and the rectangular coordinates (x, y) are
x = r Cos 0, r = ± Vx2 + y2,
y = r sin 0, 0 = tan-' x
173
174 Polar Coordinates

90°

&3
120°

150° D °

180° 5 10 0°

210° , B
330°

2400 / \ 3000
270°
Figure 88

These relations are used when we wish to change from one co-
ordinate system to the other.
Illustration I. The polar equation r = a cos 0,
or r2 = ar cos 0, becomes x2 + y2 = ax in rect-
angular coordinates.

Illustration 2. The rectangular equation

y2 = 4ax becomes (r sin 9) 2 = 4a (r cos 0), or
Figure 89 r = 4a cot 0 csc 0 in polar coordinates.
68. Locus of a Polar Equation
The locus of a polar equation is in general a curve that passes
through all points whose coordinates r and 0 satisfy the given equation.
We can find points that satisfy a polar equation by assigning arbitrary
values to 0 and computing the related values of r. In order to avoid
confusion in graphing a curve, it is advisable to plot the points system-
atically in increasing order of 0, and to connect them in the same order
as you go along.
Example 1. Find the locus of the cardioid r = 4(1- cos 0).
Solution: Observing that cos (-9) = cos 0, we select arbitrary positive
and negative values for 0 and compute the corresponding values of r. We
thus obtain the pairs of related values given in the accompanying table.
 Locus of a Polar Equation 175

0 0 ± 30° ± 60° ± 90° ± 120° ± 150° ± 180°

r 0 0.5 2 4 6 7.5 8

When the points with positive angles are plotted and joined, we obtain
the arc OAB shown in Figure 90. The points with negative angles give
arc OCB.

Figure 90 Figure 91

Example 2. Plot the four-leaf rose r = 4 cos 20.

Solution: Choosing values of 0 from 0° to 90°, we obtain values of r given
in the accompanying table. These points when plotted give arc AOB shown
in Figure 91.

0 0 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°

r 4 2/ 2 0 -2 -2/ -4
Because of the periodic char-
acter of the cosine function, r takes
on the tabular values in reverse
order as 0 increases from 90° to
180°. These points when plotted
give arc BOC. Similarly, arcs COD
and DOA are obtained as 0 in-
creases through the values 180°
to 270° and 270° to 360°, respec-
tively. Figure 92
176 Polar Coordinates

Note: In graphing the lemniscate y2 = a2 cos 20, shown in Figure 92,

observe that r is imaginary for 45° < 0 < 135° and 225° < 0 < 315°.

69. Intersection of Polar Curves

It is apparent that the polar coordinates of a point may be expressed
in various ways. Thus (2,30°), (2,-3300), and (-2,2100) all denote
the same point. Because of this indefiniteness in the representation of
a point, it follows that the polar equation of a curve may also be written
in various alternate forms. Thus the equation of the circle r = 2 can
be written as r = - 2. In general, if F(r,0) = 0 is the equation of a
curve in polar coordinates, the curve may be represented by any one
of the equations
F[(-1) nr, 0 + n7r] = 0, where n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, (1)

Illustration. The equation r = sin has three other distinct alternate

forms which may be found from (-1)nr20= sin (20 + 4n7r) by taking n = 1,
2, and 3; thus
(-1) r = sin (20 + 47r), or r = -cos 20;
(-1)2r = sin (20 + 7r), or r = -sin 20;
(-1)3r = sin (20 + 27r), or r = cos 20.

The above observation necessitates the following procedure for de-

termining the points of intersection of the two curves
F(r,0) = 0, G(r,0) = 0. (2)

1. By means of (1) determine the distinct equations

F1 = 0, F2 = 0, F3 = 0, ... , (3)
G1=0, G2=0, G3=0, (4)
which represent each of the curves in (2).
2. Solve each equation in (3) simultaneously with every equation in (4).
3. If values 01 and 02 exist such that F(0,01) = 0 and G(0,02) = 0,
the origin 0 is a point of intersection.
Example. Find the points of intersection of the curve r = 4 cos 20
(Figure 9 1) and the circle r = 2.
Solution: We apply the above procedure.
1. Writing (-1)nr = 4 cos (20 + 2n7r), we obtain r = ±4 cos 20.
Writing (-1)nr = 2, we obtain r = ± 2.
2. Solving r = 4 cos 20 and r = 2, we find 0 = 30°, 150°, 210°, and 330°.
Solving r = 4 cos 20 and r = - 2, we find 0 = 60°, 120°, 240°, and 300°.
The other pairings in 1 give no new solutions.
 Exercise 177

3. The origin is not a point of intersection, since r is never zero on the

curve r = 2.
Thus we find the eight points of intersection (2, ± 37r), (2, ± 37r), (2, ± h-),
and (2, ± gar).
Note: In many problems the coordinates of the points of intersection
of two curves can be obtained directly from their graphs. If this is the case,
it is not necessary to go through the above analysis.
EXERCISE 39
Change the following equations from rectangular to polar coordinates.
x2+y2=a2. Ans. r = a.
x2+y2=x+y.
3. y = x. 0 = 4Tr or 47r.
4. x sin a + ycosa = a.
5. y3 = ax2. r=a Cot2 0 CSC 0.
6. (x2 + y2)2 = a2(x2 - y2).
7. 2xy = a2. r2 = a2 csc 20.
8. x x2+y2=ay.
Change the following equations from polar to rectangular coordinates.
9. Y = a sec 0. Ans. x = a.
10. r2 = a2 cot 0.
I. Y = tan 0 sec 0. y = x2.
12. r2 = a2 sin 20.
13. r3= a3 CSC 0. x2y+y3=a3.
14. Y = atan20.
5. r2 = 0. Y = x tan (x2 + y2).
I6.0=3irr.
Plot the graph of each of the following equations.
17. Three-leaf rose. r = a sin 30. 18. r=2+4sin0.
19. Spiral of Archimedes. r = a0. 20. r = tan 0.
21. Cardioid. Y = a (1 + cos 0). 22.r2 = sin 20.
23. Lemniscate. r2 = a2 sin 20. 24.Y = 2 sin 30.

Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of curves.

r = 2 sin 0, Ans. (V22, 4r), r = sin 0,
25. 26 .
{r = 2 cos 0. origin. lr = sin 20.
Jr = 4 cos 0, (2, ± 3n), Jr = tan 0,
27. j 28
r = 4(1 - cos 0). origin.
.
r=cot0.
fr = cos 0, Y = sin 20,
29. (1 , 0) . 30 .
r2=2+ cos 0. r = 1 + cos 20.
rr2 sin 20 = 8, Jr = sec 0 tan 0,
31. jlr (21/2 , -7) . 32 .
= 2 sec 0. r = csc 0 cot2 0.
178 Polar Coordinates
70. Angle Between the Radius Vector and Tangent
Let P(r,0) be a point on the curve C (Figure 93) whose equation in
polar coordinates is
r=.f(0). (1)

In order to find the slope of (1) at P (tan a in the figure), we proceed

as follows. Consider the rectangular co-
ordinates of P
x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0.
Because of (1) these equations may be con-
sidered as parametric equations of the curve
C, 0 being the parameter. Hence we have
dx dr
cos 0 - r sin 0,
d0 = d0
Figure 93 dy = dr
3-0 sin 0 + r cos 0.
0
Thus it follows that
dy

Slope of tangent = A r' sin 0 + r cos 0

TX = r' cos 0 - r sin 0' (2)
dO
provided that dx/d0 0 0.
Illustration. At the point (l,sir) on the curve r = 2 sin 0, we have r = 1
and r' = 2 cos 0 = VS; hence

Slope -_ + (l) (2 /)
(1)(2)
_.
If r' and cos 0 are both different from zero, we may write (2) in the form
tan 0 + (r/r')
tan a = (3)
1 - (r/r') tan 0
However, in Figure 93 we observe that 0 = a - 0; hence

tan = tan a - tan 0 (4)

1 + tan a tan 0
By substituting (3) in (4) we have the following result.
 Angle Between the Radius Vector and Tangent 179

Theorem. If 0 is the angle between the radius vector OP and the

tangent line at P, then
tan =
dr
(5)

If two curves C and C' intersect at the point P, we see in Figure 94

that their angle of intersection 0 is given by 0 - O' l. Hence we have
tan 0 - tan 0'
tangy = 1 + tan btan0' (6)

and if the equations of C and C' are given

in polar coordinates, the values tan 0 and
tan 0' can be found from (5).
Example. Show that the curves r = 2 cos 0
and r = 3 tan 0 pass through the point (N/-3,-17T) s,
and find their angle of intersection.
(\/_,s
Solution: The coordinates 7r) satisfy 0
the given equations, since for 0 = 17r we have Figure 94
cos 8 = 21/3 and tan 0 = 3 A/3.
To obtain the angle of intersection, we use (5) to compute
r 2 Cos 9 _
tans=y,= -2sin9 V-3,

r 3 tan 9 1
tan = y' = 3 seC2 9

Then, substituting in (6), we obtain

tan - 14`+ `'(4V3)(-Vs)

V3)
( = 5v' .

Hence the angle of intersection is Tan-' (5V3) or 83.4°.

EXERCISE 40
For each of the following curves, find the angle between the radius vector
and the tangent line at the point indicated.
I. r = asec20; 0 = g7r.
2. r = a/(1 - COS 0); 0 = 37r.
3. r = a sin 10; 00 Z7r.

4. r = a tan 20; = is7r.

5. r = 02; B = 7r.
6. r = e3B; 0 = 01.
180 Polar Coordinates

7. Find 0 and a in terms of 0 for the circle r = a sin 0.

Ans. =0,a=20.
8. For the parabola r = a sect 30, show that 0 + a = 7r.
Find the slopes of the following curves at the points indicated.
9. Y=tan0; 0 fir. Ans. 3. 10. r = sin 30; 0=ir.
11. Y =sins 0; 0 = 37r. - 3 v. 12. r = 1 - cos 0; 0 = 4ir.
13. r = cos 20; origin. ± 1. 14. Y = sec 30; 0 = fir.
15. Yt = cos 20; 0 = ir. 0. 16. rO = 2; 6 = ir.
Find the angle of intersection of the following pairs of curves.
Y = 6 cos 0, Ans. 30°, Jr = a sin 0,
17. 18.
{Y = 2(1 + cos 0). 90°. Y= a cos 0.
rY = 2 csc 0, 45°. Jr = tan 0,
19. jr=sect30. 20.
Y=cot0.
Jr Y = 6 sec 0, 74.9°. JY = 2,
21. 22.
lr = 7 + 5 cos 0. lY = 4 cos 20.
23.
Y = 1 + cos 0,
Y = 1 - cos 0.
90°,
0°.
24. frrt = sec 20,
r2 = csc 20.

71. Differential of Arc

From the relations
x = rcos0, y = rsin0 (1)

between the rectangular and polar coordinates of a point, we obtain by

differentiation
dx = cos 0 dr - r sin 0 d0, (2)
dy = sin 0 dr + r cos 0 de.
By substituting (2) in ds = ± V/(dx) t + (dy) 2
and simplifying, we obtain the differential of
arc expressed in polar coordinates
ds = ± -v/(dr)t -F r2(d9)2 or
ds = ± -v/r'2 + r2 A. (3)
Illustration. For the circle r = a sin 0, we
Figure 95
have r' = a cos 0; hence
ds = ± Vat cost 0 + a2 sins 0 d6 = ± a d0.
Note: The relation (3) is easily remembered if one thinks of the figure
PNQ in Figure 95 as forming a right triangle.
 Radial and Transverse Components of Velocity and Acceleration 181

72. Curvature
If r and dr/dO are not both zero at a point P of the curve r = f (0),
we have the following result.
Theorem. The curvature at a point P(r,O) of the curve r = f (0) is
da _ r2 + 2 r'2 - rr"
K= ds (r2 + r'2)3/2
(1)

where r' and r" are respectively the first and second derivatives of r with
respect to 0.
Proof: From (5), Article 70, we have 1 = tau-1 (r/r') ; hence
1
d`f' 1 + (r/r') 2 r' 2 + r2 d0. (2)
r/2
In Figure 93, we see that a = 0 + 0. Hence, using (2), we obtain
r2 + 2r' 2 - rr"
da=dO+do= d0. (3)
r2+r'2
Dividing (3) by the arc length, ds = ± /r2 + r'2 d0, gives the formula
(1).

Illustration. For the circle r = a sin 0, we have r' = a cos 0 and r" =
-a sin 0. Hence the radius of curvature R = 1 /K at any point of the
circle is
(a2 Sin2 0 + a2 COS2 0)3/2 a
R
a2 sin2 0 + 2a2 cost 0 + a2 sin2 0 2

73. Radial and Transverse Components of Velocity and Acceleration

Consider a particle P which moves along the curve r =f(0) in a
manner determined by the velocity vector
v and the acceleration vector a.
The projection of v on the directed line
OP (Figure 96) is called the radial com-
ponent of the velocity and is denoted by vr.
The projection of v on the line making a
counterclockwise right angle with OP is
called the transverse component of the
velocity and is denoted by ve.
Theorem I. If a particle moves along the p`
curve r = f (0), the radial and transverse com- Figure 96
ponents of its velocity at any instant are given by
dr
yr = dt, ve = r d9
dt = rw. (1)
182 Polar Coordinates

Proof: If r and 0 are known differentiable functions of the time t,

the relations x = r cos 0 and y = r sin 0 give
dt
v.z = dt = cos 9 - r sin 0 d8,
(2)
dy
uy =
T = sin
9dtdY

+ r cos 0 d dt

From Figure 96 and the relations vz = v cos a, vy = v sin a, we have

Vr = v cos (a - 0) = v cos a cos 0 + v sin a sin 8- = vz cos 0 + vy sin 0,
ve = v sin (a - 0) = v sin a cos 0 - v cos a sin 0 = vy cos 0 - vz sin 9. (3)
Substituting (2) in (3) we obtain the result (1).
As for v, the projections of the accelera-
tion vector a on the line OP and its normal
are called the radial and transverse com-
ponents of the acceleration. They are de-
noted respectively by ar and ae as shown in
Figure 97.
Theorem 2. If a particle moves along the
curve r = f (0), the radial and transverse com-
ponents of its acceleration at any instant are
Figure 97 given by

d2r dO) 2 dr d9 d29

ar = dt2 - r (,dt ae = 2 dt dt + r Wt-2 (4)

Proof: Differentiating (2) with respect to t gives

2
ax = cos 0 dt2 - 2 sin 0 dt
t 2
- r cos 0 (dt 1 - Y sin 0 dt2
2
2

2
(5)
d2y
ay = sin 0 + 2 cos 0 - Y sill 0 rdt 1 + r cos 9 dt8-
dt2 dt dt
From Figure 97 and the relations ax = a cos q, ay = a sin 0, we have
ar=acos(0-9) =aCos0Cos0+asin0sin9=azcos0+aysin0, (6)
ae=a sin (q-0) =asinq cos0-acosq sin0=aycos0-azsin0.
Substituting (5) in (6), we obtain the result (4).
Example. A particle travels around the limacon r = 3 + 2 cos 0 with
If r
a constant angular velocity of 2 radians per second, that is, dO/dt = 2.
is expressed in feet, find v and a at the instant when 0 = Zr.
 Exercise 183

d2
Solution: Since d8 is constant, we have dt = 0, and from the given
equation
dr d2r
2 sin 0 de = - 4 sin 0, - 4 cos 0 dt = - 8 cos 0.
dt WT -d -t2 dt

Substituting in (1) and setting 0 = 27r, we obtain

yr = -4 sin 0 = -4, ve = (3 + 2 cos 0) 2 = 6.

Hence
v= vT + ve = (-4)2 + (6)2 = 7.21 ft./sec.
Substituting in (4) and setting 0 = 17r, we obtain
ar = - 8 cos 0 - 4(3 + 2 cos 0) _ -12, ae = 4(- 4 sin 0) _ -16.
Hence
a= aT + a2 = 1/(-12)2 + (-16)2 = 20 ft./sect.

EXERCISE 41
Find the radius of curvature of the following curves at the point indicated.
I. r = 02; 0 = 2-

2. r=4+3sin0; 0=0.
3. r=tan0; 0=47r.
4. r = 2/(1 + cos 0) ; 0 = 27r.
5. r = cos 20; 0 = 67r.
6. r=2sin30; 0= 67r.
7. r2 = sin 20; 0 = 47r.
8. r = tan 0 sec 0; 0 = 67r.
9. r20=4; 0= 3.

10. r=e2e; 0=1n2.

In each of the following, a particle moves along the given curve with a
constant angular velocity w = d0/dt of 2 radians per second. Find the speed
and acceleration of the particle when 0 has the value indicated.
II. r=4; 0=h7r. Ans. 8,16.
12. r=20; 0=7r.
13. r = 5 + 4 sin 0; 0 = 37r. 17.4, 50.3.
14. r = 6/(2 + cos 0) ; 0 = 37r.
15. r = 1 + sine 0; 0 = 27r. 4, 16.
I6. r = 2 sine 20; 0 = 37r.
17. A particle moves in accordance with the equations r = t2 + t and
0 = st3 where t denotes the time. Find its position and speed when
t = 2. Ans. (6i3), 13.
184 Polar Coordinates
8. A particle moves counterclockwise around the limacon r = 4 + 2 cos 0
with a constant speed of 14 feet per second. Find Vr and ve when
0 = 17r.
19. A particle moves to the left on the parabola r = 4/(1 + cos 0) with a
constant speed of 4 feet per second. Find yr and ve when 0 = ir.
Ans. 21/2, 21/2 ft./sec.
20. A particle moves along the curve r = sin 20 with increasing 0. Find
its speed and acceleration if dO/dt = 2 and d20/dt2 = 5 when 0 = 47r.
 CHAPTER 10

Indeterminate Forms

74. Limits
Since calculus is primarily concerned with the study of limiting
processes, it is important and necessary that we appreciate and under-
stand the various rules that apply to limits. We repeat below the four
basic rules on limits that were considered in the first chapter.
If f (x) and g(x) possess limits as x approaches a, then
L1 lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = lim f (x) ± lim g(x).
L2 lim [f (x) 9(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x).
L3 if lim g(x) 0 0.
lim [f (X) 19(X)] = lim f (x)/lim g(x),
L4 lim F[g(x)] = F[lim g(x)], if lim g(x) = c, and F(y) is
continuous at y = c.
Thus far, only L1, L2, and L4 have been proved in detail, but it is
interesting to note that L3 can be established by use of L2 and L4. For
example, let us suppose that lim g(x) = c zA 0. Since the function
F(y) = 1/y is continuous at y = c, it follows from L4 that lim [1/g(x)] _
1 /lim g(x). Hence by L2 we have
1 = lim f (x)
lim f (x) = lim f (x) 1 = lim f (x) lim
g(x) g(x) g(x) lim g(x)
Although the proposition L3 has many uses, the condition that
lim g(x) be different from zero greatly restricts its usefulness in many
important limit operations. For example, the definition of a
derivative,
Ox)
lim
ax-+o
f(x + Ox
-f(x)
involves the limit of a quotient, but in all cases L3 does not apply and
other devices must be used to determine whether or not the limit exists.
It is the purpose of this chapter to study the limit L3 in those cases
185
186 Indeterminate Forms

where lim g(x) = 0. Before doing this, however, it is necessary to

establish several fundamental theorems.

75. Rolle's Theorem

If two points A and B on the x axis are connected by a continuous
curve, as shown in Figure 98, and if this curve has a non-vertical
tangent at each point between A and B, it would appear geometrically
evident that there must exist at least one point P between A and B
where the tangent at P is parallel to the x axis. This conclusion, as
stated in the following theorem, is attributed
Y to the French mathematician Michel Rolle
y= f(x) /-7\- (1652-1719) .
Rolle's Theorem. If a function f (x) is
continuous in the interval a 5 x < b,
vanishes at the end points, and has a derivative
at every point between a and b, then f'(x) must
Figure 98 be zero for at least one value xi between a
and b.
Proof: (a) If f (x) is zero at all points of the interval, then f(x) is
zero throughout the interval and the theorem is proved.
(b) If f (x) is positive or negative in some parts of the interval, then
because of continuity the function attains a greatest value Al and a
least value m, as we know from Theorem 3, Article 7. If M 0 and
f (xi) = M, it follows from the theorem on relative maxima, Article 15,
that f'(xi) must be zero. By a similar argument, if m # 0 and
f(xi) = m, then f'(xi) = 0.

76. Law of the Mean

A situation geometrically similar to that considered in Rolle's
theorem is shown in Figure 99. If the curve that connects A and B
is continuous and has a non-vertical tangent at each point between A
and B, it would appear evident that there must be some point P on the
curve between A and B such that the tangent at P is parallel to the
chord AB. This generalization of Rolle's theorem is usually known
as the law of the mean.
Law of the Mean. If a function f (x) is continuous in the interval
a 5 x < b and has a derivative at every point between a and b, then
there is at least one value x = xi such that
f _
-af O _ f'(x1),
a
(b
a < xi < b. (1)
b
 Law of the Mean 187

Proof: Consider the function

F(x) = f (x) - f (a) -

f -
(bb
af (a) (x
- a), (2)

which represents the vertical distance between the arc AB and the
chord AB in Figure 99. Since f (x) is continuous for a < x <_ b and
differentiable for a < x < b, so too is F(x).
Furthermore, we observe that F(a) = 0 and
F(b) = 0. Hence, by Rolle's theorem, there
exists a value x = xi such that F'(xi) = 0. f(b) f(a)
Thus, on differentiating (2) and setting
x = xl, we obtain
x
F'(xi) = f'(x1) - f (bb 0,
f (a)
which reduces to (1).
Clearing of fractions, we may write (1) in the form
f (b) = f (a) + (b - a) f'(x1). (3)

On substituting a + h for b, and a + Oh for xi, where 0 is a number

between 0 and 1, we obtain another form of the law of the mean,
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf'(a + 9h), 0 < 0 < 1. (4)
If the maximum and minimum values of the derived functionf'(x)
in the interval a < x < b are Al' and in', respectively, we see that the
relation (1) yields the inequality
(b - a) in' < f (b) - f (a) < (b - a)M'. (5)

Illustration 1. If f (x) = sin x, we get f'(x) = cos x; hence M' =

max (cos x) = 1 and m' = min (cos x) _ -1. Thus, by substitution in (5),
we obtain the inequality relation
Isin b - sin al < lb - al

for all numbers a and b.

If h in (4) is a sufficiently small number, then a + Oh is essentially
equal to a, and we may write
f(a + h) ,: f(a) + hf'(a). (6)
which is the same approximation formula that was considered in
Article 20.
Illustration 2. If f (x) = 1/x, we find f'(x) = 1/21/x. Thus, by use of
(6), an approximation for 1/102 is

'002 N 1/100 + (2) (2i/100) = 10 + 0.1 = 10.1.

188 Indeterminate Forms

In Article 12 we proved that the derivative of a constant is equal to

zero. Using the law of the mean we can now establish the converse
of this result.
Theorem. If a function f (x) has a derivative which is equal to zero
for all values of x in the interval a < x < b, then f (x) is a constant
throughout the interval.
Proof: Let x' be any point in the interval from a to b. Since the
function f (x) is differentiable in the closed interval a < x < x', it is
also continuous by the theorem given in Article 11, and the law of the
mean applies. That is, there exists a number xi between a and x' such
that
f(x') - f(a) = f'(x1)(x' - a).
Since f'(xi) is zero by hypothesis, it follows that f (x') = f (a). This
means that f (x) has the same value f (a) throughout the interval, and
so is a constant.

77. Cauchy's Theorem

Let the equation of the curve considered in Figure 99 be repre-
sented in parametric form as x = g(u) and y = f (it), and let UA, UP,
and UB be the parameter values corresponding to the points A, P, and
B, respectively. Since the slope of the curve is given by dy/dx =
f'(u)lg'(u), it would appear to follow from the law of the mean that
e
f (MB) - J (uA) = f '(71P) 2UA < UP < UB.
g(uB) - g(uA) g'(uP)
This extension of the law of the mean, as it is stated in the following
theorem, is attributed to the French mathematician Augustin Louis
Cauchy (1789-1857).
Cauchy's Theorem. If the functions f (x) and g(x) are continuous in
the interval a < x < b, and if the derivatives f'(x) and g'(x) exist, and
g' (W ) is non-zero, at every Point between a and b, then there is at least one
value x = xi such that
.f (b) - .f (a) = .f'(x1) a < xi < b. (1)
g(b) - g(a) g'(xi)
Proof: This theorem can be proved in a manner similar to that
used in proving the law of the mean. In this case consider the function
F(x) defined as
.f (b) - .f (a) [g (x)
F(x) ° .f (x) - .f (a) - - g(a)d (2)
g(b) - g(a)
Because g'(x) = 0 for a < x < b, it follows from the law of the mean
 Cauchy's Theorem 189

that g(b) 0 g(a), since otherwise g'(x) would have to vanish for some x
in the interval. From the form of F(x) and the hypotheses on f (x)
and g(x), it is clear that F(x) is continuous in the interval a < x < b
and that its derivative exists at every point within this interval.
Furthermore, we observe that F(a) = 0 and F(b) = 0. Hence, by
Rolle's theorem, there exists a value x = x1 such that F'(xl) = 0.
Thus, on differentiating (2) and setting x = x,, we find
F'(xI) = f'(xI) - J{ (b) J (a) g'(xl) = 0,
g() g( )
which reduces to (1) since g'(xi) 0.

EXERCISE 42
For each of the following functions, find a value x1, if possible, such that
f (b) = f (a) + (b - a) f'(xi). What condition in the law of the mean is
violated when no xl exists?
I. f (x) = x2; a = 2, b = 3. Ans. 2.
2. a=1, b=4.
f(x)=A/x- ;
3. f(x)=lnx; a=1, b=e. a-1.
4. f (x) = sin -7rx ; a = 0, b = 2 .
5. f (x) = X2/3; a = -1, b = 1. No derivative at x = 0.
6. f(x) = 1/x; a = - 2, b = 1.
7. f (x) = cot 7rx; a = - 2, b = . Discontinuous at x = 0.
8. f(x) = 1 - jxl; a = - 1, b = 1.
9. f(x)=x2; a=a, b=b. (a+b).
10. f(x)=x3; a=a, b=b.
Use the relation (1) or (4) in Article 76 to establish the following
inequalities.
I I . Show that cos b - cos al < l b - a for all a and b.
12. Taking f (x) = In x and a = 1, show that 1 + h < In (1 + h) < h for
-1 <h<Oandh>0.
13. Taking f (x) = ex and a = 0, show that h < eh - 1 < heh for h 0.
14. Taking f (x) = Sin-1 x and a = 0, show that h < Sin-' h < h
-A/ 1 h2
for0<h<1.
15. Taking f (x) = Tan-1 x and a = 0, show that 1 < Tan-' h < h
+ h2
for h 0.
b1' bl
16. Taking f (x) = x In x and a = 1, show that b < < 1 for b > 1.
17. Use the law of the mean to prove that 2.024 <1 < 2.025.
190 Indeterminate Forms

18. If f'(x) > 0 at all points in the interval a < x < b, use the law of the
mean to show that f (x) is an increasing function.
19. If the functions f (x) and g(x) are such that f'(x) = g'(x) for every point
in the interval a < x < b, show that f (x) = g(x) + C where C is a
constant.
20. Show that the mean value theorem for a definite integral can be obtained
by taking f (x) = g(t) dt and b = x in the law of the mean. Hint:
fax
Use the fact that f'(x) = g(x).

78. The Indeterminate Form 0/0

If two functions f (x) and g(x) are both zero when x = a, the fraction
f(a)/g(a) is said to assume the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case the
function F(x) = f (x)/g(x) is undefined for x = a, since division by zero
is not permitted. However, F(x) may approach a limit as x ap-
proaches a. The process of determining this limit, if it exists, is called
evaluating the indeterminate form.
Illustration I. When x = 1, the fraction (x2 - 1)/(x - 1) has the form
0/0, and hence is undefined. Evaluating the limit, however, we have
x2 - 1
x-l x - 1 = limx+1=2.
lim
x-1
If the functions f (x) and g(x) satisfy the required conditions of
Cauchy's theorem in an interval containing x = a, it follows that either
.f (a) - .f (x) - .f'(xi) or .f (x) - .f (a) - .f'(x2)
g'(x2)'
g(a) - g(x) g'(x1) g(x) - g(a)
where x < x1 < a or a< x2 < x, respectively. However, when
f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, the above relations reduce to
{
J (x) = f'(xi)
'(xi) or
{
J (x)
g(x)
- Jg'(x2)'
{
,(x2)
g(x) g'(xl)
and since x1 and x2 must each approach a as x approaches a, we have
the following result, named for the French mathematician G. F. A. de
L'Hospital (1661-1704).
L'Hospital's Rule. If the functions f (x) and g(x) are continuous in
an interval containing x = a, and if their derivatives exist and g'(x) = 0
in this interval (except possibly at x = a), then when f (a) = 0 and
g(a) = 0, we have
= lim
1- g(x) g
provided the limit on the right exists.
 The Indeterminate Form oo / oo 191

If the functions f (x) and g(x) are continuous and differentiable for
every positive x and if f(x)/g(x) takes the form 0/0 as x --- >- oo, it is
shown in more advanced books that L'Hospital's rule applies, that is,

lim f (((x) = Jim f '(X) g,

z-*u g (x) z, oo (x)

It can also be shown that if f'(x)lg'(x) approaches infinity as x --*a

(or x -->- oo), then f (x)/g(x) approaches infinity.

Example. Evaluate lim (tan x)lx.

z-*0

Solution: Since the fraction has the form 0/0 for x = 0, we apply
L'Hospital's rule and obtain
tan x = lim sec2 x = 1.
lim
z-*O X z->0 1

If the application of L'Hospital's rule results in a fraction which is

also indeterminate, the process may be repeated. For example,

Jim
x3
5x2 = lim
3x2 - 10x 6x - 10 -- 5
zoo x3+2x2 z-*0 3x2+4x z-*O 6x+4 2
Occasionally the limit of an indeterminate expression can be found
by evaluating a simpler indeterminate.
Illustration 2. Using the result of the example above, we have
2tanxsecx = lim 2secx . tanx = 2.1 = 2,

1zo
lim lim
z--*0 xez z-+0 ex z-+0 x
and
tang x
lim
x2
= (zO
lim
x J

79. The Indeterminate Form co / co

If f (x) and g(x) both increase without limit as x ->- a (or x - ± oo),
the fraction f (x)/g(x) is undefined and is said to assume the indetermi-
nate form oo/oo. If the limit of f (x)lg(x) exists as x ->- a (or x -* ± oo),
it may be found by L'Hospital's rule. A rigorous proof of this fact is
beyond the scope of this book.
x2
Illustration. lim
z-*co ex
= lim 2x
- = lim -2 = 0.
z->oo ex
z-->oo ex

The application of L'Hospital's rule does not always lead to

desirable results.
192 Indeterminate Forms
e-(1/x)
Example. Evaluate lim
x

Solution: Applying L'Hospital's rule, we have

e-(1/x) (1 /x2)e-(1/x) e--(l/x)
lim = lim = lim x2
X x->0+ 1 x-+0+

It is apparent that repeated use of L'Hospital's rule in this case would

accomplish nothing, so we try other means. Writing the original expression
in a different form and changing variables, we find
I /X z
lim = lim eo
= lim 1
ez
= 0.
x-.o+ el/x z-+oo z-+oo

EXERCISE 43
Evaluate each of the following limits.

1. lim
x3
- x2 - 4 Ans. 2. 2. lim
x-a
x->2 x2 - 4 x-uc xn - an
a - A/a2 - x2
0. 4. lim
V4 + x - V4-x
x x-+0 x
ex - e-x ax - bx
2. 6. lim
tan x x-0 X
sin x - sin a tan 2x - tan 2a
cos «. 8. lim
x-+a x-a x-+a X-a
9. lim
tanx -x 2. lim
In sec x
x-*0 X - sin x x-+0 x2
In x 1 - cos 0
11. lim 0. 12. lim
x_,00 xn 0--).o sin 0
tan 20 cos 50
13. lim ao. 14. lim
0-4.0 2 sine 0 0,1, cos 70
In cos 2x ex - e-2;
15. lim
(Tr-x)2
-2. 16. lim
x_o In (x + 1)
X-+n

17. lim
Sin-' x
1. 18. lim
x - Sin-' x
x x3
x-+0 x-*0

seC2 0 - 2 tan 0 ex + e-x - 2 cos x

19. lim 1 20 lim
e-117T I + cos 40 x-+0 x sin x

x- sin x 1 - In x
21. lim 22. lim
x-*0 x3 x-*O e l/x
x 2z
23 lim 1. 24. lim 2
x-oo VI + x2 x-+ oo ex
 The Indeterminate Form oo - oo 193

80. The Indeterminate Form 0 co

If f (x) -- 0 and g(x) - oo as x --- a (or x -> ± eo), the product
f (a) g(a) is undefined and is said to assume the indeterminate form
0 co. If the limit off (x) g(x) exists as x --> a (or x -i ± co), it may be
found by writing the product as a fraction,
f (x) or g(x)
1 /g (x) 'If (x)
and applying L'Hospital's rule.
x 1
Illustration. (a) lim xe-x = lim = lim = 0,
x-a 00 X__+ 00 ex x-aoo ex
sin 3x 3 cos 3x 3
(b) lim sin 3x cot 2x = lim = lim =
x-ao x-*o tan 2x x-->O 2 sec2 2x 2

81. The Indeterminate Form co - co

If f (x) and g(x) both increase without limit as x -- a (or x - ± co),
the difference f (a) - g(a) is undefined and is said to assume the inde-
terminate form oo - co. If the limit of f (x) - g(x) exists as x -* a
(or x --> ± eo), it may be found by transforming the difference into a
fraction by algebraic means and applying L'Hospital's rule.
1 - cos x = lim sin x = 0.
Illustration. lim (csc x - cot x) = lim
x-a0 x-+o sin x x-p cos X
Note 1: Although a simpler fraction is to be preferred, we can always use
the fraction
1 _ 1

i(x) f (x),
f (x) - g(x) _
f(x)g(x)
Note 2: Occasionally an indeterminate of the form oo - oo can be
evaluated most readily by finding the limit of its exponential. Thus, to
evaluate lim (x - In x), we let y = x - In x, and determine the limit of
x-a 00

ey = ex-in x =
ex
eln x
= exx-.
Hence
ex ,in ex
lim ey = lim
x-+co
-
x--). co x
= x-r 00
= oo,
1

and since y -> oo when ey -> oo, we obtain

lim (x - In x) = oo.
x-a 00
194 Indeterminate Forms

EXERCISE 44
Evaluate each of the following limits.
I. lim x In x. Ans. 0. 2. lim x sin (n/x).
x-).0 x-a 00
3. lim x csc 2x. 4. lim sec 5x cos R.
x-->0 x- 7T

x7 - 1 x2
5. lim xel/x. co. 6. lim
x-->0+ x-->1 x x9 - 1
7. lim csc x Sin-' x. 1. 8. lim sin x In (tan x).
x-).0 x--a0

9. lim tan x tan 2x. -2. 10. lim (1 - tan x) sec 2x.
X-+ 77 x---).17T

11. lim (sec x - tan x). 0. 12. lim [In (x - 2) - In ?x].

x-->+J r. X-* 00
1 1
13. lim -12 14. lim
x-+1 (x -1 In x) x-->1

(tan 5x - tan x). oo.

(csc x - csc 2x). oo.

19. lim 0. 20. lim

x-+0 x-->0
21. lim oo. 22. lim
x-+00 X--). 00

1 1 n m
23. lim 1
24. lim (
x-->0 ( sine x x2) 3 xn- xm-1
82. The Indeterminate Forms 00, ao of 100
If f (x) --i- 0 and g(x) - 0, or f (x) --> oo and g(x) --> 0, or f (x) - 1 and
g(x) - oo as x -- a (or x --> ± oo), the expression f is undefined
and is said to assume the indeterminate form 00, ooo, or 100, respectively.
If the limit off (x)9(x) exists as x --> a (or x --> + oo), it may be found by
denoting the expression by y, and investigating the limit approached
by the logarithm
In y = g(x) In f (x).
If we find that lim In y = k, it follows that lim y = ek.
x--+a x-*a.
Example I. Evaluate lim xx.
x-0

Solution: When x = 0, the function xx assumes the indeterminate form

00. Hence, writing y = xx, we have In y = x In x, and
In x = lim
lim In y = lim 1 /x = lim - x = 0.
x-+0 x-+0 1 /x ,,,o - 1/X1 '0
Therefore lim y = lim xx = eo = 1.
x-0 x-0
 Exercise 195

Example 2. Evaluate lim (1 - sin x)1/x.

X--+0

Solution: When x = 0, the given function assumes the indeterminate

form 100. Thus, writing y = (1 - sin x) 11z, we have
-cos x
In (1 - sin x) 1 - sin x
lim In y = lim
X
= lim 1 = -1.
X-+0 x--*0 x-+0
Therefore lim (1 - sin x) 11x = e-1 = 1/e.
X-+0

EXERCISE 45
Evaluate each of the following limits.
1. lim xl/x. Ans. 1. 2. lim x1!(1-x).
x-+ 00
3. lim (sin x) x. 1. 4. lim (sin x)tan x.
x--*0 x-+0
3 lx
5. lim x )z- e2 . 6. lim (
x-- 00 I x-2 x-> 00 \x + 1 1
7. lim (1 + tan x) 11x. e. 8. lim (1 - x2)cot x.
x-.0 x-+0
)x.
9. lim ! 1 - T3 1. 10. Jim (1 + 2x) (1+2x)/x.
\
x- 00 x->0
11. lim (ex + x)1/x. e. 12. lim (ex + x)1/x.
x-+ 00 x-+0
x2
13. lim (cos ?l e-2. 14. Jim (sin x + cos x) cot x.
x 00 \ x x-.0
15. lim (1 + ax)b/x. eab. 16. lim (1 + ax)blx.
x-.0 x-.00
17. Jim (1 + x)ln x. 1. 18. lim (sin x)1n cos x.
x--'0

lim (ex2/2 cos x)4/x4 . a-113 . (sin x11/x,

19 . 20 . lim JI
x-.0 x-.0 X
 CHAPTER I I

Curve Tracing

83. Graphs of Curves in Rectangular Coordinates

In elementary work the basic procedure for plotting the graph of
any equation, F(x,y) = 0, consists in (a) finding, when possible, sets of
values for x and y which satisfy the equation, (b) plotting the points
(x,y), and (c) connecting the points with a smooth curve. This process,
as we learned in analytic geometry, is materially simplified by deter-
mining certain general properties of the curve. These properties and
their tests are as follows.
1. Extent. To find the extent of a curve means to find those ranges
of the variables x and y which are permissible as coordinates of a point
on the curve.
Illustration I. The curve y2 = (x - 4) In x is located in the regions for
which 0 < x < 1 and x >_ 4. This follows since In x is undefined for x _< 0,
and y2 is negative when 1 < x < 4.
2. Symmetry. If the function F(x,y) satisfies any one of the
following identities, the curve F(x,y) = 0 is symmetric with respect to
the point or line indicated
F(- x, y) F (x, y) , y axis;
F(x, -y) F(x,y), x axis;
F(-x, -y) F(x, y) , origin ;
F(y,x) F(x, y) , line y = x.
Illustration 2. Since the substitution of -x for x and -y for y does not
alter the equation y = xez2, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
That is, the curve is not changed when it is rotated 180° about the origin.
3. Intercepts. To find where the curve, F(x,y) = 0, crosses the
coordinate axes, we have
xl is an x intercept, if F(x1,0) = 0,
yl is a y intercept, if F(0,yi) = 0.
196
 Graphs of Curves in Rectangular Coordinates 197

Illustration 3. Setting y = 0 in the equation y = (x - 2) In x, we obtain

from x - 2 = 0 and In x = 0 the x intercepts x = 2 and x = 1. There are
no y intercepts since In x is undefined when x = 0.

4. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes. If the ordinate y of a point

on a curve increases or decreases without limit as its abscissa x ap-
proaches a value a, the line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the curve.
If y approaches the value k as x increases or decreases without limit,
the line y = k is a horizontal asymptote of the curve.
Illustration 4. The curve y = (In x)lx has the vertical asymptote x = 0,
since lien (In x)/x = - oo; and the horizontal asymptote y = 0, since
x-+0+
lim (In x)/x = 0.
X_+ 00

Example I. Discuss and sketch the curve y = In cos x.

Solution: We proceed in accordance with the above analysis.

1. Since the curve repeats itself at intervals of 27r, we shall determine the
curve in the interval from x = -7r to x = IT.
In this range y is undefined when cos x is
negative; hence the curve is restricted to the
interval - 27r < x < I7r.
2. Replacing x by -x leaves the equation
unaltered. Hence the curve is symmetric with
respect to the y axis. -rr 'n
2

3 When x = 0 , we find y = 0 ; and when

.

y = 0, we find x = 0. Thus the curve inter-

sects the axes at (0,0).
4. As x approaches ± Z7r, y decreases Figure 100
without limit. Hence the lines x = Z7r and
x = - 27r are vertical asymptotes. A periodic function can have no
horizontal asymptotes.
Determining one additional point (I 7r, - 0.7), we have the curve shown
in Figure 100.
X2
Example 2. Discuss and sketch the curve y2 =
(x - 1)(x - 2)
Solution: 1. We shade the region 1 < x < 2 to indicate that it con-
tains no points of the curve.
2. We substitute -y for y and find that the curve is symmetric with
respect to the x axis.
3. We find one point of intersection with the axes, (0,0).
198 Curve Tracing
4. By inspection we observe that x = 1 and x = 2 are vertical asymp-
totes. Also, since
x2
zll±CO
(x-1)(x-2)=1,

we have the horizontal asymptotes y = ± 1.

In order to locate the curve definitely, we substitute x = -1, ?, and 3 in
the given equation and determine the corresponding values y = ± 0.4,
± 0.6, and ± 2.1. Plotting these points and using the properties discussed
above, we obtain the curve shown in Figure 101.

Figure 101

EXERCISE 46
Discuss and sketch the following curves.
4 X2
1. Y = 2.
x2+4 y x2 - 4
X2 x
3.
y=4-x 4.
y (x - 1)3
_
5. y=x3-x
6
6. Y
x3
;7- -'2.
7. y Vx+1 x
8.
_ 9-x2
Y
x
9. x 1 Y2 y+1
10. x= y2
Y
2 +2
I I . y = (In x) 2. 12. Y = e-z2.
13. y = x2e-z. 14. Y = (In x)/x.
15. y=
Tan-' x
16.
y=-
sin x
x x
 Asymptotes to an Algebraic Curve 199

17. Y = Intanx. 18. y=xln(4-x2).

19. x=yln(1 -y). 20. x = e-y2 sin Y.
x2
4
21. y2 =
4-x 2 22.
Y =x+2
2

4x x2 4
23. Y22 = 24. y2 = x2
x3+8 x3 +
25. y2 = x3 - 9x. 26. y2=x-x-1.
27. (y + 1)2 = x(x 28. y2(4 - x2) + x2(4 - y2) = 0.
29. y2 = ex - e-x. 30. y2 = xe-x.
31. y2 = sin x. 32. y2 = x Cos-' x.
33. y2=xln(2-x). 34. y2 = (In x)/(x - 2).
35. xt = eyly 36. X2 = In (4 - y2).

84. Oblique Asymptotes Determined by Inspection

If the equation of a curve can be written in the form
y = ax + b + h(x), (1)

where a and b are constants, and h(x) satisfies one or both of the
conditions
lim h(x) = 0, lim h(x) = 0,
x-, co x-> - co

then (1) is asymptotic to the line y = ax + b. This follows from the

fact that the vertical distance between the curve and the line ap-
proaches zero as x increases or decreases without limit.
Illustration. (a) Writing the equation xy = (x + 1)2 in the form
1
y=x+2+ it it follows that the line y = x + 2 is an asymptote of the
curve, since lim (1/x) = 0.
x---± co
(b) Writing the equation ex(y - x) = I in the form y = x + e-x, we find
the asymptote y = x, since lim e-x = 0.

Note : A curve may have an oblique asymptote even though its equation
cannot be written in the form (1). The hyperbola x2 - y2 = 1, for example,
is asymptotic to the line y = x.

85. Asymptotes to an Algebraic Curve

If P(x,y) is an irreducible* polynomial of the nth degree in x and y,
the equation
P(x,y) = 0 (1)
* P(x,y) is said to be irreducible when it cannot be expressed as the product of two
other polynomials, each of degree less than n. Thus P(x,y) = x2 + xy is reducible,
since x2 + xy = x(x + y).
200 Curve Tracing
is called an algebraic equation defining x and y as algebraic func-
tions of each other, and the graph of (1) is called an algebraic curve
of the nth order.
Let (1) be written in descending powers of y as
Po(x)yp + P1(x)yp-1 + ... + PP(x)
= 0, (2)
where P < n and Po, P1, , Pp are polynomials in x or constants. If
the equation (2) can be solved for y in terms of x, we obtain P equations
y = B1(x), y = B2(x), ..., y = Bp(x), (3)
each representing a part, called a branch, of the whole curve. Thus the
parabola* y2 - 4x = 0 has two branches y = 2Vx and y = - 21/x.
The existence of vertical asymptotes to (1) can be determined by
observing in (3) whether or not any values of x make y infinite. Hence
we have the following theorem.
Theorem I. If the equation (1) is written in the form (2), the real roots
of the equation Po(x) = 0 give the vertical asymptotes of (1).
Proof: Substituting z = l /y in (2) and multiplying through by
zP, we obtain
Po(x) + P1(x)z + ... + Pp(x)zp = 0. (4)

It is apparent that y -- oo as z -- 0, and the condition z -- 0 in (4)

requires that Po(x) = 0. Thus, if Po is a constant or has no real roots,
the curve (1) has no vertical asymptotes. However, if a real value x1
exists such that Po(xi) = 0, we see for x = x1 that one root of (4) is
z = 0. This means that, for at least one of the branches (3), y increases
or decreases without limit as x approaches x1. Hence x = xl is a
vertical asymptote of (1).
Corollary. If the equation (1) is written in the form
Qo(y)xq + Q1(y)xq-1 + ... + Qq(y) = 0,
where q < n and Qo, Q1i , Qq are polynomials in y, the real roots of
the equation Qo(y) = 0 give the horizontal asymptotes of (1).
Illustration. Writing the equation x3 + 3x2y2 + xy3 = y3 in the forms
(x - 1)y3 + (3x2)y2 + (x3) = 0,
x3 + (3y2)x2 + (y3)x - (y3) = 0,
we see by the above theorem and its corollary that the curve has the vertical
asymptote x = 1 and no horizontal asymptotes.
In general an asymptote of a curve is defined, when it exists, as a
line whose position is approached as a limit by a tangent line to the
* Solving for x, we can also say that the parabola has one branch, namely, x = jy2.
 Exercise 201

curve as the point of tangency recedes indefinitely along the curve.

Thus the line y = mnx + b will be asymptotic to an algebraic curve
P(x,y) = 0, provided constants in and b are specifically determined
when two of the points of intersection of the line and the curve approach
infinity. This latter condition means that P(x,mx + b) = 0 must have
two infinite roots. Hence the oblique asymptotes of an algebraic
curve can be found in accordance with the following theorem. For the
sake of brevity we shall omit the proof, as it is in some respects similar
to the proof of Theorem 1.
Theorem 2. Let y in equation (1) be replaced by mx + b and let the
resulting equation be written in descending powers of x as
Ao(m)xn + A1(m,b)xn-1 + ... + An(b) = 0,
where A 1, A2, , An_ 1 are in general functions of m and b. If m i is
a real root of the equation Ao(m) = 0, and b1 is a real root of the first
equation in the sequence Ai(mi,b) = 0, A2(ml,b) = 0, , which does
not vanish identically, then y = mix + bi is an asymptote of (1).
Example. Find the asymptotes of the curve x3 + y3 = 3axy.
Solution: By Theorem 1 we observe that the given equation has no
horizontal or vertical asymptotes. In accordance with Theorem 2 we
substitute mx + b for y and obtain
(m3 + 1)x3 + (3m2b - 3am)x2 + (3mb2 - 3ab)x + b3 = 0.
From m3 + 1 = 0, we obtain one real root in = - 1. Substituting -1 for
m in the coefficient of x2, we have
3b + 3a = 0; hence b -a.
Thus the line y x - a is the only asymptote of the given curve. See 67,
page 9.
EXERCISE 47
Find the vertical and non-vertical (Article 84) asymptotes of the
following curves.
1 x +1
2
Ans. x=0,y=4x. 2. y = (x - 2) 2
4x X
x3+ 1 y=x. x3
3. x2+1.

4. Y
2-x-xF
5. Yx3-
(x2 .+. 1) 2
1 x= 1,y=x. 6. y =
2x' - 3
Vx-
7. xy=x2-1nx. y=x,x=0. 8. xy= 1 - lnx.
9. y=x(4-e-x). y=4x. 10. Y = 2 + e-x sin x.
II. y=x+Tan-lx. y=x± err. 12. y = x + x sin (1/x).
202 Curve Tracing
Find the asymptotes of the following algebraic curves.
13. x2-4y2=4. Ans. 2y = ±x.
14. x2y2-y2=4.
15. x2y2+y2=4. y=0.
6. x2-3xy+2y2=6.
17. x3 + y2 = 2x2y. 8y=4x+1.
18. y2 = x(y2 - x2).
19. x2 + y2 = x(y2 - x2). x 1, ±y=x+ 1.
20. x(x - y) (x2 + y2) = 6-
21. X4 - 2x2y2 + y4 = y. y = ± X.
22. xy2 - 4x3 = y.
23. x2y + xy2 = x2 + y2. x 1, y 1,x+y= -2.
24. x2+y2=x3+ y3.

86. Singular Points of Algebraic Curves

If the equation of an algebraic curve is
ao + aix + bi y + a2x2 +b2xy + c2 y2 + . +knyn = 0, (1)

we find by implicit differentiation that

dy ai +2a2x+b2y+
(2 )
dx bi + b2x + 2c2y +

The slope of the curve (1) at the point (xi,yi) is determined by evalu-
ating (2) when x = xi and y = yi. If this substitution gives a finite or
infinite (dx/dy = 0) result, the point (xi,yi) is called an ordinary
point of the curve. If the above substitution gives an indeterminate
of the form 0/0, the point (xi,yi) is called a singular point of the curve.
In the following discussion of singular points, we shall assume that
the point in question is located at the origin. We lose no generality in
this assumption since, if (xi,yi) is a singular point of (1), the trans-
formations
x = x' + x1, y = y' + yi
will place the singular point at the origin of the new coordinate system.
An inspection of (1) and (2) shows that the point (0,0) will be a
singular point of (1), if, and only if, ao = ai = bi = 0. In this case (1)
has the form
a2x2 + b2xy + c2y2 + ... + kyn = 0. (3)

If we cut the curve (3) with the line y = mx, the abscissas of the
points of intersection are the roots of the equation
(a2 + b2m + c2m2)x2 + ... + kmmnxn = 0. (4)
 Singular Points of Algebraic Curves 203

Thus x = 0 is a double root when in is chosen to be different from the

roots in, and 1n2 of the quadratic equation
a2 + b2m + C2m2 = 0, C2 0. (5)

However, when in = ini or in = m2, (4) will have at least three roots
equal to zero. Consequently, at least one point of intersection of
y = mx with (3) approaches the origin as in approaches either ml or
m2. Since such a limit defines a tangent line, it follows that y = mix
and y = mn2x are the equations of the tangents to (3) at the origin.
Writing the equations of the tangents in a single equation, we have
(y - mix) (.y - m2x) = 0,
or
y2 - (mi + m2)xy + mnim2x2 = 0. (6)

However, from (5) it follows that ini + m2 = - b2/c2 and mim2 = a2/c2;
hence (6) becomes
a2x2 + b2xy + C2y2 = 0. (7)

Although the condition c2 54 0 was used in proving (7), by suitable

modifications of the proof we obtain the same result when c2 = 0. In
fact, a similar argument will establish the following theorem.
Theorem. If the equation of an algebraic curve contains terms of the
rth degree (r > 2), but none of lower degree, the origin is a singular point
of the curve, and the tangents to branches of the curve which are continuous
at the origin are given by equating to zero the group of terms of the rth
degree.
When r = 2 in the preceding theorem, the origin is a type of singu-
larity called a double point. If two branches of the curve pass through
the origin with distinct tangents there, the point is called a node. If
the two branches have a common tangent at the origin, the point is
called a cusp, or tacnode, according as the branches stop or pass
through the origin. If no branch of the curve is continuous at the
origin, the point is called an isolated point. This latter type of
singularity always exists when the rootsmi and m2 of (5) are imaginary,
and occasionally when mi = rn2. The various types of double points
are shown in Figure 102.
Illustration I. The origin is a node of the curve x2 - y2 - x3 = 0, since
the tangent lines x2 - y2 = 0, or y = x and y = -x, are real and different.
Illustration 2. The origin is an isolated point of the curve x2 + y2 -
x3 = 0, since the tangent lines x2 + y2 = 0 are imaginary.
Illustration 3. The origin is a cusp of the curve x2 - 2xy + y2 = y3, since
(a) the equation x2 - 2xy + y2 = 0 gives one tangent line y = x, and (b) the
204 Curve Tracing
original equation written in the form y3 = (x - y)2 shows that y can never
be negative, that is, the branches of the curve, namely, x = y ± y3/2, stop
at the origin.

Y/ / Y
//
X X X X
0 0

Node Cusp Tacnode Isolated Point

Figure 102

Illustration 4. The origin is a triple point of the curve x3 - xy2 = y4.

The tangents at the origin are given by x3 - xy2 = 0, or x = 0, y = x, and
y = -x. Hence three branches of the curve pass through the origin.

EXERCISE 48
Classify the singular points of each of the following curves and find the
slopes of any branches which are continuous at the point.
1. y2 = x4 + 4x2. Ans. Node, ± 2. 2. X3 + y3 = 3xy.
3. y3 = x4 + x2. Cusp, co. 4. x2=y5+9y2.
5. xy2 = x2 + y2. Isolated point. 6. y4 + x2 = 2x2y2.
7. X4 = y2(l - x2). Tacnode, 0. 8. (x+y)3=x2.
9. y2 + x4 = 2xy. Node, 0, 2. 10. (y-x)2=x4(1 +x2).
I. y2 - 2x3 = xy2. Cusp, 0. 12. X2 - 2xy = y3.
13. y2 = x(4 - X)2. Node, ± 2. 14. (y - 2) 2 = (x - 1)3.
15. y2 = x(x - 2)3. Cusp, 0. 16. y2+x(x- 1)2=0.
17. Show that the curve y2 = x(x - 1)2(x - 2)4 has a node at (1,0) and a
tacnode at (2,0).
18. The curve y(y - x)2 = x4 has a triple point at the origin. Find the
slopes of any branches which are continuous there.
19. Show that the limacon (x2 + y2 + bx)2 = a2(x2 + y2) has a node, cusp,
or isolated point at the origin, according as a < b, a = b 0 0, or a > b.
20. Show that the conchoid (x - a)2(x2 + y2) = b2x2 has a node,
cusp, or isolated point at the origin, according as a < b, a = b 0 0,
or a > b.
87. Summary of Curve Tracing
In summarizing the discussion of the preceding articles, we find it
advisable when tracing a curve to consider some or all of the following
properties.
 Summary of Curve Tracing 205

1. Extent.
2. Symmetry.
3. Intercepts.
4. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
5. Oblique asymptotes.
6. Singular points.
7. Critical points, Points of inflection, and concavity.
The above analysis, when necessary, should be supplemented by
additional points of the curve.
Example 1. Trace the curve y2 = x2 x + 1
Solution: Proceeding with the above analysis we obtain the following
results.
1. There are no points of the curve in the ly
regionsfor wh'is h - < x < 0 an d 0 < x < ,
// /
I
4 I

1
I

since y2 is negative there. 3

2. The curve is symmetric with respect to 2
the x axis.
3. The curve intersects the axes at (- 1,0) \\
and (0,0). X

4. The line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote. - %/ 1 1 2 3

5. By the analysis in Article 85, the curve -2

has obli q ue as y mp totes whose e q uations are N
y = x + 1 and y = -x - 1. -3 \
6. The origin is an isolated point. This fact _4 /
follows from 1 and 3 as well as from the analysis
in Article 86. Figure 103
7. At any point on the upper branch of
the curve, the first and second derivatives are
dy x2-x-1 d2y x+2
dx (x -1)(x2 - 1)1/2' dx2 (x - 1)(x2 - 1)3/2
Thus there is a minimum point at x = z + z V5 = 1.6 and a point of in-
flection at x 2. We also observe that y" is positive when x > 1; hence
the upper branch is concave upward in this region.
From the above analysis we obtain the curve shown in Figure 103.
Example 2. Trace the curve y2(2x - y) = x4.
Solution: In applying the above analysis to the given equation, we
learn essentially nothing about the curve except that it has a triple point at
the origin and that the slopes of the three branches there are 0, 0, and 2.
206 Curve Tracing
Additional points on the curve can be
2ty found in the following manner. As we learned
in Article 86, the line y = mnx cuts the given
curve three times at the origin and once at a
fourth point whose coordinates are given by
x=m2(2-m), y=mnx=m3(2-m).
Assigning values to in, we obtain a table
of corresponding values for m, x, and y. Plotting
these points, we obtain the curve shown in
Figure 104.
Figure 104 Note: An algebraic equation is sometimes
easier to graph by changing to polar coordinates.
For example, in polar coordinates, the equation (x2 + y2)3 = 4xy(x2 - y2)
becomes r6 = 4r2 sin 0 cos 0(r2 cos2 0 - r2 sin2 0) = 2r4 sin 20 cos 20 = r4 sin
40, or r = ± Vsin 40.

m -O.8 -0.6 0 1 1.5 1.9 2 2.1

x 1.8 0.9 0 1 1.1 0.4 0 -0.4

y - 1.4 -0.6 0 1 1.7 0.7 0 -0.9

EXERCISE 49
Trace the following curves.
X4 x3
-x2 2 =
I. y2= 1
2 .

y x2 - 1
3. X3 + y3 = 3xy. 4. X3 + y2 = 2xy.
x24-x x2
y2 -_ 6 Y2 =
5.
1+x
.

x2- 1
7. y3 = x2(x + 3). 8. X4 + y2 = 2xy.
9. y2 = x(y2 - x2). 10. 2y2 - xy = x2 + x3
11. y4=x4+4x3. 12. X4 + y3 = 4x2y.
13. y=xy2-4x3. 14. (x + y) 3 = 8xy.
15. x2+y2=x(y2-x2). 16. (x2+y2)2=y2-x2
 CHAPTER 12

Integration Formulas

88. Introduction
In Chapter 3 indefinite integration was defined as an operation
inverse to the operation of differentiation, and we discussed there the
integration of powers of a variable. In this and subsequent chapters
we shall apply the process of integration to other combinations of
elementary functions.
In this connection it is to be noted that the integral of an elementary
function cannot always be expressed in terms of elementary functions.
As examples, we have the integrals

f VT---x4 dx, fsinx2dx,

whose corresponding definite integrals will be discussed in Chapter 16.

For the present we shall consider only those integrals that can be
expressed in terms of elementary functions.

89. Formulas of Integration

For reference purposes we have listed below certain standard inte-
gration formulas which are frequently used in elementary work. It is
strongly advised that the formulas I1-I20 be memorized.

Il Jdn=u+C
I2 f a du = an + C, a constant

13 5[f(n) + g(u)] du = ff (u) du + f g(u) du

un+l
14 5undu=1+C, n -1
15
du=lnu+C
f 207
208 Integration Formulas

16 I au du C, a > 0, a 1
In a +
17 Jeudu=eu+C
18 f sin u du = - cos u + C

I9 Jcos u du = sin u + C
I10 fsec2 u du = tan u + C

Ill J'csc2udu = -cot u + C

112 f sec u tan u du = sec u + C

113 f csc u cot u du = - csc u + C

114 f tan u du = in sec u + C

115 Jcot u du = in sin u + C

116 f sec u du = In (sec u + tan u) + C

117 f csc u du = In (csc u - cot u) + C

du =Sin-1u+C
118
f Va2 - U2 a
1 U
119 I
duu2 = Tan-1 +C
J a2 a
du a_ 1 U
120 Sec-1 + C
J,uVu2 - a2 a a
du =In(u+-/U2±a2)+C
121 f
J ± a2
duu2 a u
a2 -
122 1 In a + u + C, u2 < a2
f122 2a
u a
+ C, u2 > a2
J u2du a2 2a In u + a
 Integration of Powers 209

2 U
123 1/a2 - u2 du = 2u1/a2 - u2 + 2a Sin-' a
+C
2

124 JVu2±a2du=Vu2±a2±1n(u+\/2±a2)+C
Note: The validity of each of the above formulas can be established by
showing that the derivative of the integral is equal to the integrand. For
example, to prove 15 we observe that d(ln u + C) = du/u.

90. Integration of Powers

Any power of a function may be integrated by use of formulas 14 and
15 provided the integrand contains the exact differential of the function.
An adjustment in the constant factor of the integrand is often necessary
in order to obtain the exact differential. This can be done as indicated
in the following illustrations.
Illustration I. To evaluate f x(x2 + 1)2 dx, we consider u = x2 + 1.
Since du = 2x dx, by applying 14 with n = 2 we obtain
J(x2+l)2(2xdx)=fl+C=(x2+1)3+C.
Observe that the integral f (x2 + 1) 2 dx cannot be evaluated in the
above manner since the factor x in the differential du = 2x dx is missing.
The latter integral can, however, be evaluated as follows.

f (x2 + 1)2dx= f(x4 + 2x2 + 1)dx= 5x5+ 3x3+x+C.

e 3z
Illustration 2. To evaluate f 5 + dx we consider u = 5 + 2e3-T.
Since
du = 6e3x dx, in applying 15 we obtain
e3z dX _1 ( e3 dx)
- + 2e3z) + C.
6 In (5
5 + 2e3x 6 5 + 2e3x

The preceding illustrations indicate that it is often helpful when

evaluating an integral to consider the integrand in terms of some
function of the variable of integration. A change of variable can be
made in accordance with the following theorem.
Theorem. If the substitution u = O (x) is such that f (x) dx becomes
g(u) du, and if an indefinite integral of g(u) is known to be G(u), then
G[0 (x) ] is an indefinite integral off (x).
Proof: To prove the theorem, we need to show that

dx G[0(x)] _ .f (x)
210 Integration Formulas
By the chain rule of differentiation, this can be written as
G'[0(x)]0'(x) = f (x)
It is given, however, that G'(uu) = g(u) and 0'(x) = du/dx; hence the
preceding equation reduces to
g(u) dri = f (x) dx,
which is one of the assumptions. Therefore, by reversing the steps in
the argument, the theorem is proved.
r x2 dx
Illustration 3. To evaluate
f -V/x3
--I , we make the substitution
u = x3 - 1. Since du = 3x2 dx, we obtain
x2 dx s du 1 u1/2
=32
1
=3Ju-1/2du=3
,1/x3-1=f 2

Since the logarithms of negative numbers have not been defined,

formula 15 is meaningless when u is negative. In this case, however, by
writing u = - v we have du = - dv and
fdu- - = dv=lnv
it j -v iv -+ - C=1n(-u) +C.
,1

Hence, when negative numbers are involved, formula 15 should be

considered in the form
du
In Jul + C.
15
f U

Illustration 4. J_2dx=
X
[in !xil2 = in2 - in4 = -1n2.
4" .l -4

Evaluate f1
2x2 x + 2+ 1
Example 1. dx.

Solution: Dividing the numerator by the denominator, we obtain

2x2+5x+1 =2x-}-1 - x+2 1
x+2
Hence, by 13, 14, and I5, we have
('"f3 x+2+
ldx= 3(2x+ 1 -x+2)dx
f x2+x-In(x+2)I3

= [9 + 3 - In 5] - [1 + 1 - In 3] = 9.4892.
 Exercise 211

Example 2. Find the area A between the curve y = sin2 x cos x and the
x axis from x = 0 to x = fir.
Solution: Since A = f y dx by Article 24, we have
NI2
A= sin2 x cos x dx.
J0
To evaluate this integral consider it = sin x. Since du = cos x dx, by
use of 14, we obtain

A=f /2 sin2 x (cos x dx) = sin3 xl 0/2 = 3

o L3

EXERCISE 50
Evaluate the follo wing integrals.
r
I. f 3x dx. Ans. 3 V-3 X3/2 + C. 2. 1/3x -+1 dx.
J

3. 5xx 2 - 2) 2 dx.
s
(x2 - 2) 3 + C. 4. (x2 - 2) 2 dx.
J
dx dx
5.
f 5 - 2x - 2 In (5 - 2x) + C. 6.
f (5 - 2x) 2
1/x dx Y1/3 dY
7.
f I + x1/x 3 In (1 + x3/2) + C. 8.
f (y4/3 +z\2 9)2*

9. f1 - z/
1)2

dz. z - 1z - 2 In z + C. 10. Y1

\1 /dx
d2

cos 2x
11. 5cos3 0 sin 0 dd. - 4 cos4 0 + C. 12.
f I + sin 2x
et dt
13.
1/1 - et
Ans. - 21/1 - et + C . 14. f (1 + 2e3x)3e3xdx.

15.
fy+4j y+81n(y-4)+C. 16.
f (x 1)
dx.
y-4 X22

sect 0
17.

19.
f tan 0 dd. In tan 0 + C. 18. f tan 2x sec2 2x dx.
+11
f +2+31 dx. 2 + In (x2 + 1) + C. 20.
fx dx.

21. f In x dx.
X 2
(ln x) 2 + C. 22.

23.
f 1 + cos y dy.
y + sin y
In (y + sin y) + C. 24. f x2 + e2x dx. 2x

2551/2

1/2
(2 y + 1)7 dy. 16 . 26 . f (x - 1)-3dx.
10
S
212 Integration Formulas
-2
f y +2 d A ns. 2 In 28. f x21/1 + x3 dx.

-
27. 3-
.1-3 y2+4y y
r5 (x + 2)2 o 2z + 3
29.
f 3 -2 dx. 37.58. 30.
f-1/3 3z +2 dz.
('n/2 1 cos 0 d0
31. 1/sin x cos x dx. 2
32. f
Jo
3
0V1 + sin 0
"

33.
f0
l a+
x2
dx. rr 2/32. 34.
12 x - x-3
1 x2 + x-2
dx.

35. Evaluate 12x - 11 dx. Ans. 5/2.

J 1
r f202
36. If f (x) = x for x < 1 and (x - 1) for x- 1, evaluate x2f (x) dx.

In each of the following, find the area bounded by the given curves.

37. y= x-3
2 y=0, x=4, x=5. Ans. In 4.

38. y=x2+5, y=0, x= 1, x=4.

39. y=
1/1 - 2x
4 ) y=0, x= -4, x=0. 8.

3
40. ex y x = 0.
Y 1 +ex 4

x+3y=7.
x+i2

41. s(35 - 121n 6).

x3
42.
y=x+2,
y=x2-x.
In each of the following, find the volume generated if the area bounded
by the given curves is revolved about the x axis. (Article 31.)

43. y=1 - 3
X
y=0, x= 1. Ans. (8 - 6 In 3)7r.
3x
44. v= 1/x + 4
) v=0 x=4.
45. y = tan x sec x, y = 0, x = 4rr.
du + `b du = flab du
46. If a > 0 and b > 0, show that fl"
U 1 U 1 U

47. If 0 < x < 1, show that 4x2 < x - In (1 + x) < 2x2. Hint: Show
that < f '(x) < x, where f (x) = x - In (1 + x).
tx
 Integration of Exponential Functions 213

91. Integration of Exponential Functions

Integrating the differential relations D24 and D25, Article 53, we
obtain the exponential integration formulas
16
In a + C,
a>O,a 1,
,l au du
feu du = eU + C.
53x
f53xdx = 31 ,f 53x d(3x) = + C.
3 -1n5

Illustration 2. fxeX2 dx = 2 fex2 d(x2) = 2 ex2 + C.

f ex2
Note: Observe that the integral dx cannot be evaluated by 17.

Illustration 3. f dxe-x
= . ex dxl = f d(ezx_ 11) = In (ex - 1) + C.
1

Example. Find the volume generated if the area bounded by the curves
y = e-x, y = 0, x = 0, x = 1 is revolved about the x axis.
Solution: Since V = 7r y2 dx, Article 31, we have
J
x=1
e-2x dx = - 2Tf
Cl 1

V = IT e -2x d(- 2x)

0 x=00
1
- -27T Ie-2x10 2Ir(1 - e-2).

EXERCISE 5 I
Evaluate the following integrals.
I . Ans. e4x + C. 2. fe_xI2dx.

3.
J
32y dy. 4. 5/icix.
5. x-2e1/x dx. 6. $t3et4dt.
J
7. f esin t, cos B dB. 8. J3XeXdx.

2+ ex
9.
e
dx. x - 2e-x + C. 10. fezi/i + ez dz.
f14 e"x dx r1
II. 9.342. 12. J x2ex3 dx.
N/X 1
214 Integration Formulas
ri T2
13. (ex + xe) dx. Ans. 1.987. 14. ecot a csc2 0 d0.
I 0 J I/4
15. f0 (ex + e-z)2 dx. 5.627. 16. f0 (ex/a - e-z/a)dx.

r/3 sec 0 tan 0

17. dd. 0.477. 18. 12 (2 - e-t)2 dt.
0 1/esee o Ji
19. Ol
0.620. 20. 1
+xex dx.
J 1 + ey f_1

21. Find the area between the curve y = 2x and the chord joining the points
(0,1) and (2,4). Ans. 5- 3/In 2.
22. Find the area in the first quadrant bounded by the curve y = xe-x2, its
maximum ordinate, and the x axis.
23. Find the volume generated if the area bounded by the curves y = e-x2,
y = 0, x = 0, x = 1 is revolved about the y axis. Hint: Use dV =
27rxy dx. Ans. ir(1 - e-1).
24. Find the volume generated if the area bounded by the curves y = ex -
e-x, y = 0, x = 1 is revolved about the x axis.
25. Use the definition of a definite integral to find, as n -> oo, the limit of
(1 + e + Ve2 + +. en-1)/n. See page 76. Ans. e - 1.

92. Integration of Trigonometric Functions

The six integration formulas 18-713 are derived directly from the
corresponding differentiation formulas D10-D15, Article 48.
Formula 114 can be proved directly as follows.
sec a tan u d (sec u)
ftanitduf
J J sec u
du= f
J sec u
=lnsecu+C.
Note: The above result may be written in the form -In cos u + C,
since
In sec u = In I = -In cos u.
cos u
Formula 116 can be proved directly as follows.
sect it + sec u tan it
i sec u du = f dot
J J sec u + tan it
- ('d(sec it + tan u)
J sec u + tan u
= In (sec it + tan it) + C.
Formulas 115 and I17 can be derived in a similar manner.
 Transformations of Trigonometric Integrals 215

Illustration. (a) f sin -x dx = 2 f sin Ix d(jx) = -2 cos Ix + C,

(b) fez cot ex dx = cot ex d(ex) = In sin ex + C,

J
(e) f tang 0 d6 = J (sect 0 - 1) d6 = tan 0 - 0 + C.

93. Transformations of Trigonometric Integrals

Products of the form sin au sin bit, sin au cos bit, and cos au cos bit,
where a and b are constants, can be integrated by use of the transforma-
tions
sin A sin B = 2 cos (A - B) - cos (A + B),
sin A cos B = 2 sin (A - B) + 2 sin (A + B),
cos A cos B = I cos (A - B) + 2 cos (A + B),
and formulas 18 and 19.

Illustration I. f cos 5x cos 3x dx = 12 f(cos 2x + cos 8x) dx

.I
= 4 sin 2x + i s sin 8x + C.
A product of the form sinm is cosh It, where either in or n is a positive
odd integer, can be integrated by use of the trigonometric identities
sine It = 1 - cost it, cost It = 1 - sine u,
and formulas 18 and 19.

Illustration 2. sin2 x cos3 x dx = f sin2 x cost x (cos x dx)

J
= J sine x(1 - sine x) d(sin x)
sin3 x - s sins x + C.
A product of the form sinm It cosh it, where in and n are both positive
even integers, can be integrated by use of the trigonometric identities
sine u = 2 - 2 cos 2u, cos2 It = ? + ? cos 2u,
sin it cos it = 2 sin 2u,
and formulas I8 and 19.

Illustration 3. 5sin e 3x cos2 3x dx = 4 fsin2 6x dx

f (1 - cos 12x) dx
= 8x sin12x+C.
216 Integration Formulas
A power of the form tann it or cotn it, where it is a positive integer,
can be integrated by use of the trigonometric identities
tang It = sect it - 1, Cot2 1t = CSC2 1t - 1,
and formulas I10, Ill, I14, and 115.

Illustration 4. (a) ftanax dx = tan x (sect x - 1) dx

J
= 2 tang x - In sec x + C,
r
(b) tan4 x dx = f tan2 x (sect x - 1) dx
J

= f(tan2 x sect x - sect x + 1) dx

='tan3x-tanx+x+C.
A power of the form secn u or cscn it, where n (> 2) is a positive
even integer, can be integrated by use of the trigonometric identities
sec2 it = 1 + tang It, csc2 It = 1 + cot2 u,
and formulas I10 and In.

Illustration 5. fsec4xdx = f(1 + tang x)(sec2 x dx)

= tan x + 3 tan3 x + C.
Note 1: The case in which n is a positive odd integer is discussed in
Article 98.
A product of the form tanm it secn it, where in and n are positive
integers, can be integrated (a) as indicated in Illustration 5 when n is
even, (b) as indicated in Illustration 6 when in is odd, and (c) as in-
dicated in Article 98 when in is even and n is odd.

Illustration 6. Jtan3 x sec3 x dx = Jtan2 x sec2 x (sec x tan x dx)

= J(sec2 x - 1) sec2 x d(sec x)

= s sec5 x - 3 sec3 x + C.
Note 2: Observe that the methods used in the above illustrations are
sometimes applicable even though the exponents are not integers. For
example,

sin'/2 x cos x dx = Jsinh/2 x d(sin x) = 2 sin3/2 x + C.

J
 Exercise 217

fn/4 d6
Example. Evaluate
o I - sing
Solution: Multiplying numerator and denominator by 1 + sin 0, we
obtain
dBSi _ f7T/4 I+ sin B
dB
Jo 1 - nB o cos2 B
= Jon/4

(sect 0 + sec 0 tan 0) dB

r /4
JJno

_ [tan 0 + sec Bl = 1/2.

EXERCISE 52
Evaluate the following integrals.

J cos Zx dx. Ans. 3 sin Zx + C. 2. fcsc2 (2 - 3x) dx.

dt
1 cos' + C.
3. f_sin_ax. 4.
f COS2 t

5. fsec4otan4odo. :sec:o + C. 6. fcsc2ydy.

7. fcot.xdx. 2 In sin 2x + C. 8. fztanz2dz.

9. sin3 x cos3 x dx. 4 sin4 x - s sins x + C. 10. Jcos33xdx.

J
I . 5cosyy. 2y
+ 2 sin y + C. 12. fsin2xdx.
13. fsecnotanodo. 1 secn B + C.
n
14. 5\/sec4xdx.
15. 5tang 4x dx. 3 tan 4x - x + C. 16. $(sinx + cos x) 2 dx.

17. sin 3x cos 5x dx. Ans. cos 2x - s cos 8x + C.

J
18. Jsin 2z sin 3z dz.

19. 5cscodo. - 3 Cot 2B - s Cot3 2B + C.

20. fcot32odo.

21. ftan4.xdx. x - 2 tan -x + 3tan3Jx+C.

218 Integration Formulas

22. f (sec 0 - tan 0) 2 dB.

+d
23. Ans. csc x - cot x + C.
f 1 cos x.
r cos (tan 9)
24 dB.
,J cost 0

25. fyi + cos 9 dB. ±2 -- cos 0 + C, 0 < 0 < 7r, 7r < 0 < 27r.
r cos 2x
26. dx.
i cos x

sin x
x + sec x - tan x + C.
27.
f 1 + sin x dx.
dx
28.
f (1 - sin x)2
r n/2 n/4
29. sin3 0 de. Ans. 3. 30. cos x cos 3x dx.
J0 f o
r/ f 77/ ' sine x sin 2x dx.
3I . secs t dt. i 5. 32.
J zr/4 Jo
f33.
f "/2 sin 2x dx. r"/4 cos x - sin x
1. 34. dx.
,1/s sin x ,1 o cos x + sin x
fv cost x zi3
35. dx. 7r + 2. 36. ro sin x sin 2x sin 3x dx.
o
1 - sinx
37. Find the area between the x axis and one arch of the sine curve y = sin x.
Ans. 2.
38. Find the area bounded by the curves y = sin x and y = cos x between
consecutive points of intersection.
39. Find the volume generated if the area of Problem 37 is revolved about
the x axis. Ans. 27x2.
40. Find the centroid of the area given in Problem 37. (Article 33.)
41. Find the moment of inertia of the area in Problem 37 with respect to
the x axis. Hint: Use dl = 3y3 dx. Ans. 9.
42. Find the moment of inertia of the volume in Problem 39 with respect
to the x axis. Hint: Use dl = 17y4 dx.
43. Find the area between the x axis and one arch of the cycloid x =
a(O - sin 0), y = a(l - cos 0). Ans. 37-a2.
44. Find the volume generated if the area of Problem 43 is revolved about
the x axis.
45. If n is an integer greater than one, show that

f tann it du = t ann-1
- 12G - f tann-2 u dec.
 Integrals Giving Inverse Trigonometric Functions 219

46. Determine constants A and 13 so that

a sin B+ b cos B c cos B- d sin B
c sin 0 + d cos 0 - `4 + csin0 + d cos 0'
and obtain a formula for the integral
f a sin 0 + b cos B
dB.
c sin B + d cos B

94. Integrals Giving Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The integration formulas
= U
Sin-1
+ C,
118
J_du
Vat - u2 a
119 u 2 = a Tan-1 u + C,
J_du
a2
du 1 u
U
120 = Sec-1 + C,
J u\/u2- a2 a a
are easily verified by differentiating the right hand members; thus, for
example,
du
_ 11 ._
an-' Ita + C)
/
= a-1 1 +d(ula)
(ula) 2
_ a2 + ZL2

Illustration I. J
dx - ('
Sec-1 - + C.
d(2x) - I 2x
x1/4x2 - 9 (2x)1/(2x)2 - 32 3 3

Note 1: Since the use of the differentiation formulas is limited to the

principal branches of the curves, the inverse trigonometric functions occur-
ring in the above formulas must be given their principal values as listed in
Article 49.
f1 dx = [Sin-1 xl1
Illustration 2.
,J 1 \/4 - x2 21-1
= Sin-1 (2) - Sin-1 (--1)
= ( 67r) - (- 67r) = i7T.
dx
Example I. Evaluate
2e2 + 2x + 3'
Solution: This integral can be written in the form I19 by completing the
square in the x terms of the denominator; thus
(' dx 1 dx - 1f d(x + 2)
J2x2+2x+3 f (x2+x+4)+4 2 (x + 2) 2 + (21/5)2

=
1 2 Tan-1 x + 2 + C = 1 Tan-1 2x + 1 + C.
2 1/5 21/5 1/5 1/5
220 Integration Formulas
(3x - 1) A
Example 2. Evaluate f 2x + 2x + 3
Solution: Since d(2x2 + 2x + 3) = (4x + 2) dx, and 3x - 1 = 4(4x + 2)
- 2 i the given integral can be written in the form
3 (' (4x + 2) dx 5 (' dx
4J2x2+2x+3 2J2x2+2x+3'
The first integral is 4 In (2x2 + 2x + 3) by 15, and the second integral is
evaluated as in Example 1. Hence the complete integral is

4 In (2x2 + 2x + 3) - 2 Tan-' 2 + 1 + C.

Note 2: To express 3x - 1 as a function of 4x + 2, we find the coeffi-

cients by division; thus
3
4
4x + 213x - 1
3x+ 2

EXERCISE 53
Evaluate the following integrals.
dx x2 dx
f Ans. Sin-1
3 + C. 2.
4+.x2
J 1/9 - ,

dx dt
3. 4 Sec-1 4 + C. 4.
Jx1/x2- 16 f,\/16 - 9t2
dy 35 dx
5. r Tan-1 + C. 6. f
,l 25 + 9y2 15 J x1/9x2 - 4
f
xdx zdz
7.
J 1/4 - x2*
8.
f 9+4z2
(' y dy 342 x dx
9. 6 Sin-1 + C. 10.
J 1 -- 9y4 f 25 + 16x4
ex dx dx
f Sin-1 ex + C.
J 1/1 - e2x
12.
f
J -V 2_X __1
dy sec2 6 d6
13. 2 Tan -1 "V y + C. 14. f
(1 + Y) 7y, J 1/1 - tan20*

15. ff dx x2
Sin-1 (x - 1) + C. 16. f x2+4x+5
dx
J 1/2x -
2 Tan-1 2t - 1 + C.
dt
17.
f t2-t+2 Ans.
dx
18.
f x _-9 X 2
 Additional Formulas of Integration 221

r x dx
19.
J 1 / 3 - 2x 2 Ans. -1/ 3- 2 x-x - Si n -1 J(x +
2 1 )+ C

20.
f (2z 1) dz
2z2 - 6z + 5
4 1/2(1 - x) dx
21.
f 4 16 + y2
Ans. 22.
fo
2
x2
dx
23. dx. 17T + 24.
fol x2 + 1
21n2.

fi (x + 1)112x(x + 2)
dz 1 1 dx
25. f," z(1 + ln2 z) 47r. 26 .
fo ex + e -x
(2x+1)dx
27.

29.
f2'y-VT
y 1- s
7r.
3115-2x-x2
Find the first-quadrant area bounded by the curves y = 20/(4 + x2),
28.
f
y = 1, and x = 0. Ans. 7.07.
30. Find the area between the curves y(9 + x2) = 17 and y(1 + x2) = 13.
31. Find the area between the parabola x2 = 4ay and the witch y(x2 + 4a2)
= 8a3. Ans. 2(37r - 2)a2.
32. Find the area bounded by the curve y(x2 + a2) = a2(a - x) and the
coordinate axes.
33. Find the volume generated by revolving about the x axis the first-
quadrant area bounded by the curves y2(x2 + 1) = 4 - x, y = 0, and
x = 0. Ans. 12.2.
34. Find the volume generated by revolving the area bounded by the curves
y2(ex + e-x) = 1, y = 0, x = 0, and x = 1 about the x axis.
35. Find the x coordinate of the centroid of the area given in Problem 29.
Ans. 1.14.
36. Show that fO
ldt
< Sin-' x, for 0 < x < 1. Hint: For 0 <
13

t < 1, show that 1/N/1 _-13 < 1 / --12; and then integrate.

95. Additional Formulas of Integration

The integrals of certain elementary forms of the quadratic ex-
pressions 112 ± a2 and a2 - u2 are given in formulas 121-124. The
validity of each of these formulas can be verified by differentiation.
Thus for 121 we have
d(u+1/Uti2±a2)
d[ln (u + 1/u2 + a2 + C] -
it + 1zi ± a
u du
/1 [du +
-
U + V 2L2 ± a2 Vu2 ± a2
du
1/u2 ± a2
222 Integration Formulas
Note: Using methods which are discussed in the next chapter, the above
formulas can be derived by integration processes.

Illustration. (a) f dx2 = J 22 dx x2 = 4 In 2 - x -{- C.

f dx _ 1d(3x) 1

(b) J 19x2 + 25 3 J 1/(3x)2 + 52 = 3 In (3x + 1/9x2 + 25) + C.

If an integral involves a quadratic of the form au2 + bu + c, the
latter can be reduced to one of the above forms by completing the
square.
Example I. Evaluate %/2x - x2 dx.
J
Solution: Writing 2x - x2 in the form 1 - (x2 - 2x + 1), by use of 123
we obtain

f 1/2x-x2dx= f 1/1 - (x - 1)2d(x- 1)

1)A/2-x-

Example 2. Find the area of the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1.

Solution: It is evident from the symmetry of the curve that one-fourth

of the required area is located in the first quadrant. Hence, if A is the total
area of the ellipse, by using 123 we obtain
a
A =4 fo ydx=4 fo b1/a2-x2dx
a

21
x2 + a2 Sln1 = ,ab.
a [xya2 Jo

EXERCISE 54
Evaluate the following integrals.
dx dy
f 1/x2 - 4dz
Ans. In (x + 1/x2 - 4) + C. 2.
f Y2-4f

1 121n3+2z+C. dx
3.
f9-4z2 4.
1/4x2+9*
xdx xdx
91/9x2 - 1 + C.
5.
f 9x2 - 1 6.
f 1/9x4 - 1
f ex dx x cos e dO
7. 1In 1 +ex+C.
1 8.
I- e2x .1 /I + sine 0
 Improper Integrals 223

1
f dx
In 3 + z + C.
9. dz
f 15+2z-z2 A its.
8 5-z 10.
,1/3x2-2x+
1 1 (' (2x - 3) dx
JVx2+x+2
Ans. 2 x2+x+2-41n(2x+ 1 +21/x2+x+2)+C.
f (6y + 1) dy
12
9y2 - 6y 3

13.
(y
dy
1)1/y
Ans. In
y
1/y +
1 + C. 14.
r

J 1/
x 1 dx.

f z2 z3 d 1 fZ2z' dzl
15. z2 + In (z2 - 1) + C. 16.

r5 _ ('4
17. 1/x2 _-9 dx. 10 - 2 In 3. 18. 1/25 - t2 dt.
J3 J3

1 dx 2/3 dy
19. . V In (1 + 1/2) . 20.
fo 2 - x2
1/4y2

3/8 +1
21. 1 3 + _4x- 4x2 dx. 4V-3 + i7r. 22. 2 1/x2 - 4x + 8 dx.
J1/2 fo
Jln3 dx x2dx
23. 1Ins. 24. J4
In 2 ez - e_z 0 1/x2 + 9
25. Find the area bounded by the curves y = 45,11/16x2 - 175, y = 0,
x = 4, and x = 5. Ans. 3.79.
26. Find the area between the curves x2y2 + 9y2 = 25 and y = 1.
27. Find the area between the hyperbola x2 - y2 = 9 and the line y =
2x - 6. Ans. 1.056.
28. Find the centroid of the first-quadrant area bounded by the circle
x2+y2= a2.
29. Find the volume generated if the area of Problem 26 is revolved about
the line y = 1. Ans. 4.66.
z dt
30. If f (x) ) x > 1, prove that I In x < f (x) < In x.
t+ t2 - 1
Hint: Use Problem 1, Exercise 15.

96. Improper Integrals

In defining the definite integral
b
f (x) dx, (1)

it was assumed that the limits of integration were finite and that the
integrand was continuous for every value of x in the range a < x < b.
If either of these conditions is not fulfilled the integral is called an
improper integral, and its meaning is defined as follows.
224 Integration Formulas
1. Infinite limits. A definite integral, in which one or both limits of
integration are infinite, is defined by the relations

Jam f (x) A = bm Jab f (x) dx,

J am
Cl?
(x) A = slim o f (x) dx,
foo --+ - a
00

f 00
f (x) dx = lim f b f (x) dx,
a--* - oo

provided the limit exists. When the limit exists the integral is said to
converge ; otherwise, it is said to diverge.
Co
Illustration I. (a) ex dx = lim (1 - ex) = 1.
J Joo X---> - 00

(b) dx = lim (In x - In 2) = oo.

f2c x z-+ 00

(c) cos x dx = lim (sin x) = no limit.

foc) z-+ 00

2. Discontinuous integrand. When f (x) is continuous for all values

of x in the domain a < x < b except x = b or x = a, the integral (1)
is defined by the relations
Cl?
f(x) dx - l b f xf(x) A, (2)
or
b rb
fa f (x) dx = lim Jr
f (x) dx, (3)
x-->a+

provided the limit exists. The notation x -- b- is used to mean that x

approaches b through values less than b. Similarly, x -- a+ means that
x approaches a through values greater than a.
dx
Illustration 2. (a) = lim (- 1 - 11 = oo.
.J 1x2 z-+0- ` X /
(b) a " / dx = lim I Sin-1 x I = l,r
i0 v a2 - x2
a/ 2 z-+a `
When f (x) is continuous for all values of x in the domain a < x < b
except x = c (where a < c < b), the integral (1) is defined by the relation
Cl?

f (x) A = f c f (x) dx +
aa
cb f (x) dx,
 Exercise 225

where the integrals in the right member are evaluated in accordance

with (2) and (3), respectively.
dx
Example. Consider
-l x
Solution: Since the integrand 1/x2 increases
without limit as x -* 0, we write the integral in
two parts to obtain
1 dx dx 1 dx _
f
1 x2 =
f
x2 + J 0 x2 fl00 -) + - 00 = 00.

Observe that if the above integral is evalu- Figure 105

ated as an ordinary definite integral, we obtain

J it xL
2 x] 11
- 2,

which is an absurd result since the integrand is always positive.

EXERCISE 55
Evaluate the following improper integrals, if they converge.
fc"dx i00 dx
Ans. 2.
I.
i 735 2
J /x
1
3. ez dz. e. 4. sin 0 cos 0 dB.
J J 0"o

ffdy
co
o0 x dx
5. No value. 6.
-%/y-1
5 fi (1 + x2)2
f 1A
f
00
7. +x2 00
7r. 8.
xe_X2
dx.
00 00

1 dx r3 dt
9. 2. 10.
Jo J2 (t - 2)3
I I .
f 1,/2
tan 0 d0. No value. 12.
r1 dx
0 J -1 1 - x2
13.
2
A 6. 14.
sect 0 dO
fo (x - 1)2/3 1/1 - tan 0
(2.s dy dy
15. In 5. 16.
J1 y2 - 1 . (1- 2y)2
f0° dx
17. 1
4M 18. 1 1 sin 1 dx.
J2 x x2- 4 Jox2 x

9.
4 A No value . 20 .
x
dx
fo x2-2x-3 ' Jo (1 + x)1/x
226 Integration Formulas

21. Find the area bounded by the curve y = 1/v/x(2 - x), its asymptotes,
and the x axis. Ans. 7T.
22. Find the area between the curve y = 1/(ex + e-x) and the x axis.
23. Find the area between the witch y = 8a3/(x2 + 4a2) and its asymptote.
Ans. 4Tra2.
24. Find the volume generated if the first-quadrant area under the curve
y = e-x is revolved about the x axis.
e_x2
25. Find the volume generated if the area under the curve y = 1/x is
revolved about the x axis. Ans. 47r.
Determine whether the following integrals converge or diverge.
dx
26. 1 Hint: Compare with I 1 dx
fo 1/x + x4 Jor VX_
dx
27. I Hint: Compare with dT2 Ans. Converges.
d1 1/x+x4 I 1

28. I
A
Jo1

Hint: Observe that 2 - x > x, for 0 < x < 1.

1/ 2x __X 2
29. If h > 0 and the function f (x) is continuous for all x in the domain
a < x < b except x = c, where a < c < b, give an example to show
that
_h b
lim I I
f (x) dx + f (x) dxl lim c-h f (x) dx + lim f b f (x) dx.
h-+0 1 a +h
J c+h J h-+0 Ja h-+0 c+h
30. If h > 0 and the function f (x) is continuous for all real values of x,
give an example to show that

lim h f (x) dx # lim

f a f (x) dx + lim hf (x) A.
h--> 00 h h-+oo J h h--> 00 Ja
 CHAPTER 13

Integration Procedures

97. Introduction
Although some integrals can be evaluated by direct application of
the formulas Il-I24, there are many for which this is not possible. In
many instances, however, the integrals can be found by these formulas
after suitable transformations have been made. It is the purpose of
this chapter to study some of the elementary methods for changing the
form of an integral.

98. Integration by Parts

The formula D4 for the differential of a product may be written in
the form
u dv = d(uv) - v du.
Integrating both sides of this relation, we obtain

125 u dv = uv - Jv du.
J
This is known as the formula for integration by parts.
Illustration. To evaluate f In x dx, we let u = In x and dv = dx. Then
du = dx/x, v = x, and substituting in 125 we obtain

Iinxdx=xlnx -.l Ix.-=xInx-x+C.

x

Note: It is not necessary to add a constant of integration when inte-

grating dv, since we obtain the same result in any case. That is,

u(v+C) -J(v+C)du =uv- fvdu.

227
228 Integration Procedures

Occasionally, however, it facilitates the work if a constant is added.

As an example, we have

f x Tan-' x dx = JTan_1 x d 2I (X2 + 1)

dx
= 2(x2 + 1) Tan-' x - f(x2 + 1) 1 + x2
= (x2 + 1) Tan-' x - 2x + C.

Example 1. Evaluate x2 cos 2x dx.

J
Solution: Let
u = x2 and dv = cos 2x dx;

then
du = 2x dx and v = 2 sin 2x,
and by 125 we obtain

f x2 cos 2x dx = 2x2 sin 2x - fx sin 2x dx. (1)

To evaluate the new integral we repeat the process. Thus, choosing

u = x and dv = sin 2x dx, we have

J x sin 2x dx = fx d(- 2 cos 2x)

2 x cos 2x + 2 cos 2x dx
J
_ - Z x cos 2x + sin 2x.
Substituting this result in (1), we obtain
J x2 cos 2x dx = 2x2 sin 2x + 2x cos 2x - 4 sin 2x + C.

Example 2. Evaluate sec3 0 d9.

J
Solution : Let
u = sec 9 and dv = sect 9 d9;
then
du = sec 0 tan 0 dO and v = tan 0,
and by 125 we obtain

sec3 0 dO = sec 0 tan 0 - J sec 0 tang 0 d9,

f
 Integration by Parts 229

or, using tang = sect 0 - 1,

0
sec3 9 d9 = sec 9 tan 9 - fsec3 0 d9 Jsec 0 d6.
J
Transposing the first integral in the right member, using 116, and dividing
by 2, gives the required result

fscc3 0 d9 = 2 sec 0 tan 0 + In (sec 0 + tan 0) C.

2
517

Example 3. Evaluate ex sin x dx.

0

Solution: Letting u = sin x and dv = ex dx, we obtain

Jo ex sin x dx = l ex sin xl 0- f0 ex cos x dx

= - JI 'T ex cos x dx.

0

Integrating by parts again, we let u = cos x, dv = ex dx, and obtain

'ff

f ex sin x dx = - [ex cos xl 0 ex(- sin x dx)

f
= e- + 1 - f ex sin x dx.
0
o

Transposing and dividing by 2 gives the required result

f:exsinxdx = (e- + 1).

The method of integration by parts can be used to develop many

formulas by means of which a given integral can be reduced in a series
of steps to some known integration form. Such formulas are called
reduction formulas.
Example 4. Derive the reduction formula

sine x dx = - 1 sinn-1 x cos x + n - 1 f Sinn-2 x dx, n > 0. (2)

I n n ,J

Proof: Let it = sine-1 x and dv = sin x dx; then

sine x dx = sine -1 x(- cos x) - f(_cos x) (n - 1) sine -2 x cos x dx

J
_ - sine -1 x cos x + (n - 1) fsinfl_2 x cost x dx

_ -sinn-1 x cos x + (n - 1) f Sinn-2 x dx - (n - 1) J'sinn x dx.

230 Integration Procedures

Transposing the second integral on the right and dividing by n gives the
required formula.
Note: By taking x = 2 - y in (2), we obtain
f sinn (2Tr - y) dy
n sine-2 (2Tr _ y) dy.
sine-1 (2 - y) cos (27T - y) - 1
n n J
This gives the corresponding reduction formula for cosines

f cosh y dy = n- 1 fcosn2 y
1 cosn-1 y sin y +
J n

Integrate by parts to evaluate the following integrals.

I . f xex A. Ans. ex(x - 1) + C. 2. Jx2lnxdx.

3. fo cos 0 d9. cos 0 + B sin 0 + C. 4. fx sin 2x dx.

5. fSinlxdx. Ans. x Sin-1 x + \/1 - x2 + C.

6. fTan_lydy.

7. fx+ 1)Inxdx. (x4+x)lnx-igx4-x+C.

8. fv'ln2xdx.
9. xVx + 1 A. 15 (3x - 2) (x + 1) 3/2 + C.
J

10. fx2v'x - .

I I . fx3Vx2 + 4 dx. -!-(3X2 8)(X2 + 4)3/2 + C.

12. fzSec4zdz.

13. fxsec2 A. 3x tan 3x + 9 In cos 3x + C.

3x

14. fxsecxtanxdx.
15. sin (In x) A. 2x [sin (In x) - cos (In x)] + C.
J
 Exercise 231

16. fsec5edo.

17. fe_xcoszxdx. Ans. 5e-x(2 sin 2x - cos 2x) + C.

18. JTan_'v'dx.
19. f 13et dt. et(t3 - 312 + 6t - 6) + C.

20. f 03 sin 0 d0.

fv12
21. f 1

1
Cos-1 x dx. Ans. ir. 22. x2 sin 2x dx.

23.
f x3dx
8.7. 24.
4 x dx
13/8-x2 fo 1/8-x
25. f v/3 sin 30 cos 0 d0.
0
16- 26. f'3V/4

n/4
csc3 0 d0.
f'i xex
27. dx. le - 1. 28. f 1 Sec-1 1 dx.
o (1 + x)2 o x
For the area bounded by the curve y = xe-x, the x axis, and the maximum
ordinate, find the following.
29. The area. Ans. I - 2e-1.
30. The centroid of the area.
31. The volume generated if the area is revolved about the x axis.
Ans. 4ir(1 - 5e-2).
32. The volume generated if the area is revolved about the y axis.
33. The moment of inertia of the area with respect to the x axis.
Ans. 81(1 - 13e-3).
34. The moment of inertia of the area with respect to the y axis.
Derive the following reduction formulas.
nn--1
35. tann x dx = t lx - f tann-2 x dx, n > 1.

36. f secn x dx = secnn2 x tan x + nn - 2 f secn-2 x dx, n > 1.

37. xn sin ax dx = - xn cos ax + -a xn-1 cos ax dx. nf

a
38. fxn cos ax dx =
xn sin ax n f xn-1 sin ax dx.
a a
xn eax n f xn-1 eax
39.
Jxneaxix = a a
--dx.
xm M+l(ln x)n
40. fxm(ln x) n dx = fxm(ln x)n-1 dx, m I.
1 m+1
232 Integration Procedures

99. Algebraic Substitutions

A change in the variable of integration will often reduce an integral
to one of the basic integration formulas I1-724. Such a change in
variable is called a substitution, and if the substitution involves only
algebraic terms it is called an algebraic substitution.
r xdx
Evaluate
-x.

Example I.
IV4
Solution: Let 4 --x = z, and from this we find
x = 4 - z2, and dx = - 2z dz.
Substituting in the given integral and integrating, we obtain
x dx = 5(4 - z2) (- 2z dz) ('
(2z2 - 8)dz = 3z3 - 8z + C.
z

Expressing this result in terms of the original variable, we have

r xdx --3 4-x[(4-x)-12]+C=-3(x+8)x/4-x+C.
Note: Observe that the substitution Va + bx = z will always eliminate
radicals when the integrand is a rational function of x and Va + bx.
Many integrals may be reduced to the above form by means of an
intermediate substitution. Thus, for example, x3 = it reduces the
integral f x5"2 + x3 dx to f it /2 + it dii. Since the latter integral
3
can be evaluated by making the substitution /2 + it = z, it follows
that the original integral could have been evaluated by making the
single substitution '2 + x3 = Z.
dx
Example 2. Evaluate
f\r + 4

Solution: Letting x114 = z, we have

1/z = z2, /x3 = z3, dx = 4z3 dz.
Hence

/ dx
f
Jf "V;-+"Vx3z2+z3
4z3 dz 4
f 1z dz+z
=4 f(1 - 1 +z)dz = 4z - 4ln(1 +z) + C.
In terms of x, this becomes
dx
1Vx+1/x3-4
4
-41n(1+")+C.
 Exercise 233

If a definite integral is to be evaluated by means of a substitution,

the limits of integration are usually changed to correspond with the
change in variable. This procedure eliminates the necessity of return-
ing to the original variable of integration.
4 _9
Example 3. Evaluate fO x /x2 + dx.

Solution: Letting 1/x2 + 9 = z and observing that

-
z = 3 when x = 0, and z = 5 when x = 4,
we have
4 5 5
f0 V x_2 + 9 (x dx) = J3 z(z dz) _ j z3J3 = 3 .

The justification for the changing of limits in this manner is

contained in the following theorem.
Theorem. Let f (x) be continuous when a 5 x b, and let 0(u) be
such that its derivative is continuous and /(a) = a, c(8) = b, and
a < 0(u) < b when a < it <_ or 8 < it < a. If the substitution
x = 0(u) changes f (x) dx to g(u) du, then

b f (x) dx = f., g(u) du.

Ja
Proof: Consider the functions

F(x) = Jf(x) dx and G(u) = J g(u) dii. ( 1)

L

By the Fundamental Theorem we obtain dF(x) = f (x) dx and dG(u) =

g(u) du. Considering it as the independent variable and x = 0(u), it
follows from the hypothesis, f (x) dx = g(u) du, that dF(x) = dG(u)
identically in it. By the theorem in Article 21, this means that
F(x) = G(u) + C, where C is a constant. However, for it = a we have
x = a, and from (1) F(a) = 0 and G(a) = 0. Hence the constant C is
zero, and we have F(x) = G(u). Since x = b when it = 8, we obtain
F(b) = G(P), which proves the theorem.

EXERCISE 57
Evaluate the following integrals.

i. fxvx _+4 dx. Ans. 5 (3x - 8) (x + 4)3/2 + C. 2. fx/x _+4 dx.

3. x2 + 4 dx. 3(x2 + 4)3/2 + C. 4. 5x3\/x2 + 4 dx.

J x
234 Integration Procedures
dx dy
2i n( Vx- - 1) + C. f v-+
5.
,lf x - V Aits. - 6.

dx J dx
r
7.
Jx- x 2 In (3x2 - 1) + C. 8.
X - x4/3
i-x 2 - 1
9. dx. Ans. 1/x2 - 1 - Tan-1-1/x2 - 1 + C.
J x
10. x3x - l dx.
J
f tdt
II. 21(31 - 2)(1 + 2t)3/4 + C.
J14/1+2t
f x3dx
12.
/x2+4
f/'3 12 (z+ 1) dz
13. x-3 'x2- 1 dx. Ans. 6. 14.
Ji J1 z z-1
dx xl/2 dx
r1
15.
9
2+2in2 . 16 .
f4 V-X - 1 Jo 1 + x3/4

17.
f 0
11x2 x-+1 dx.
7
dy /y+1.
AA-
105. 18. f
dx
Jo (x+2) 1x 1
( dx
19.
f o, 1
2+3in2. 20.
Ji x1/x2+4
21. Find the area bounded by the curves y = x/(1 + 1/x), y = 0, and
x = 4. Ans. 3.136.
22. Find the volume generated by revolving the area of the preceding
problem about the y axis.
23. Find the volume generated by revolving about the x axis the area
bounded by the curves y = x + x+1,y=0,x=0,andx=3.
Ans. 100.4.
24. Find the centroid of the volume described in the preceding problem.
25. If f (x) is an even function, that is, f (- x) = f (x), prove that
fa a
a f (x) dx = 2 fo f (x) dx.

26. If f (x) is an odd function, that is, f (- x) _ - f (x), prove that

fa
f (x) dx = 0.
-a
a a/2
27. Show that fo f (x) dx = 2 fo f (x) dx, when f (a - x) = f (x).
z
28. If F(x) = f1 f(ati + 1I dice show that F(1I = -F(x).
` u u x
 Trigonometric Substitutions 235

29. Show that f /2 f (sin x) dx = f /2 f (cos x) dx.

o o
/2
30. Show that fo f (sin x) dx = 2 fo f (sin x) dx.
3I. Use the identity
f0
a/2
In sin 2x dx = f
n/2

0
In sin x A + f
0
a/2

lo
cos x dx + fo
n/2
In 2 dx
a/2
to determine the value of f sin x A. Ans. -17r In 2.
0
o

100. Trigonometric Substitutions

A change of variable involving trigonometric functions is called a
trigonometric substitution. This type of substitution is particularly
useful when an integrand is a rational function of it and one of the
following radical expressions. For each of these radicals we use the
substitution indicated.
- u2,
-N/a2 let u = a sin 0, (1)

\/a2 + U2 , let u = a tan 0, (2)

1/u2 - a2, let u = a sec 0. (3)

It is clear that each of the above substitutions reduces the cor-

responding radical to the following rational trigonometric expressions.
Va2 - a2 sin2 0 = a1/1 - sin2 0 = alcos 01,
1/a2 + a2 tang 0 = a1/1 + tang 0 = alsec 01,
1/a2 sec2 0 - a2 = a1/sec2 0 - 1 = altan 01.
dx
Example I. Evaluate
f (9 - x2)3/2
Solution: In accordance with (1), we let x = 3 sin 0. Hence, if 0 is an
acute angle, 1/9 - x2 = 3 cos 0, dx = 3 cos 0 dB, and we have
dx 3 cos 0 dO _ 1
fsec2OdO = 9 tan 0 + C.
f f
(9 - x2)3/2 = (3 cos B)3 = q
The above result may be written in terms of x with
the help of Figure 106, which depicts geometrically the
relationship sin 0 = x/3. Thus
dx x
5(9-x2)3/2 91/9-x2 + C.
Trigonometric substitutions may be used to Figure 106
236 Integration Procedures

prove the integration formulas 121-124. For example, to prove

du
I21
JVa2 +1 12
=In (u+ a2+u2) +C,
we let it = a tan 0 as shown in Figure 107. Then %/a2 + u2 = a sec 0,
du = a sect 0 d0, and we obtain
du
f = sec 0 d0 = In (sec 0 + tan 0) + C'
JVa2+112 J

=In
a2+u2+u
a) +C' a
=1n(u+Va2+u2) + C,
Figure 107 where C = C' - In a.
r1 dx
Example 2. Evaluate
JO x2 + 2x

Solution: Since x2 + 2x = (x + 1)2 - 1, in accordance with (3) we let

x + 1 = sec 0. Making this substitution (Figure 108) and observing that
0 -* 0 when x -* 0, and 0 = s7T when x = 1,
we have
(' 1 dx - f /3 sec 0 tan 0 d0 '/3
sec 0 d0
f
Jo x2 + 2x tan 0
17

_ [ln (sec 0 + tan 0)] = In (2 + V-3).

. 0

Observe in this example that an improper integral is transformed into a

proper integral.
Note: When the trigonometric identities
are used to evaluate a definite integral, one must ) 2
be careful to make a proper substitution. For
example, the radical 1/1 - sine 0 equals cos 0
when 0 varies from 0 to 27r but equals - cos 0
when 0 varies from 2I-7T to -7r. Thus the integral Figure 108
of 1/1 - sine 0 from 0 to it is found as follows.
fn r7/2
V1 - sine 0 d0 = cos 0 d0 + (-cos 0) d0
J i:,2
r l
= 1 sin 010/2 + I - sin 01 2.
nl2 =
 Exercise 237

EXERCISE 58
Evaluate the following integrals.

Ans. - 1/44x x2
+ C. 2. 1/4 x2 x2 dx.
J
x Y2 dY
+ C.
3.
41/x2 ..}.. 4
4.
f 1/y2+4
dz r 2 -
5. f 6. x 4 dx.
Jz21/z2-4 i x
11/9 x2 dx. (' dx
7.
,J X4
+ C. 8.
J x41/9 - x2
(' dx dt
10.
9.
J x21/9 + x2 f t4 v 9

(' dx x
fxav'x2_9dx.
fJ (4x2 - 9)3
91/4x2-9+C. 12.

13. fiv'2x_x2dx. Ans. I (x - 1)1/2x - x2 + I Sin-1 (x - 1) + C.

14. f 1/y2 +-4y dy.

dx
Is.
f 1/x2+2x+2 In (x + 1 + 1/x2 + 2x + 2) + C.
.f / dv
16.
f 1/2 ---V
17. f xV2axdx - x2 Let x = 2a sin2 0.
1/2ax - x2
ax
dx
18. Let x = 2a tan2 0.
f x1/2ax + x2

19.
s ds
Ans. 2 In 20.
f 3
1/25 - y2 dy.
3-
f5 sVs2 + 144
f2 3/2 y2 dy
21.
0
x21/4 - x2 dx. 77. 22.
fo
2.4
(y2 + 4)3/2
6 dr 31/3 + 47r x3 dx
23.
648
24.
fo \/(x2 + 1)3
4_ 5 dx
25. 27 26.
fi 10x-x2
27. Derive formula 123 using a trigonometric substitution.
28. Derive formula 124 using a trigonometric substitution.
29. Find the area bounded by the curves y = 1/x2 - 9/x2, y = 0, and
x = 5. Ans. 0.2986.
238 Integration Procedures

30. Find the volume generated if the area of the preceding problem is
revolved about the y axis.
3I . Find the centroid of the area described in Problem 29.
Ans. (4.08, 0.077).
32. Find the centroid of the volume described in Problem 30.

101. Integration of Rational Fractions

We shall now consider the integration of rational fractions, that is,
fractions in which the numerators and denominators are polynomials in
the variable of integration. If the degree of the polynomial in the
numerator is not less than that in the denominator the fraction is called
an improper fraction, and such a fraction may always be reduced by
division to a mixed fraction consisting of a polynomial and a proper
fraction. We assume that all fractions considered are irreducible,
that is, the numerator and denominator have no common factor.
2
Illustration. (x + 1)3 is a proper, irreducible, rational fraction.
In the study of algebra one learns the procedure by which two or
more fractions may be combined into a single fraction. In the evalu-
ation of integrals, it is important to be able to reverse this procedure,
that is, to represent a given fraction as a sum of simpler fractions. This
inverse procedure is called the resolving of a given fraction into partial
fractions. The process of determining these partial fractions is based
on the following theorem, whose proof is given in advanced books in
algebra.
Theorem. Any proper rational fraction may be resolved into a sum of
partial fractions subject to the classifications listed below.
1. If a linear factor ax + b occurs once as a factor of the denominator,
there corresponds to this factor one partial fraction
ax + b' where A is a
`4

constant and A 0.
II. If a linear factor ax + b occurs n times as a factor of the denomi-
nator, there corresponds to this factor n partial fractions
Al A2 An
ax+b+(ax+b)2+ ... +(ax+b)n'

where A 1 , A2, , A,, are constants and An 0 0.

III. If a quadratic factor axe + bx + c occurs once as a factor of
the denominator, there corresponds to this factor one partial fraction
Ax + B
where A and B are constants and Ax + B # 0.
axe + bx + c '
 Integration of Rational Fractions 239

IV. If a quadratic factor axe + bx + c occurs n tinges as a factor

of the denominator, there corresponds to this factor n partial fractions
A1x + B1 A2x + B2 Anx + Bn
... +(ax2+bx-{-C)n'
axe+bx+c+(axe+bx+C)2+
where the A's and B's are constants and Anx + Bn EA 0.

Note: In the statement of the above theorem it is implied that the

quadratic factors mentioned cannot be expressed as the product of two real
linear factors.
x23 2x 4x 2
Example I. Evaluate dx.
J

Solution: In accordance with I the integrand can be expressed in the

form
x2+2x-2 _A B C
x(x+2)(x- 2) x +x+2+x-2' (1)

where A, B, and C are constants to be determined. Clearing (1) of fractions,

we obtain
x2+2x-2=A(x+2)(x-2) +Bx(x-2) +Cx(x+2), (2)

or

x2+2x-2=(A+B+C)x2-2(B-C)x-4A. (3)

There are two general methods for determining the constants A, B, and C.

Method 1: Substitution. Since (2) is true for all values of x, we sub-

stitute x = 0, -2, and 2 in (2) and obtain the following results.
When x = 0, we find -2= -4A; hence A = 12.
When x = - 2, we find - 2 = 8B; hence B =
When x = 2, we find 6 = 8C; hence C = 4
Method 2: Equating Coefficients. Since (3) is an identity, we equate the
coefficients of like powers in the two members, and obtain the simultaneous
equations
A+B+C=1,
-2B + 2C = 2,
-4A=-2.
Solving these equations, we find A - 2, B - - , and C = .
240 Integration Procedures
Now substituting these values in (1), we have
r x2 + 2x - 2
dx
l i dx - 1 f dx 3 i dx
f x3-4x 2 x 4 x;{-2+4 x-2
=2lnx-4ln(x+2) +41n(x-2) +C
= 4 In x2xx+ 2)3 + C.
2
x3 + x + 2
Example 2. Evaluate f x(x2 + 1)2 dx.

Solution: In accordance with I and IV the integrand can be expressed

in the form
x3+x+2 A Bx+C
x(x2 + 1)2 = z + x2 + 1
Dx+E
+ (x2 + 1)2
(4)

Clearing of fractions, we obtain

x3+x+2=A(x2+1)2+(Bx+C)x(x2+1)+(Dx+E)x. (5)

Although the coefficients A, B, C, D, and E may be found by the methods

indicated in Example 1, they are more easily determined in the following
manner. Setting x = 0 in (5), we find A = 2. Transposing the first term
on the right side of (5), putting A = 2, and dividing through by x gives
- 2x3 + x2 - 4x + 1 = (Bx + C) (x2 + 1) + (Dx + E). (6)

In (6) we see that if the left side is divided by x2 + 1, the quotient

obtained is Bx + C and the remainder is Dx + E. Hence, by division, we
find
-2x+1 =Bx+C
x2+ 1I-2x3+x2- 4x + 1
- 2x3 - 2x
x2-2x
x2 +1
-2x =Dx+E.
Substituting in (4), we have
x3+x+2 2x-1
x(x2+1)2 dx=2Jdxx - fx2+I 2xdx
f J(x2+1)2

=2lnx-ln(x2+ 1) +Tan-lx+x2+ +C. 1

In order to facilitate the integration the constants in III may be

taken in the form
A(2ax+b) + B
ax2 + bx + c
 Exercise 241

2 + 2x - 10
Example 3. Evaluate
f x(x + 4x + 5) dx.
2
Solution: In accordance with II and III we have
x2+2x-10 A B
-I-x2-i-
C(2x+4)+D
x2(x2+4x+5) x x2+4x+5
hence
x2+2x- 10=Ax(x2+4x+5) +B(x2+4x+5) +Cx2(2x+4) +Dx2.
Equating coefficients, we find
5B = - 10; hence B = - 2,
5A + 4B = 2; hence A = 2,
A + 2C = 0; hence C = -1,
4A + B +4C +D = 1 ; hence D = -1.
Thus the given integral becomes
(' x2 + 2x - 10
Jx2(x2+4x+5)dx=2 J
('dx
x -2 dxx2 - J(' x2+4x+5
[(2x + 4) + 1]
A

= 2 In x + 2 _ In (x2 + 4x + 5) - Tan-1 (x + 2) + C.
X

EXERCISE 59
Evaluate the following integrals.
dx - 8) dx6.
.f x2+2x
Ans. 1 In x + 2 + C. 2. f (2 x
,J -
('x2+x+2 A. 2
f x(a2 d
x
x + In (x + 11 + C.
3. J 4.
x2 - 1 x2)

5. 3y2y3 - yy2+ l dy. A ns. 1 + 3 In (y - 1) + C.

J y
x2 dx
6. f
J(x+1)3
7.
f (x
x(x- +
1)1)2
dx -2 +lnx l +C.
J X 1

(' 7t? - 20t - 20

x
8. dt .
J (4 - t2) 2
dz 1
2
9. f In
z2
1 +C .

J z + z3
(2x + 1) dx
10.
f 4dx
x2(x2 + 1)
11. Inx + 1-2Tan-1x+C.
f
J J X4 - I
242 Integration Procedures

12. f Y2+6y+4
f
,IY4+5y2+4dy.
f (x2 - 4x - 4) dx z2
+
4
13.
f (x - 2) (x2 + 4)
Ans. In
2
+ C.
dx
14. f
Jx3(1 +x2)
2 2
15. f
8 dt
t2+2 +1 n t2 + 2 +C .
J 1(t2 + 2)2
dx
16. f

17.
J x(x2 + a2)
f x3 x (X26x2
j 1
A . x - Inx(x - 1)2(x+ 1)3 + C .

z4 dz
18. f 1)2 .
J (z2 -
(813 + 13) dt
19. 21 - 2 In (t + 2)6(412 + 1) + 3 Tan-1 21 + C .

J (t+2)(4t2+1)
x+2 2
20.
f (X2 + 2x + 2 ) dx
.

21.
('4 x dx
Ans. In 2- 22.
5 x2- 2 A.
2 (x + 1) (x + 2)' 3 (x - 2) 2
[ 2 5x2 - 3x + 18 2v2 + 1
2
23. dx. 13 In 2 - 4 In 5. 24. f d
Ji x(9 - x2) J i Y(Y + 1)2 Y
f3 4ydy
1 + In 2. 26
xx
25.
2 (Y - 1)(Y2 - 1) '
.

f o (x2 + 4) 2
2+x3
d
27. 1 +x3 s (l n 8+ Tr \/3) . 28 .
J0 foo x+
(CO dt 1 ('-/2 co s 0 dO
29. eat + et 1- 47r . 30 .
X16 sin 0 + sin3 B'
o
r0 1 2 y3+d6
31. + xx + 1 dx . / /3 .
7r N 32.
x4 J5 Y Y
33. Derive formulas 122 and 122, using partial fractions. 9
34. Find the area in the first quadrant bounded by the curve (x + 2)2y
4 - x.
35. Find the volume generated if the area of Problem 34 is revolved about
the x axis. Ans. A9 rr.
36. Find the volume generated if the area of Problem 34 is revolved about
the y axis.
37. Find the area in the first quadrant bounded by the curve (x2 + J) y =
5 - x. Ans. 5.24.
38. Find the centroid of the area described in Problem 37.
 Miscellaneous Substitutions 243

39. Find the volume generated if the area of Problem 37 is revolved about
the x axis. Ans. 48.2.
40. Find the centroid of the volume described in Problem 39.

102. Miscellaneous Substitutions

If an integrand is a rational function of the trigonometric functions, the
substitution z = tan 2u, or its equivalent,
2z 1 - z2 du = 1 +2dz (1)
sin u = 1 z2. cos u = 1 + z2, +Z 2
+
will give an integrand which is rational in z.
To establish (1) we observe by formula 29, page 3, that
2 tan it 2z
tan it 2 z2
1 - tan2Iu 1-
z
This relation, as shown in Figure 109, gives the
above substitutions for sin it and cos it. By
differentiating it = 2 Tan-' z, we obtain the third 1-z2
relation in (1). Figure 109
dx
Example I. Evaluate f
3 + 5 cos x
Solution: Using the substitution (1), we have
2dz
dx 1 +z2 - (' dz
J+5cosx
f3 3 + 5(1
- z2) 4 - z2
v 1 + z2/
Hence, by 122 and z = tan 2x, we obtain

dx _ 11n2+z+C 11n2+tan2x+C.
f 3+5cosx 4 2-z 4 2-tanIx
Another substitution which is helpful is

u=1,z du= - z2
1dz, (2)

called the reciprocal substitution.

dx
Example 2. Evaluate
f x1/2x-x2
244 Integration Procedures
Solution: Using the substitution (2), we have
(' 1
- z2 dz
dx r - dz
Jx1/2x-x2 1 N2 1 J \/2z - 1
Z2
v z z

Hence, by 14 and z = 1/x, we obtain

dx
f 2z- 1 +C = x+C.
Jx 2x-x2 X

Note: In using a substitution to evaluate a definite integral, one should

be sure that the substitution is single-valued and defined for all values of the
variable of integration. For example, in making the substitution x = 1/z,
dx = - dz/z2, it would appear that
1

, (1 + x2)3/2
dx _
- j 1 z dz
1 (z2 4- 1)3/2

This result is absurd since the integrand of the original integral is always
_ 1

1/z2 + 1lJ -1
1

= 0.

positive. The difficulty here is that the variable z does not vary continuously
from -1 to 1 as x varies from -1 to 1; in fact, z is not even defined when
x=0.
EXERCISE 60
Evaluate the following integrals using the half-angle substitution.
f dx dx
Ans. 3 Tan-1 (3 tan ;x) + C. 2.
J 5 + 4cosx 2 + sin x*
f dx d9
3 6 Tan-1 (2 tan Zx) + C. 4.
J13 -5cosx JsinO - cosO
d
5' ,1 1 + sin xx+ cos
xIn (1 + tan ?x) + C. 6. f 5 secy + 4f

n/4 2 d8 JIT/2 dx
7. ('r + In 4) . 8.
,I o 1 + tan B. 4 n/3 tan x - sin x
1/4 dx dt
9. 0.17. 10.
fo 3 - 5 sin 2x oo
f07, 3 + 2 sin t + cos t
Evaluate the following integrals using the reciprocal substitution.
dx
Ans. Sin-1
fx x2+2x- 1
dx
12.
Jx 3x2-2x-1
dx
x 3 21 )\/2x - x2 + C.
13.
Jx2\/2x -
 Use of Integration Tables 245

- x3)1/3
14. dx.
f(x2 x3
2
e A Ans. sIT. 16.
dx
15.
1/2 x\/5x2 + 4x - 1 Ji/2 x21/5x2 +4x - 1
Evaluate the following integrals using the indicated substitution.
dx
17. Let 1/x2+2x- 1 =z - x.
X x2+2x- 1
Ans. 2 Tan-1 (x + 1/x2 + 2x - 1) + C.
8.
dx
Let 1/x2+x-2=(x-1)z.
J x1/x2+x-2
s dx
19. Let x2-2x+5=z-x. Ans. b . In 2.
2 x1/xe 2x + 5
dx
.i x1/x2+x-2 Let Vx2+x-2=(x+2)z.
4
20.

103. Use of Integration Tables

Thus far the integration processes which we have studied have been
used to reduce a given integral to one of the elementary integration
formulas Il-I24. This procedure is often very laborious, and to facili-
tate the work of integration it is customary in general practice to use a
more extensive set of integration formulas. The Table of Integrals on
pages 495-501 is such a set, and the following examples illustrate its use.
dx
Example I. Evaluate rx(2 + x)2.

Solution: Using 9, with a = 2, b = 1, and u = x, we have

r dx
J x(2 + x)2
_ 1
2(2 + x) - 4 In
1 2+ x + C.
X

Example 2. Evaluate f x(2 dx+ x2)2

Solution: Using 9, with a = 2, b = 1, and u= x2, we have
A _ 1 (2x dx) _ 1 1 2 + x2
f x(2 + x2)2 2 f x2(2 + x2)2 4(2 + x2) - 8 In x2
+ C.

Example 3. Evaluate fsin4 x dx.

Solution: Using the reduction formula 56 with n = 4 and it = x, we
have
f sin4 x dx = - II sin3 x cos x + 3 f sine x dx.
246 Integration Procedures

Then, using 54, we obtain

sin4 x dx = -41 sin3 x cos x + a3 (2x - 2 sin x cos x) + C

J
_ $x - s sin x cos x - 4 sin3 x cos x + C.
When evaluating definite integrals, remember (Article 90) that
In f(u) means In If(u)1.
4 x dx
Example 4. Evaluate f
3
(1 - x)2
Solution: Using 7, with a = 1, b = -1, and u = x, we have

f 4 xdx _ 1
-x+ln(1 -x)13
4

3 (1 -x)2 [1

= 3+1n31 - L-2+ln2j +ln-2

If there is any doubt concerning the principal values of inverse

trigonometric functions over negative ranges it is advisable to change
the sign of the variable of integration before evaluating the integral.
f-1 A/x2
Example 5. Evaluate 1 dx.
2 X

Solution: Setting x = -z, we have dx = -dz and

_
1 x2-1 dx =
1 z2-1 dz.
f 2 x J2 z

Using 29, with a = 1 and u = z, we obtain

1
z2-1 r 11=
f dz = z2 - 1- Sec-1 z 2 1 Tr VS.

Using the Table of Integrals on page 495, evaluate the following integrals.

1.
dx
J x(2 + 3x)
Ans. - In
2 3x + C. 2.
x dx
f 2x + 5
3. f
dx 2 4 z+ C. 4.
(' x2 dx
Jx2 x2-4 x 4x J 1/ x2+4
dx x
5. r + C. 6. 5(x 2 + 8)3/2 dx.
J (4-x2)312 414-x2
7. f x e3x dx. e3x(3x - 1) + C. 8. Jco s32xdx.
e
 Approximate Integration. Trapezoidal Rule 247

x x3 dx
9. dx Ans. In ( + C. 10. f
J x1/4x2 + 1 `1 + /4x2 + 11 J 1/1 + x2
1/x
Ans. + Tan-11/x - 1 + C.
I.
J x2 dx
x- 1 x

12. Jsec4 0 d9.

4 "x2dx 4
13.
f 0 Vv/x2 + 9.
Ans. 10 - $ In 3. 14.
f0
x1/3x + 4 dx.

x2dx 3/2 1/9 - 4x2

3 15 - 161n 2. 16. dx.
15.
fo (4 - x)2 f3/4 1
x2
f2'5 /2

17. x21/x2 - 4 dx. -6 4 - In 4. 18. x1/8x2 + 1 dx.

fo
/6
19. sine 10 d0. sir. 20. tan3 20 d0.
0
J,7 fol,
1/2 x2 dx x(x2 dx
21. s 27T. 22. - 1)3/2
0 1/1 -4x2 E-O
4 1/5
23.
J2
12
1/x2 + 2x - 8 dx. 10 -- 2 In 3. 24.
f o
(2x - x2)3/2 dx.

25. X4 In x dx. 5 In 2 - - 25- 26. x2 e2x dx.

J fo
2 x3dx f01
27. 28. e-x sin 7rx dx.
f 0" V-2 --x
35

a/2 a/2
29.
0
f0,7
sin3 0 Cost 0 d0. 15. 30.
f o
sin 30 cos 20 d0.
31. Using the Wallis formulas and the fact that
/2 n/2 n/2
sin2n+lx dx < fo sin2nx dx < fo sin2n-lx dx,
f 01,

show that
lim
1 [2-4-6---(2n) 2 - IT.
n--> oo n 1.3.5 (2n - 1)]

104. Approximate Integration. Trapezoidal Rule

In the preceding articles we have learned that the definite integral

fa f (x) dx (1)

may be evaluated by finding the indefinite integral F(x) and computing

F(b) - F(a). We shall now establish two methods for evaluating (1)
a roximately. These methods are particularly useful when the
248 Integration Procedures

determination of F(x) is difficult or impossible in terms of elementary

functions.
Since the value of the integral (1) is numerically equal to the area
between the curve y = f (x) and the x axis from x = a to x = b, any
approximation of this area will give an
approximation to (1). One method of doing
this is to add trapezoids as follows.
Divide the interval from a to b on the x
axis into n equal parts so that each part has
a length h = (b - a)/n. At each point of
division let yo, yi, Y2, , yn be the re-
nI i 1. L , x s p ective ordinates of y = fly) as shown in
b-0 Figure 110. Joining the ends of the suc-
Figure 110 cessive ordinates and recalling that the area
of a trapezoid is one-half the sum of its
bases multiplied by its altitude, we obtain

'-h(yo + y1) + 3la(yi + y2) + ... + 2h(yn-1 + yn)

as the sum of the areas of the n trapezoids.

Thus for (1) we have the approximation
b
y dx ,: h('-2yo + yj + ... + yn-1 + -'yn), (2)
fa"

which is known as the trapezoidal rule. It is geometrically apparent

that, in general, a greater number of intervals will give a closer ap-
proximation.
rio
Example 1. Calculate x2 dx by the trapezoidal rule, using 10 intervals.
J0
Solution:Here h = (10 - 0)/10 = 1. Substituting the abscissas x = 0,
1, 2, 10 in the equation y = x2, we obtain the corresponding ordinates
,

y = 0, 1 , 4, , 100. Hence, by (2), we have

rio
x2dxti (0 + 1 + 4 + 9 + 16+...+81 +3.100) = 335.
Jo

By integration we find that the exact value of the integral is 33313'

Hence the above result is in error by 3 of one per cent. Using 20
intervals instead of 10 gives the result 3334.

Ex ample 2. Find the approximate value of fo2 1 + x3 dx taking n = 4.

 Simpson's Rule 249
Solution: Here h = (2 - 0)/4 = 4. Substituting x = 0, 1, 1, 2i 2 in the
equation y = \/1 + x3, we obtain the corresponding ordinates y = 1, 1.061,
1.414, 2.092, 3. Hence, by (2), we have

x3 dx : A (0.5 + 1.061 + 1.414 + 2.092 + 1.5) = 3.284.

f
o

When it = 20, we obtain 3.243, a closer approximation.

105. Simpson's Rule

Instead of joining the ends of successive ordinates by chords and
forming trapezoids, we can usually obtain a closer approximation by
joining them with arcs of parabolas. This
method of approximation depends on the
following theorem.
Prismoidal Theorem. The area K between
a parabola and the x axis from x = a to x = b
is given by the prismoidal formula
K = 3h(yo + 4y1 + Y2), (1)

where h = 2(b - a) and yo, yl, y2 are the re-

spective ordinates at xo = a, xl = 2(a + b), Figure 111
and x2 = b.
Proof: Let the equation of the parabola shown in Figure 111 be
written in the form
y=A+B(x-k)+C(x-k)2. (2)

Integrating to find the area, we have

fk
h [A + B (x - k) + C (x - k) 2] dx
= I k-h

= 2Ah + 2 Chi = 3 h(6A + 2Ch2).

Finally, to find 6A + 2Ch2 in terms of yo, yl, and y2, we substitute

x = k - h, k, and k + h in (2), and obtain
ryo =A -Bh+Ch2,
y, A,
y2 =A + Bh + Ch2.
Hence yo + 4y1 + y2 = 6A + 2Ch2, and the theorem is proved.
250 Integration Procedures

Now let us divide the area shown in Figure 112 into an even number
it of vertical strips each of width ii = (b - a) /n. Applying the
prismoidal formula to each successive double strip, we obtain the area
3h(yo + 4y1 + y2) + 3h(y2 +4Y3 + y4) +
+ 3h(yn-2 + 4yn-1 + yn).
Simplifying, we obtain the approximation formula
b h
JaYY0+4Yl+2Y2+4Y3+2Y4++4Y+Y3)
which is named for the English mathe-
matician Thomas Simpson (1710-1761)
and called Simpson's rule.
r2
Example I. Calculate x3 dx by
f o0
Simpson's rule, taking n = 4.
Solution: Using the ordinates as given
in Example 2 of the preceding article, we
Figure 112 obtain
2

fo N/-f-+-x3 dx-05(1 + 4.244 + 2.828 + 8.368 + 3) =3.240.

Observe in this case that Simpson's rule gives a better approximation

than the trapezoidal rule. When n = 20, Simpson's rule gives 3.241.
Example 2. Determine by Simpson's rule the volume generated by
revolving the area OABC of Figure 113 about the x axis.
Solution: Since the formula for a volume of
b
revolution about the x axis is r 7rY2 dx, we let
a
y in (3) represent 7rY2 and obtain yo = 97r,
yl = 257r, Y2 = 367r, y3 = 167r, and y4 = 257r.
Substituting these values and la = I in Simpson's
rule, we obtain
V 3 (97r + 1007r + 727r + 647r + 257x) = 907r.
Note: It is shown in more advanced works
that Simpson's approximation for the integral
fb Figure 113
f (x) dx is in error by an amount which is less
a
5
than 180n4 Max If (4) (x) , a x < b. Thus, in computing In 2 from
 Exercise 251

2
f x-1 dx, we have a= 1, b = 2,f(x) = x-1, and f (4) (x) = 24x-5. Hence
max If (4) (x) I = 24, and when it = 8 we obtain

Error < (180(8)45 (24) = 0.00003.

Thus, in this case, Simpson's rule gives a value for In 2 that is correct to four
decimal places.

EXERCISE 62
Using the trapezoidal rule, find approximate values for the following
integrals. Check your results by integration.
17 dx 1/x_

Z, n = 5. Ans. 0.377. 2. f dx; n = 9.

f2x
J

16 dx x dx ;
3. it = 6. 2.009. 4. 134 it = 3.
3 1/x --2' Jo /1+x2
Using Simpson's rule, find approximate values for the following integrals.
Check your results by integration.

5. x3 dx; n = 2. Ans. 1020. 6. ,J

f s dx it = 8.
f2' 1 1/X
7. xdx x2dx
n=4.
f`2

I
;
2.001. 8. n=4.
Jo 1/x2+9 Jo 1/1 +x3
Using both the trapezoidal and Simpson's rules, find approximate values
for the following integrals.

9. f 0
1/4 + x3 dx ; n = 4. Ans.
1166..1339.,
10.
ffo
2
l +x4dx; n=4.
r8 17.557, 3
11.
f
J2
o.6
13/1 +x2dx; n = 4. {17.581.
12.
Jo
V3 + 2x3 dx; n = 6.
{0.5345
13. a-x2 dx; it = 6.
0.5352.
14f1 ex dxn = 4o
Jo.6 X
.s 0.170, -\/sin x dx ;
15.
f 0,
sinx2dx; n = 4.
0.166.
16.
fo,ff

rn/3
n = 6.
('3 dx 1.122,
17.
J2 In x'
n = 4.
1.118.
18. In tanxdx;n=4.
J n/4
19. Find the value of In 2 to four decimal places by evaluating
1 dx by
J1/2 X
Simpson's rule with it = 4. Ans. 0.6933.
1
20. Find the value of it to four decimal places by evaluating f by
1 + x2 (O

Simpson's rule with n = 4.

252 Integration Procedures

In Problems 21-23 find by Simpson's rule the area under the curve
determined by the given data.

x 0 2 4 6 8
21. Ans. 32.
y 5 6 4 2 3

x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22.
y 0.8 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.8 2.1

x 2 5 8 11 14 17 20
23.
y 4.16 3.98 3.31 2.86 3.02 3.61 4.34

Ans. 62.96.
24. Find by Simpson's rule the volume generated if the area of Problem 21
is revolved about the x axis.
25. Find by Simpson's rule the moment of inertia with respect to the x axis
of the area of Problem 21. Ans. 2613 .
26. Find by Simpson's rule the moment of inertia with respect to the x axis
of the volume of Problem 24.
27. Find the area of the loop of the curve y2 = 8x2 - x5. Use Simpson's
rule with n = 8. Ans. 8.217.
28. Prove that the prismoidal formula gives an exact result when y is a
polynomial of the third degree in x. Hint: Add D(x - k)3 to equa-
tion (2) in Article 105 and continue the proof given there.
29. Prove that the trapezoidal rule is in error by an amount that is less than
(b - a)3 max If "(x) I, a <_ x < b. Hint: Consider the function
12n2
Ck +t
{
Ek(t) = Ckt J (x) Cox - t[f (Ck - t) + f (Ck + t.) 1, 0 < t <4h,
which for t = 3h represents the error associated with the kth trapezoid.
Differentiate and apply the law of the mean to obtain E'(1)
- 2t2f "(xi), ck - t < x1 < ck + t. If MMk denotes the maximum value
of f"(xi) in the interval ck - 2111 < x1 _<_ Ck + 'It, show that JEk(t)
3t3Mk and deduce the result.
30. Use the procedure suggested in the preceding problem to derive the
error formula given in the note of Article 105.
 Review Exercise 253

REVIEW EXERCISE 63
A. Indefinite Integrals
Evaluate the following integrals.
I. .x + x3 Ans. 2In1 +ux2+C. 2.

(1 - sin x) dx
3. Ans. In (x + cos x) + C.
J x + cos x
4. f tan3 20 sec 20 d9.

f dv
r xdx
5. Ans. 21n (4 +-1/v) + C. 6.
Jv+4Vv JV'x2+2x+2
7. ft2iintczt. at3(3 In 2t - 1) + C. 8. f (t + sin t) 2 dt.
r2 ez

9.
J1 + z dz. 2z - In (1 + ez) + C. 10. Jsec 0 tang B d9.

dx
3 Tan-' x1/3 + C. 12. i dx.
11.
J x2/3(x2/3 + 1). J x+
cot 9 d9 dx
13. In In sin 0 + C. 14.
J Insin0 J 1 - sin 3x
2(2x + 1) dx x(x + 1)2
15. f Ans. In (x + 2) 3 + C. 16. 5(xlnx)2dx.
,l x(x + 1) (x + 2)
dx
17. Ans.
J(x-2)1/x+2
18. 5e_Xsin2xdx.
d9
19. Tan-1 (2 tan 29) + C.
5 - 3 cos 9 2
20. fxSin_lxdx.

B. Definite Integrals
Evaluate the following integrals.
f/'2 5 xdx
x5 N/1 + x3 dx.
Jo
2.
f 2 (x - 1)3/2
/4 cos 20 d9 8 dx
3.
f 1 + sin 20
07,
4.
f
i x+13/x
('28(x+ 1) dx s
dy
5. 6.
J1 x2(x2 + 4) f1 y,\/y2 + 2y.
4(-\/x+1)dx
7.
f i -\/x (X + 1)
Ans. In z + 2 Tan-1 3
254 Integration Procedures

dx
8.
fi\/1+1/1+x
5/4 dy 25 dz
9.
f1/4 -\/y+1-.\/ Y
In 3 e2t dt
Ans. 13
6 10.
f16 z-21/z-3
"dO
H. + et s(2 + 1/2). 12.
Jo 1/1 f- 6 Sln 8 cos 0
7 /, 2

7
dx 4 10x2 dx
13.
f3 x2 x2 - 4 *
1/5/42 . 14 .
f2 '
X4

dz 2
15.
f5/4N/z2+4z-5
f07r/2
In 2. 16.
fo
y21/4 - y2 dy.

17. (sin 0 + sin 20) 2 d0. Ans. s(3Tr + 8).

18. f 71

0
sin 30 cos 30 d0.

19. 5Y332dy. Ans. In s2 - 1. 20. 528'3Yx4_2x3dx.

C. Improper Integrals
Evaluate the following integrals, if they converge.
3 _ 3 xdx
dx Ans. In (3 + 21/2). 2.
fi Vx2- 1 fi 1/x2 - 1
z3dz
f
2 dy
0 y2 + 3 No value . 4
j Y-
.

1 1/z + 1
a
5.
0 1/ax - x2
dx
7r. 6. f:J4;xdx.
In 2 dt ° dt
7. 4e_t .
_c et + s ir . 8 .

f oo et+ 1
x f 1 Sin-1 x
dx.
9.
f o 1 - x3 Jdx . 37r . 10 .
0 x2

D. Areas f y dx, f x dy, etc.

In each of the following, find the area bounded by the given curves.
1. x2y2(x + 4) = 1, x = 5, and x = 12. Ans. In 3.
2. y3 = x3(7x + 1), y = 0, and x = 1.
3. 4y2-x2=4 andy=2. 41/3-2In (2+1T).
4. x2y2=y2+9, x=2, andx=3.
5. 4y=x2-2lnx, y=0, x=1, andx=4. 4 -41n2.
6. y=(4-x)Inx and 0.
 Review Exercise 255

7. The loop of the curve y2 = x2(4 - x). Ans. AAA

8. The loop of the curve y2 = x4(4 - x).
9. y = x2e-z, y=0, andx=1. 2-5e-1.
10. Arch of y = x cos x from x = 0 to x = 1Tr.
I I. Y = 1/(1 -1 Fx), y = 1, and x = 8. 8 - 3 In 3.
12. xy(x+ 1) =x2-4, y=0, andx=3.
13. x2y4 = y2 - 16 and y = 5. In 4 - b .

14. y2(x+3) =x-2 andx=6.

15. Arch ofy=sin3xfrom x=0tox=7r. A

16. x2y2 + 16x2 = y4 and y = 3.

17. x1/2 + y1/2 = a'/2 and x + y = a. jag.
18. The loop of the strophoid y2(a + x) = x2(a - x).
19 . Th e e lli pse x = a cos , y = b sin q . 7rab .
20. The cardioid x = a(2 cos t - cos 2t), y = a(2 sin t - sin 2t).
Hint: Evaluate 2 f y dx from t = 7r to t = 0.

E. Volumes $y2 dx,

IT 2Tr
J xy dx, etc.
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the indicated
axis the area bounded by the given curves.
1. xy = x - y, y = 0, and x = 4; about x axis.
Ans. 7r(I-I - 2 In 5).
2. y = cos x, y = 0, and x = 0; about y axis.
3. y2(x + 3) = x - 2 and x = 6; about x axis. 7r(4 + 5 In e).
4. Arch of y = sine xfrom x = 0 to x = Tr; about x axis.
5. x2y2 + xy2 = x - 1, y = 0, and x = 2; about x axis. Tr In s .
6. y = In x, y = 0, and x = 4; about x = 4.
7. The loop of the curve y4 = x(4 - x) ; about x axis. 27r2.
8. The loop of the curve y6 = x3(8 - x) ; about x axis.
9. The ellipse x = a cos 0, y = b sin 0; about x axis. 37rab2.
10. The loop of the curve x = t2, y = 4t - t3; about x axis.
I. x3y2 - xy2 = x2 + 1, x = 2, and x = 4; about x axis. IT In 2-
12. X2 + y4 = 25; about x axis.
13. y = x ex, y = 0, and x = 2; about x = 2. 87r.
14. Arch of y = x sin x from x = 0 to x = Tr; about y axis.
15. y= x In x and y= 0; about x axis. 77r.
16. y = (6 - x) In x and y = 0; about y axis.
17. y(4 + x2) = 8 and y = 1; about y = 1. 27r(4 - 7r).
18. y2x2=x2-9 andx=5; about x=5.
19. y = x Tan-' x, y = 0, and x = 1; about y axis.
Ans. !7r(7r - 2 + In 4).
20. (x2 + 4) y = 6 - x, x = 0, and y = 0; about y axis.
256 Integration Procedures

F. Centroids x = JxdA/fdA, y = fycdA/fdA, etc.

Find the centroid of the area bounded by the given curves.

1. y=x 4-x andy=0. Ans. ;4)
2. y2 2x andx-y=4.
3. Arch of y = sin x from x = 0 to x = 7r. (27r, -,r).
4. x2y2 + 9y2 = x2 and x = 4.
5. The loop of the curve 4x2 = y(9 - y)2. (0, 22-,').
6. y=1nx, y=0, andx=2.
x=0, and x= 1. 1 e+ 1
7. y = ex, y = 0,
(e__14
8. Arch ofx=a(0-sin0), y=a(1 -cos0)from 0= Oto 0=27r.
9. X2- y2 = 9 and x = 5. Ans. x = 128/(60 - 27 In 3).
10. xy(x + 1) = 2x + 1, y=0, x=1, andx=2.
Find the centroid of the solid generated by revolving about the indicated
axis the area bounded by the given curves.
I. y2 = 4ax and x = a; about x axis. Ans. x = 3a.
12. y = 2x N/-3 --x and y = 0; about x axis.
13. First-quadrant area of x2 + y4 = 16; about x axis. z = 16/37r.
14. (x + 1)y2 = 4 - x and x = 0; about x axis.
5. y = cos x, y = 0, and x = 0; about y axis. y = i s (r + 2).
16. The loop of the curve x = 4t - t3, y = t2; about y axis.
17. y = e-z, y = 0, x = 0, and x = 1; about y axis.
Ans. y = (e2 - 3)/8e(e - 2).
18. x2y2 + xy2 = 2 - x and x = 1; about z axis.
19. y3 = x3(1 - x) and y = 0; about x axis. 14-
20. y2 = 1 - In x and x = 1; about x axis.

G. Moments of Inertia Ix = Jy 2 dA, I, = fx dA, etc.

;
For each of the areas bounded by the following curves, find the moment
of inertia with respect to the axis indicated.
I
X2 = 4ay and y = a ; axis OX.
. A ns. ; a4.
2. y3 = x e-3z, y = 0, and x = 1; axis OX.
3. X2 + y3 = 64 and y = 0; axis OX. 2271.
4. x2y=8- 4y, x = 0, y = 0, and x = 2; axis OY.
5. Arch of y = sin x from x = 0 to x = 7r; axis OX. 9.
6. xy = (4 - x) In x and y = 0; axis OY.
7. x3y(y + 2) = y + 4, x = 0, y = 1, and y = 3; axis OY.
Ans. j In 2
 Review Exercise 257

8. First-quadrant area of the ellipse x = a cos , y = b sin ; axis OX.

9. X2 - y2 = 16 and x = 5; axis OY. Ans. ? 2 s - 64 In 2.
10. The circle x2 + y2 = 2ay; axis O.Y. (Compare your result with
Problem 27, Exercise 20.)
If the areas bounded by the following curves are revolved about the axis
indicated, find the moment of inertia of the solid generated with respect to the
axis of revolution.
11. X2 - y2 = 3, y = 2, and y = -2; about y axis. Ans. 202 Tr.
12. The loop of the curve y4 = x(4 - x) ; about x axis.
13. y(x2 + 4) = 8 and y = 1; about y axis. 87r(3 - 4 In 2).
14. Arch of y = sin x from x = 0 to x = ir; about x axis.
15. y = 1/x ez14, y = 0, and x = 1; about x axis. Z7r(e - 2).
16. y = cos x, x = 0 and y = 0; about y axis.
17. y2(1 + x) = 1 - x and x = 0; about y axis. 12ir(32 - 97).
18. The loop of the curve y4(x + 1) = x(2 - x) ; about x axis.
19. y2 = In x and x = 4; about x axis. Ans. 7r[2(ln 4)2 - 4 In 4 + 3].
20. Arch of x = a(O - sin 0), y = all - cos 0) from 0 = 0 to 0 = 2ir;
about x axis.

H. Work and Pressure W = JF ds, P = w fh dA, etc.

I . A horizontal cylindrical tank 6 feet in radius is half full of oil weighing
60 pounds per cubic foot. Find the force on one end of the tank.
Ans. 8640 lb.
2. A water tank is in the form of a hemisphere, 12 feet in diameter, sur-
mounted by a cylinder of the same diameter and 8 feet high. If the
tank is filled to a height 2 feet below the top, find the work done in
pumping the water to the top of the tank.
3. Find the force on one side of a circular plate of radius 4 feet, if the plate
is submerged vertically in water with its center 4 feet below the surface.
Ans. 647rw lb.
4. Solve Problem 3 when the center is 2 feet below the surface.
5. A tank in the shape of a paraboloid of revolution is 10 feet deep and
10 feet across the top. If the tank is filled with oil weighing 60 pounds
per cubic foot, find the work required to pump the oil to the top of the
tank. Ans. 12.57r ft-tons.
6. The vertical end of a water trough is 3 feet wide at the top, 2 feet deep,
and has the form of the area bounded by the x axis and one arch of
the curve y = 2 sin 37rx. Find the force on the end when the trough
is full of water.
7. Solve Problem 6 if the end is a semiellipse. Ans. 4w lb.
258 Integration Procedures

8. A semiellipsoidal tank has axes of 10 feet and 20 feet across the top and
is 6 feet deep. If the tank is full of water, find the work required to
pump the water to the top of the tank.
9. Solve Problem 8 if the tank has the form of an inverted elliptical cone
with the same dimensions. Ans. 150rrw ft-lb.
10. Solve Problem 8 if the tank has the form of an elliptical paraboloid with
the same dimensions.
 CHAPTER 14

Additional Applications of Integration

106. Area in Polar Coordinates

Consider the area A OB in Figure 114 which is bounded by the radial
lines 0 = a and 0 = P, and the curve r = f (0) where f (0) is a continuous
and single-valued function.
If the angle AOB is divided into it equal
parts dO by means of radial lines from 0, the
area is divided into it increments of area,
such as OPQ. Approximating each of these
increments by elements of area dA in the
form of circular sectors, such as OPP, we
find by 5, page 1, that dA = 2r2 d0. Hence,
by the Fundamental Theorem, it follows
that Figure 114

A=2 r2 d9. (1)

Ja

Example I. Find the area of one leaf of the rose r = a cos 20.
Solution: One leaf of the rose is generated
as 0 varies from - 47r to as shown in Figure
115. Hence, using these limits and formula (1),
we obtain
f'ff/4

A = 12 a2 COS2 20 dO
-n/4
77/4
= ia2 1(1 + cos 40) dO
E T/4
2

r zr/4
Figure 115 = 4a2 r0 + 4 sin 401 ga27r.
L n/4

Note : Because of the symmetry of the curve in the above example, we

could just as well have integrated from 0 to 47r and doubled the result.
259
260 Additional Applications of Integration
Example 2. Find the area which
is inside the circle r = 3 cos 0 and
outside the cardioid r = 1 + cos 0.
Solution: Solving the given equa-
tions simultaneously, we find the
points of intersection as indicated in
Figure 116.
Since the required area is the
difference in area between the circle
and cardioid as 0 increases from
- air to 31r, we find, on taking sym-
Figure 116 metry into account,

rn/3
A = 2J [12 (3 COS 0) 2 - 1(1
2 + COS 0) 2] dO
0

=
[8cose9-2COS0 - 1] dB
J
/3
= 18(39 + ? sin 0 cos 0) - 2 sin 0 - 0
Iff0

EXERCISE 64
Find the area enclosed by each of the following curves.
I. Y = 4 sin B. Ans. 47r. 2. r=4-3sin9.
3. r = 2cos39. IT. 4. Y = 1 + cos 9.
5. r = 8 sine 29. 241x. 6. r = 2 sin 49.
7. r = 2 - cos B. 31r. 8. r cos 9 = cos 29.
9. re = 4 cos 29. 4. 10. r2 = 4 cos 49.
II. r = 4sin20 cos9. 21 7r. 12. r tan 210.

Find the common area enclosed by the following pairs of curves.

r = 3 cos s Jr = 5 sin 9,
r = 1 +cos9. A its. 41r.
13. 14.
r = 5 cos 0.
fr = 3 - 2 cos 9, Jre = 6 cos 20,
I5. 3917 - 121,/3. 16.
r = 2. r = 2cos9.
For each of the following pairs of curves, find the area which is inside
the first curve and outside the second.
17.
(r = 5sin9,
Apts. 317 +
V. Jr = 4(1 + sin 0),
lr=4.
r=2+sin9. 18.
(r2 2 Cos 20, , Y = 2 sin 0,
19.
r = 1. v 3 - 31r. 20.
lr = sin 0 + cos 0.
 Length of a Plane Curve 261

Find the area bounded by the following curves.

Y = 2/(1 + cos 0) , Y = csc 0 ,
21.
r = 2/(1 - cos 0).
Ans. 318 . 22.
r = tan 0 sec 0.
23..
= tan 0,
4 - 7T. 24 .
( r2 = 6 sec 20,
r = cot 0. r = 3 sec 0.
25. Find the area of the smaller loop of the trisectrix r = all - 2 cos 0).
Ans. 2a2(27r - 31/3).
26. Find the area enclosed by the loop of the strophoid r = a(sec 0 - tan 0).
27. Find the area of the loop of the curve r2 = a2 cos 20 cos 0 which is
bisected by the initial line. Ans. 3a2-.
28. Find the area between the inner and outer loops of the curve r2 =
a2(1 + sin 0).
29. Changing to polar coordinates find the area enclosed by the curve
(x2 + y2) 3 = 4a2x2y2. Ans. 27ra2.
30. Changing to polar coordinates find the area enclosed by the ellipse
b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2.

107. Length of a Plane Curve

Let the equation of the curve shown in Figure 117 be y = f (x)
where the function f (x) has a continuous derivative in the interval
a <_ x <_ b. If we divide the
curve into it segments by the Y

points Pk (xk, yk) in such a way that p k-1 g

a= xo < x1 < ... < xn-1 < xn = b,
we define the length of the curve
to be the limit of the sum of the
it line segments JA I

O a x1 xk-1 Xk xn-1 b
AP1 + P1P2 + ... + P,1-1B (1)
as the greatest of the differences Figure 117
Xk - xk-1 approaches zero.
We observe that the kth line segment in (1) has a length given by
Pk-lPk = [(Xk - xk-1) 2 + (Yk - yk-1) 9 "2,
and by the law of the mean we know that
Yk - yk-1 = f (xk) - J (xk-1) = f '(xk) (xk - xk-1)
where xk_1 < xk < X. Hence (1) can be written as
{1 + [J '(xk)]2}1/2 Axk (2)
k=1
where Axk = Xk - xk-1. By taking the limit of (2) as it - oo and
every Lxk -- 0, in accordance with the Fundamental Theorem we can
262 Additional Applications of Integration
express the length of arc as a definite integral in either of the following
forms.
I.6 2
s rub 1/1 + [f'(x)]2 dx, or s= / 1 + ax dx. (3)
J Ja

Illustration. For the curve y = 3x3J2, we have y' = x1/2. Hence the
length of the curve from x = 0 to x = 3 is
= 3 3 14
s 1 + (x1/2)2 dx = 13 (1 + x)3/210 = .
fo L J

Basically, we observe that a length of arc is determined by the

integral f ds, where
(ds) 2 = (dx) 2 + (dy) 2. (4)

Note: In Article 57 we made the assumption,

chord PQ - 1,
lim (5)
Q_..,p arc PQ
in order to establish the relationship (4). Since (4) has now been established
without this assumption, we can verify the validity of (5). Referring to
Figure 74 for the notation used, we have
chord PQ - [(0x)2 + (Ay)2]1/2 Ox 2 (Ay)2]1/2.
arc PQ As R Os) + As

chord PQ - dx 2 (dyds)2]1/2
Q p arc PQ [(ds) +
Because of (4), when x is expressed in terms of y, we use
fyy2 2 dy.
s= i1 + dx
J y (6)

When x and y are given in terms of a parameter t, and the derivatives

dx/dt and dy/dt are continuous functions in c < t < d, we use
ddX) (dtdy)
s
+ 2 dt. (7)
J d \ t 2

It is interesting to note that the formula (7) can be derived by a

procedure similar to that used in deriving (3). In this case, when
x = f (t) and y = g(t), we have by the law of the mean
Xk Xk-1 = f (tk) - J (1k-1) = f'(tk) Alk,
yk - yk-1 = g(tk) - g(tk-1) = g'(tk) Atk,
 Length of a Plane Curve 263

where t, and tk are two suitably chosen values of t between 1k_1 and tk.
Thus (1) becomes
1/2
Lf'(tk')]2 + [g'(tk)]2 Atk (8)
k=1

Since tk and ta:, are distinct values in the interval Otk, the Fundamental
Theorem is not applicable to the limit of (8). For this reason it is
necessary to proceed in a different way. This we can do by observing
that 1/[f'(t)]2 + [g'(t)]2 is a continuous function of t, and so by
Theorem 3, Article 7, there are values tk and Ik that minimize and
maximize the function in each of the intervals Otk, that is,
i[J'(tk)]2 + [g'(tk)]2I1/2 < {[J'(/ )]2 + [g'(/ )]2}1/2
{[ '(lk)]2 + [g'(Ik)]2}1/2.
Now by the Fundamental Theorem we know that

lim {[f'kn2 + [g'(tk)]2 1/2 Otk = d /[f'(/)]2 + [g'(/)]2 dt

n->oo k=1
and
lim [[f'(lk)]2 + [g'(1k)]2 1/2 0/k = f d /[f'(t)]2 + [g'(/)]2 dt;
n--,oo k=1 JC
hence it follows by Theorem 2, Article 6, that

llm
n->oo k=1
V 'l/k)] 2 + [g'(tk)] 2 1/2 Otk =
fc
d v [J '(t)] 2 + [g'(t) ] 2 dt.

If the equation of the curve is given in polar coordinates, we can

show in the same manner as for equation (2) that

s=
0 fdr (9)
fB
J
r2 + d9 2 d9.

Example I. Find the length of the curve x = 2(2/ + 3)3/2, y = 3(1 + 1)2
from t= -1 tot=3.
Solution: For the given curve, we have dx/dt = 6(2/ + 3)1/2 and dy/dt =
6(t + 1) ; hence by (7)

s = f3 -N/36(2t + 3) + 36(t2 + 21 + 1) dt
Jr1
= x31 6(/+2)dt= [3(t +2)21=72.
13

Example 2. Find the length of the cardioid r = a cost 26.

264 Additional Applications of Integration
Solution: Since the entire curve is traced as 0 increases from 0 to 27r, we
have r' = -a sin 20 cos 20 and by (9)
f27r
S = ae cos4 20 + a2 sine cos2 dO
O 20 20
27T 17 27r
= a fo cos2 2B dO = a r0 cos 20 dB + a f (- cos 20) dO = 4a.

EXERCISE 65
Find the length of each of the following curves.
1. y = x1/ from x = 0 to x = 3. Ans. 27.
2. 3y = 2(x - 1)3/2 from x 1tox=4.
3. 3y=2(x2+ 1)3/2 from x0tox=3. 21.
4. y = In sec x from x = 0 to x = 31T.
5. x=Inyfrom y=4toy=3. 12+1n 2-
6. 2x = y2 from y=0toy=2.4.
7. 8x=y4+2y-efromy=1toy=2. 18.
8. x = In sin y from y = 3IT to y =
9. x=t3-3t, y=3t2from t=0tot=1. 4.
10. x= 3t3+t-1, y=2tfromt= 1 tot= 3.
I I . One arch of the cycloid x = a(¢ - sin 0), y = a(l - cos ¢). 8a.
12. x=sin0-¢cos¢, y=cos¢ +¢ sin jfrom j =0to 0=fir.
13. The circle r = a sin 0 + b cos 0. Ans. 7r1/a2 + b2.
14. The cardioid r = a(l + cos 0).
15. The entire curve r = a sin3 30. 27ra.
16. r= asec2 0from 0=0to0=27r.
17. 4y=2x2-lnxfromx=ltox=3. 4+1n3.
18. y=In(x2- 1)from x=2tox=3.
19. 6xy=x4+3fromx=ltox=3. 43.
20. 2y = sin x - In (sec x + tan x) from x = 0 to x = 47r.
21. y = In (ex + 1) - In (ex - 1) from x = 1 to x = 2. In (1 + e2) - 1.
22. The catenary y = 2a(ex/a + e-x/a) from x = -a to x = a.
23. The entire hypocycloid x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 6a.
24. Solve Problem 23, using the parametric equations of the curve x =
a cos3 0, y = a sin3 0.
25. The loop of the curve 9y2 = x(x - 3)2. Ans. 41/3.
26. The loop of the curve 9y2 = xe(2x + 3).
27. y= 1/1 -x2+In(1 - \/1 -x2) -lnxfrom x 2 to x 1.
Ans. In 2.
28. y= xe- 1 - 21n(x+ 1/x2- 1 ) from 1 tox= 3.
2x
29. x = In (sec 0 + tan ¢), y = In (csc ¢ - cot ¢) from q = 17T to = 3Tr.
Ans. In 3.
 Centroid and Moment of Inertia of Arc 265

30. r = a sec 0 tan 0 from 0 = 0 to 0 = fir.

31. Show that the total length of the ellipse x = 2 cos ¢, y = sin 0 is given
rn/2 J17

by 2 10 - 6 cos 20 do = N/10 - 6 cos 0 d0. Evaluate the

J 0
latter integral by Simpson's rule with n = 6. Ans. 9.69.
32. Using Simpson's rule, find the length of one arch of y = sin x.
33. What is the length from x = 0 to x = Z7r of the curve whose slope in
this region is given by dy/dx = 1/cos x? Ans. 2.
34. Find a curve that passes through the origin and is such that the length
of the curve from the origin to the point P(x,y) of the curve is given by
s=x2+2x-y.
108. Centroid and Moment of Inertia of Arc
Let the arc AB of a curve be divided into n parts as shown in
Figure 117, and let (xk, yk) be any point on the kth segment of arc
ASk. In accordance with the definition of
centroids for areas and volumes, we define the
centroid of an arc as the point (z,y) de-
termined by the relations
n B
Sz = lim I xk ASk = x ds,
n->oo k=1 jA (1)
n
lim y ds,
Sy
n-aoo k=1
yk ASk
fA

where A and B refer to appropriate end point

limits and ds assumes one of the arc length
forms discussed in the preceding article. Figure 118

Illustration. Consider the semicircular arc of radius a as shown in

Figure 118. Selecting for the circle the polar equation r = a, we have
dr/d0 = 0; hence ds = 1/r2 + r'2 dO = a d0. Substituting in the first
equation of (1), we obtain
1r/2
(7ra)z = (a cos 0) (a d0) = 2a2.
J-n/2
2a 2 = 2a,
Thus x = and, because of symmetry, y = 0.
Tra Tr

In the same manner the moments of inertia of an arc with respect

to the coordinate axes are defined by the relations
266 Additional Applications of Integration
n JBy2
Ix = lim yk Ask = ds,
n---w k=1 A

(2)
n g
Iy = lm = x2 ds,
n-k=1 L

Example. Find Ix for one arch of the cycloid x = a(o - sin 0), y =
all - cos 0).
Solution: Since dx/do = a(l - cos 0) and dy/do = a sin 0, we obtain
ds = Va2(1 - cos 0)2 + a2 sin2 0 do = a\/2(1 - cos 0) do.
Thus, using (2) for one half of the cycloid and doubling the result, we have

Ix = 2 [a(1 - cos o)]2[a-x/2(1 - cos 0) do].

0

Now using the trigonometric identity 1 - cos 2 sin2 20, and then
substituting 0 for 20, we obtain
/2
Ix = 16a3 fo sin5 10 do = 32a3 fo sins 0 d0.

Hence, by the Wallis formula, page 501, we find Ix = 1 be a3.

EXERCISE 66
For each of the following arcs find the centroidal coordinate indicated.
I. 3y 4x from x = 0 to x = 3; y. Ans. 2.
2. 9y2 = 4x3 from x = 0 to x = 3; x.
3. The first-quadrant arc of the circle r = a; x. 2a/ir.
4. 8y = x4 + 2x-2 from x = 1 to x = 2; x.
5. 3x = 2(y - 1)3/2 from y = 1 to y = 4; y. 3s
6. 6xy=x4+3from x= 1 tox=2; y.
7. The first-quadrant arc of the hypocycloid x = a-cos3 0, y = a sin3 0;
x. Ans. 2a/5.
8. X = t3 + 3t-1, y = 6t from t = l to t = 3 ; y.
9. x=t3-12t, y=6t2from t=0tot=1; y. 138
65
10. The catenary y = 2a(ex/a + e-x/a) from x = -a to x = a; y.
For each of the following arcs find the moment of inertia indicated.
11. Arc of Problem 1; Iy. Ans. 15.
12. 3y = (2 + x2)3/2 from x = 0 to x = 1; ly.
 Area of a Surface of Revolution 267

13. 4x = 2y2 - In y from y = 2 toy = 4; Ix. Ans. qi.

14. Arc of Problem 3; Ix.
I5. Y = ex from x = 0 to x = In 7; I. 248\/2/3.
16. Arc of Problem 6; Iy.
17. Arc of Problem 5; I.
18. Arc of Problem 8; I.
19. Arc of Problem 7; Iy. 3a3/8.
20. y= 1-x2-1- In (1-1/1-x2)-Inx from x=l to x = 3; Iy.

109. Area of a Surface of Revolution

Let the arc AB of the curve shown in Figure 117 be revolved about
the x axis generating a surface of revolution. In a manner similar to
that used in defining the length of the
arc AB, we define the area S of the sur-
face of revolution to be the limit of
the area generated by the broken line
AP1P2 . .Pn_1B as n ---> oo and each
segment tends toward zero.
Let the interval from a to b be
divided into n parts 0x1, 0x2, , Oxn,

and let ordinates Yk = f (xk) be erected

at the points of division. Then con- p X_
1 Xk
k
struct the broken line joining the points
where these ordinates meet the curve. Figure 119
When the arc AB is revolved about the
x axis, each of the chords, such as the one shown in Figure 119, will
generate the lateral area of a frustum of a cone. Since the lateral area
of a frustum of a right circular cone is
7r(rl + r2)l, (1)

where rl, r2 are the radii of the bases, and l is the slant height, it
follows from (1) that the area generated by Pk-lPk has the value
1/2
'7T(yk-1 + yk) [(xk)2 + (Dyk) 2 (2)

However, by the law of the mean, Dyk = f (xk) - f (xk-1) = f'(xk) AXk,
where xk-1 < xk < Xk. Hence (2) can be written
1/2
[{ { Oxk.
J (xk-1) + f (xk)] 1 + [J '(xk)]2 (3)
268 Additional Applications of Integration
The sum of the expressions (3) for k = 1, 2, , n can be written in
two parts as
n 1/2
Sn = / {/
(xk-1) 1 + If' (xk)] 2 Oxk
k=1
1/2 Qxk.
+ 7Tf (xk) 1+ U /
U ' (xk)] 2
k=1
Each of these is a sum to which the theorem of Bliss applies, and they
each have the same limit ; therefore
b
S = lim f (x)1/1 + U'(x)]2 dx.
S,, = 27r (4)
fa
n-*ao

The formula (4) can be written in the more general form

B
S = 2n f y ds, (5)
A

where A and B refer to appropriate end point limits and ds assumes one
of the arc length forms discussed in Article 107.
In a similar manner the area of a surface of revolution about the y
axis is given by the integral
B
S = 2n x ds. (6)
A

Example. Find the area of the surface of revolution generated by

revolving one arch of the curve y = sin x about the x axis.
Solution: Since y = sin x, we have y' = cos x and ds = 1/l + cost x dx.
Observing that the limits A = 0 and B = ?1r give one-half of the required
area, by means of (5) and the substitution cos x = z, we obtain

= 1:12 sin x 1 + cost x dx = - Vi+

_
= 47r [zVi + z2 +
z2)11

In (z + 1/1 + = 27r[V + In (1 + V-2)].

2 Jo
A comparison of (5) and (6) with equation (1) of the preceding
article gives the following result.
First Theorem of Pappus. If a plane arc is revolved about a coplanar
axis not crossing the arc, the area of the surface generated is equal to the
product of the length of the arc by the circumference of the circle described
by the centroid of the arc. Symbolically, for surfaces of revolution about
the coordinate axes, we have
Sx = 27tys, S Y = 2nxs.
 Exercise 269

Illustration. Revolving a circle of radius a about a tangent line, we

generate a surface whose area is S = 27r(a) (27ra) = 47r2a2.

EXERCISE 67
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving each of the following
arcs about the x axis.
I . 3y = 4x from x = 0 to x = 3. Ans. 207x.
2. 9y=x3from x=0tox=2.
3. The circle x2 + y2 = a2. 47ra2.
4. y2=4xfrom x=0 to x = 3.
5. X = 13 - 3t, y = 3t2 from t = 0 to t = 1. 587x.
6. The hypocycloid x = a cos3 c, y = a sin3 q.
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving each of the following
arcs about the y axis.
7. y = x2 from x = 0 to x = S. Ans. 3jk3 _q
75 7T-
8. y = 3(1 + x2)3/2 from x = 0 to x = 2.
9. 4y = 2x2 - In x from x = 1 to x = 4. 2 7T.
10. y=ln(x2- 1)fromx=2tox=3.
II. x31(t-2), y=813/2 from t = 0 to t = 1. 397T.
12. x=cos+ !sin 0to9= err.
Using the theorem of Pappus, find the total area generated by revolving
the following arcs about the indicated axis.
13. A rectangle of sides a and b about side a. Ans. 27rb(a + b).
14. An equilateral triangle of side a about an altitude.
5. A square with sides a about a line b (> a) units from its center.
Ans. 87rab.
16. A circle of radius a about a line 2a units from its center.
17. The hypocycloid x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 about the line x + y = a. (See
Problem 23, Exercise 65.) Ans. 6\/27ra2.
18. The semicircle x = 1/a2 - y2 about the line x = a. (See illustration,
Article 108.)
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the given arcs about
the axis indicated.
19. Lemniscate r2 = 2a2 cos 20 about the x axis. Ans. 41ra2(2 - 1/2).
20. Lemniscate r2 = 2a2 cos 20 about the y axis.
21. Cardioid r = a(l + cos 0) about the x axis. 5 7ra2.
22. Arc of the spiral r = e8 from 0 = 0 to 0 = 7r about the x axis.
23. Loop of 9y2 = x(3 - x)2 about the x axis. 37r.
24. Loop of 3y2 = x2(1 - x) about the x axis.
25. 4x2 + 3y2 = 3 about the x axis. 27r(4 + 3 In 3).
270 Additional Applications of Integration
26. 6xy = x4 + 3 from x = 1 to x = 2 about the x axis.
27. y= Za(ezla + a-X/a) from x = 0 to x = a about the y axis.
Ans. 27ra2(1 - e-1).
28. x = 3 cos 0, y = 5 sin 0 from c = 0 to q = IT about the x axis.
29. One arch of the cycloid x = a(9 - sin 0), y = all - cos 0) about the
x axis. Ans. 3 7ra2.
30. The arc of Problem 29 from 0 = 0 to 0 = 7r about the y axis.
31. Using Simpson's rule, find the area of the surface generated by revolving
y = cos x from x = 0 to x = 2 about the y axis. Ans. 10.07.
32. Using Simpson's rule, find the area of the surface generated by revolving
y = 4x4 from x = 0 to x = 1 about the y axis.

110. Volumes of Solids with Known Cross Sections

Let us consider a solid which has bases in the planes x = a and
x = b, and has other bounding surfaces such that the cross-sectional
area of the solid in a plane
perpendicular to the x axis is
a function A (x) of the distance
X.
If we divide the solid into n
slices by planes perpendicular to
the x axis, we see as in Article 31
that the volume of an inter-
mediate slice is approximately
d V = A (x) dx,
and by the Fundamental Theo-
Figure 120
rem, we obtain
b
V= A(x) dx.
a

Illustration. If in Figure 120 the equation of BC is xy = 4 and PP'P" is

an isosceles right triangle, it follows that A(x) = 1y2 and the volume of the
solid from x = 1 to x = 4 is
14
V = I fi4 (4)2 dx = 81 - = 6.
\x/ L x1
Example 1. A solid has a circular base of radius a. Find the volume of
the solid if every plane section perpendicular to one diameter of the base is
a square.
 Exercise 271

Solution: Placing the solid as shown in Figure 121 with the known
sections perpendicular to the y axis, we obtain A(y) = 4x2 = 4(a2 - y2) and

V = f aaA(y) dy = 4 f aa (a2 - y2) dy = 38a3.

Find the volume of the solid bounded by the paraboloid

Example 2.
x2 + 4y2 = z and the plane z = 4.

Figure 121 Figure 122

A(z) = 7r(/i)(21/z) and

2
.
Solution: One quarter of the given solid is shown in Figure 122. We
observe that every section perpendicular to the z axis is an ellipse, and at
height z the semiaxes of the ellipse are Vz- and
Since the area of an ellipse is 7T times the product of the semiaxes, we have

V= A (z) dz = err fo z dz = 4rr.

I

EXERCISE 68
I. A variable square whose plane is perpendicular to the x axis has one
vertex on the x axis and the opposite vertex on the curve xy = 4. Find
the volume of the solid generated as the square moves from x = 1 to
x = 4. Ans. 6.
2. A variable square whose plane is perpendicular to the x axis has two
adjacent vertices on the circle x2 + y2 = a2. Find the volume of the
solid generated as the square moves from x = -a to x = a.
3. Solve Problem 2 if the square is replaced by an equilateral triangle.
Ans. a/ a3.
272 Additional Applications of Integration
4. A variable square whose plane is perpendicular to the y axis has one
vertex on the y axis and the opposite vertex on the parabola y2 = 4x.
Find the volume of the solid generated as the square moves from y = 0
to y = 4.
5. A solid has an elliptical base with a major axis of 18 inches and a minor
axis of 12 inches. Find the volume of the solid if every section perpen-
dicular to the major axis is (a) a square, (b) an equilateral triangle.
Ans. (a) 1728 cu. in., (b) 4321/3 cu. in.
6. A solid has a circular base of radius 10 inches. Find the volume of the
solid if every section perpendicular to one diameter is an isosceles
triangle whose base is a chord of the circle and whose height is 8 inches.
7. A variable square whose plane is perpendicular to the x axis has two
adjacent vertices on the parabola y2 = 4ax. Find the volume of the
solid generated as the square moves from x = 0 to x = a. Ans. M.

8. Solve Problem 7 if the plane of the square is perpendicular to the y axis

and the adjacent vertices are on the curves y2 = 4ax and x = a,
respectively.
9. A variable square whose plane is perpendicular to the x axis has one
vertex on the curve y = sin x and an adjacent vertex on the parabola
y = x(, - x). Find the volume of the solid generated as the square
moves from x = 0 to x = 77. Aus. 0(7r5 + 157r - 240).
10. Find the volume of the wedge-shaped solid cut from a right circular
cylinder of radius 10 inches by a plane passing through a diameter of
the base at an angle of 45° with the base.
11. A variable square whose plane is perpendicular to the x axis has the
mid-points of two opposite sides on the curve x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3. Find
the volume of the solid generated as the square moves from x = 0 to
x = a. Ans. i Sa3.
12. The axes of two right circular cylinders of equal radius a intersect at
right angles. Find the volume common to the cylinders.
Find the volumes bounded by the following surfaces. *
13. y2 + 4z2 = x, x = 2. Ans. 7r.
14. 4x2+9z2=36y, y=4.
15. X2 + y2 + z2 = a2, z = Ja, z = a. z ra3.
16. 4x2+y2=z2+16, z=0, z=3.
17. 4x2 + y2 = z2 - 16, z = 5. 837x.
18. x2+4y2=z2, z = 0, z = 4.
19. X2 + 4y2 + 9z2 = 36. 487x.
20. x+y=z2, x=0, y=0, z=0, z=2.
21. Find the volume of the solid of Problem 13, using the prismoidal formula.
Ans. IT.
* See Article 147 for the sketching of surfaces.
 Average Value 273

22. Find the volume of the solid of Problem 19, using the prismoidal formula.
23. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surface x2 + 4y2 + z4 = 1.
Ans. ir.
xz 2 z2
24. Show that the volume of the ellipsoid + b2 + = 1 is 37rabc.
a2 c2

III. Average Value

Consider the curve y = f (x) with ordinates yi, y2, y3, , yn spaced
at intervals of width Ax from x = a to x = b. The arithmetic average
of these ordinates is
y1 +y2 +y3 +'''+yn (1)
n
and the limit yx approached by this expression as n increases without
limit is called the average value of y with respect to x for the interval
(a,b). Multiplying the numerator and denominator of (1) by Ax and
using the Fundamental Theorem, we obtain the formula

bdx
yx- JayJay b

f b
dx
-b-a
a

Illustration. The average ordinate for one arch of the curve y = sin x
with respect to x is

yx= _O I1

o
n
sin xdx=2
In general the average value of one variable it with respect to
another variable v is defined by the relation
- fB
u dv
A (2)
dv

where u and v are to be expressed in terms of a common variable, and

A and B refer to appropriate limits.
Note: Observe that (zs,ys) and (xA,yA) are the coordinates of the
respective centroids for an arc s and an area A.
Example. The velocity of a body, falling from rest is given by v = 32t or
v = 64s, where s = 16t2. As v increases from 0 to 96 feet per second, find
the average velocity with respect to (a) the time t, (b) the distance s.
274 Additional Applications of Integration
Solution: (a) Froin v = 32t and v = 96, we find t = 3. Hence, by
substitution in (2), we obtain
_ 1 3
vt
3 __O f
o
(321) dt = 48 ft./sec.

(b) From v = 64s and v = 96, we find s = 144. Hence, by sub-

stitution in (2), we obtain
144
vs = 64s) ds = 64 ft./sec.
144 - 0 J0 (

EXERCISE 69
I. Find the average ordinate of the curve y = x2, from x = 0 to x = 6,
with respect to x. Ans. 12.
2. In Problem 1, find the average abscissa with respect to y.
3. Find the average ordinate of the curve y = Sin-1 x, from x = 0 to
x = 1, with respect to x. Ans. 27T - 1.
4. Find the average ordinate of the curve x = 13 - 3t, y = 3t2, from
t = 0 to t = 3, with respect to x.
5. In Problem 4, find the average ordinate with respect to s, the distance
along the curve. Ans. 14.4.
6. Find the average slope of the curve y = sin x, from x = 0 to x = err,
with respect to x.
7. Find the average volume of a sphere with respect to the radius as the
radius increases from 3 feet to 6 feet. Ans. 1357T cu. ft.
8. At constant temperature the relation between the volume and pressure
of a gas is given by PV = C, where C is a constant. Find the average
pressure with respect to the volume as the volume changes from Vl
to V2-
9. The position of a moving particle on a straight line is given by s = t3 +
3t2, where t denotes the time. Find the average velocity and the
average acceleration of the particle with respect to t, during the time
interval t = 1 to t = 3. Ans. 25, 18.
10. A particle moves along a straight line with a velocity given by v =
12 + 1, where t denotes the time. Find the average velocity with
respect to the distance traversed during the interval t = 0 to t = 3.
I. Find the average width of the loop of y2 = x2(9 - x) with respect to x.
Ans. 5 .
12. If the loop of Problem 11 is revolved about the x axis, find the average
cross-sectional area with respect to x.
13. Find the average cross section of a sphere with respect to a diameter.
Ans. 3irr2.
14. For the cardioid r = a(l + cos 0), find the average value of r with
respect to 0.
 Exercise 275

15. For one leaf of the rose r = 2 sin 20, find the average value of r with
respect to 0. Ans. 4/Ir.
16. For one ai,:h of the cycloid x = a(0 - sin 0), y = all - cos 0), find
the average ordinate with respect to (a) x, (b) s.
17. Rectangles are inscribed in the circle x2 + y2 = a2. Find the average
value of their areas, if their vertical sides are equally spaced along the
x axis. Ans. 3a2.
18. A solid semiellipsoid has a base with semiaxes of 2 and 3, and an
altitude of 4. Find its centroid.
19. When a liquid flows through a pipe of radius a, the velocity v of the
liquid at a distance x from the axis of the pipe is vo(l - x2/a2), where
vo is the velocity along the axis. What is the average value of the
velocity with respect to the cross-sectional area? Ans. 2vo.

20. A particle of mass m moves on a straight line in simple harmonic

motion, x = a cos co t, where a and co are constants. For one oscil-
lation, find the average value of its kinetic energy, 2mv2, with respect
to the time t. Show that this result equals one-half the maximum
kinetic energy.
 CHAPTER I5

Infinite Series

112. Sequences and Series

A succession of numbers formed according to some fixed rule is called
a sequence of numbers. Thus
1, 4, 9, 16, 25,

is a sequence having the rule that the nth term is given by n2.
The indicated sum of a sequence of numbers is called a series.
Thus, for the sequence u1, u2, u3, , un, , the corresponding series is
U1 + u2 + u3 + . . . + Un '+' (1)

A series is said to be finite if the number of terms is limited, and

infinite if the number of terms is unlimited.
A general term of a series is an expression involving n, such that
by taking n = 1, 2, 3, , one obtains the first, second, third, term
of the series.
Illustration. If tin = n/(2n - 1), we have
ul _ 1
u2
_ 2
2l3
3
un+1
n+ 1
2(1) 1' 22 1' =23 1' = 2(n + 1) - 1
and the infinite series is
1.+3.+5+...+2nn
1+2n-} 1
+...
If the first few terms of a series are known, a form of the general
term may be found by expressing the terms u1, u2, u3, as functions
of the indices 1, 2, 3,
Example. Find an nth term of the series
2 3

276
 Theorems on Convergence 277

Solution: Since
(-x)(1)-1 (-x)(2)-1 (-x)(3)-1 (-x)(4)-1
ul = , u2 =
(2)!
u3 = 1tq =
(1)! (3)! (4)!
it follows that
It n =
n!

Note: A few terms of a series cannot determine the general term

uniquely. Thus, in the above example, if f (n) is an arbitrary function of n
subject to the conditions that f (1) = f (2) = f (3) = f (4) = 0, for example,
f (n) - (n - 1) (n - 2) (n - 3) (n - 4), the general term could be
= (-nn-1
un +f(n)
113. Convergent and Divergent Series
Let the sequence S1, S2, . . , Sn, denote the respective partial
sums of the series (1) of the preceding article, that is,
S 1 = 111, S 2 = U1 + U2, 2, S 3 = u 1+ u 2+ u 3, ... .
An infinite series is said to converge or be convergent if the
partial sums S. have a definite limit S as n ->- oo ; otherwise the series is
said to diverge or be divergent. The limiting value S for a con-
vergent series is called the " sum" of the series.
Illustration 1. For the infinite geometric series
a + ar + ar2 + ... + ayn-1 + .. . (1)

we have by 22, page 2,

Sn=a+ar+...+arn-1
= a
1-r
- ayn
1-r
If In < 1, as n increases without limit, yn approaches zero, Sn approaches
the limit a/(1 - r), and hence the series (1) is convergent.
Illustration 2. Consider the series 1 - 1 + 1 - 1 + - .. If n is even,
Sn is 0. If n is odd, Sn is 1. As n increases without limit Sn does not
approach a definite limit, but oscillates between 0 and 1. Hence the series
diverges. Such a series is called an oscillating series.

114. Theorems on Convergence

In developing practicable methods for establishing the convergence
and divergence of series, considerable use is made of the following
theorem, often called the fundamental theorem on convergence.
278 Infinite Series

Theorem I. If an infinite series of positive terms is such that Sn

always remains less than some constant K, the series converges and its
sum S is not greater than K.
We are not in a position to prove this theorem rigorously, but some
intuitive considerations may help in understanding and appreciating the
result. Since the terms of the series are positive, we know that the
partial sums increase as it increases, that is, Sn+1 > S. Since, how-
ever, Sn is always less than K, it appears evident that there must exist
some smallest value S such that no S. is greater than S, but that some
integer N exists such that SN is greater than S - E, where E is any
positive number. However, Sn is an increasing sequence, so if
SN > S - E, then Sn > S - E for all n > N. By the definition of a
limit, this means that
lim Sn = S,
n-+ 00

and hence that the series converges.

For a convergent series we have the following result.
Theorem 2. If a series is convergent, the nth term must approach zero
as n increases without limit.
Proof: Let the convergent series
1u1 + 112 + 4c3 +...+ un +...
have the sum S. Since 1cn = Sn - Sn_1, it follows that
lim un= lim (Sn-Sn-1) = S - S = 0.
n_>1o0 71--> 00

The above theorem states a necessary condition for convergence, but

not a sufficient condition. That is, the fact that the nth term of a
series approaches zero as n increases without limit does not mean that
the series is convergent.
Illustration I. Consider the harmonic series
1+2+n+4+...+n+.... (1)

It is apparent that
1+2>2=4,
1 1 2 _ 1

+4>4 2'
1 1 1 1 _
4 _ 1

5+ + 7+ 8> 8 2'

8 1
1

9 + 10
1
+--.+ 1 1

15 + 66 > 16 2'
 The Integral Test 279

Adding the corresponding sides for k groups, we have

1 +2+3+...+Zk . (2)

Taking the limit as k -* oo, it follows from (2) that (1) increases with-
out limit. Thus the harmonic series is divergent even though its nth
term does approach zero as n --} oo.
Corollary. If the nth tern of an infinite series does not approach zero
as n increases without limit, the series is divergent.
Proof: Since lim it. = 0 is a necessary condition for convergence,
lim it,, = c 0 implies that the series is divergent.
n
Illustration 2. The series 1 + 3 + 5 -E + 1+ is divergent,
2n
since
n _ 1
lim un = lim 2n - 1 2
n--). 00 n-+ o0

It follows from the definitions that the convergence or divergence of

a series is not changed when each term is multiplied by a constant
non-zero number. Thus the series 2 + 4 + s + is divergent, since
it equals (1 + 1 + 3 + ) and the series 1 + 2 + 3 + is di-
2
vergent.
Example. If co Uk is a series of positive numbers converging to S, show
k=1
00

that k uk converges.
k=1
00

Solution: Since uk converges, it follows by Theorem 2 that un --> 0

k=1
as n -- oo. This means that there must exist some number N such that,
for all n > N, we have u,, < 1. Hence, for n > N, we obtain
n n
2tik < 1 uk < S.
k=N k=N
n
Since the partial sums S _ uk increase as n increases, and are never
k=1
N-1 00
greater than S + > uk, it follows by Theorem 1 that uk converges.
k=1 k=1

115. The Integral Test

If u(n) denotes the nth tern un of the series of positive terms
u1 + U2 + U3 + ... + Un + .. . (1)

and if u(x) is a positive, decreasing, continuous function for x greater than

280 Infinite Series

some positive integer m, then the series (1) converges or diverges according
as the integral,
cc
u(x) dx (2)
Sm
does or does not exist.
Proof : If the integral (2) exists and equals U, we can prove the
convergence of the series (1) as follows. Draw a graph of y = u(x) and
inscribe rectangles of unit width as shown in
Figure 123.
It follows from this construction that
the areas of the rectangles are um+1, um+2,
Ztm+3, , and if Ak denotes the sum of
the first k rectangles, we have
Ak I m+k 00
m m+ 2m+3 X
u(x) dx f u(x) dx = U.
m Jm
Figure 123 Since Ak increases as k increases but is
never greater than U, by Theorem 1,
Article 114, we have
lim A k = A U.
co

Hence (1) converges and has the sum S = it, + u2 + + Um + A.

The second part of the theorem may be proved in a similar manner
by using a series of circumscribed rectangles of unit width.

Illustration. The series -}- + + + is divergent, since

2
u(n) = n/(n2 + 1) and
f 0° x dx _
x2+1 2x
lim In (x2 + 1) - In 2 = oo.

Example. Investigate the convergence of the p series

1 1 1
1 +Z+3p+-+...+-+.... (p > 0.)

Solution: Since u(n) = 1/nP, we have

1
lm
P x-cc
-1 1

J)
J dx
When p > 1, (1 - p) is negative and x1P approaches zero as x -- oo.
Hence in this case the integral has a definite value and the series converges.
When 5 < 1, (1 - ) is positive and x1P --- oo as x -- oo. Hence the series
diverges for < 1.
 Exercise 281

When P = 1, we have from

I 00 dx lim In x = oo.
J1 x X--* 00

another proof (see Article 114) that the harmonic series is divergent.

EXERCISE 70
Find the first three terms and the (n + 1)st term of the series whose nth
term is as follows.
2n 2 2 2n+1
I . n(n + 1 ) Ans. 1 ,
3' 3 (n + 1) (n + 2)
2.
1/3n - 1
(-1)n(2nXn +1

3. (_1)n-1(2n)! 21) 63,

+2)I
1)n-1 2n - 1
4.
n(n + 2)
Find an nth term for each of the following series.
5. 1+14 9
+1+ls+...
Ans. 1/n2.
4 6
6.
3
of + +2i +3 +....
5

3 5 7 9
1)n-1 2n + 1 .
7.
12 3.4+5.6-7 88+ (2n - 1)2n
3
8. 1-4i+T -1o +... 2

Determine a general term for each of the following series, and test your
series for divergence, using the corollary in Article 114.
9. 2 + s + s + I 11 +... 10. 1+4+1+ 9+
1 1 . 7 + 9 + 11 + 1 3 + . .. 1 2. IF 5+10-17+ .

Using the integral test, determine which of the following series are
convergent.

13. 1 +3+5+...+2n1 1
+... Ans. Divergent.

14. 16+36+...+4n2+...
4+
1 1 1
5. 1+ 1/_n + . .
Divergent.

16. 2+5+ 10 +...+ 1 1

n2 +...
+
282 Infinite Series

17.
1

2+6+
1 1 1
12+...+n(n+ +... Ans. Convergent.
1)
18. e-1 + 2e-2 + 3e-3 + ... + ne-n + .
1 1 1 1
19.
3 + 1+
5 35
{_... +
4n-2-
Convergent.

20.
2n + 3 +
+4n2- 1
21. Convergent.

22. 1+ 2+3+ n
23.
In 2
2+ In 3
3 + 4 .+...+
In 4 In n
Divergent.
11 +
1 2 3
2+9+28+...+n3+1
n
24.

4
25. 2+9+28
1
+...+n3+n21 +.....
Q
Divergent.

26.
2 5 1
10+...+.n(n+n + 3 +....
3 +24+ 1)(n+2)
27. 3 + 2(3)2 + 3(3)3 + . . + n(3)n + . . . .
Convergent.
28.
1

21n2+31n3+41n4+
1 1
+n-Inn +...'
1

1 7r 1 rr 1 7T
29. sin 77- + - sin +- sin +- . + sin - + Convergent.
2 9 n2 n

30. sin ,r + 2 sin 2 + 4 sin 4 +

CO
+ -
1
sin 2n +

31. If tin > 0 for all it and a-n converges, give examples for which the
n=1
00 CO

following series diverge: (a) 1/un, (b) nun.

n=1 n=1
00
32. If un > 0, un 1 for all n and un converges, prove that the follow-
n=1
1cn 00
un
ing series are convergent: (a) (b)
n=1 1 + un n=1 1 - un
33. If un > 0 for all it, un converges and cn -> 0 as n --> oo, show that
n=1
W
cnun converges.
n=1
CO CO

34. If tin > 0 for all n and un converges, show that un/n converges.
n=1 =1
Hint : Consider (1i - 1 / n) 2 >_ 0.
 Comparison Tests 283

35. Use the methods of proof of the integral test for P > I to show that
1 °° 1 1

(b - 1)nP 1 < k=n 1ep < (p - 1)(n - 1)P-1

36. Let S1 = 1, S2 = 3, and S. = :z (Sn_1 + Sn_2), n = 3, 4, 5, Is the
sequence Sn increasing or decreasing? To what value does Sn con-
verge? Hint: Show that Sn+1 + iSn is invariant.
1
37. For every integer n > 1, show that 2 < 1 + z + 3 + ... +
2n - 1
< n. Hint: Use the method of Illustration 1, Article 114.
38. If {an} is a sequence of numbers such that for n >_ 1, (2 - an)an+1 = 1,
prove that an -* 1 as n -> oo.

116. Comparison Tests

Another procedure for determining the convergence or divergence
of a series is to compare the given series with a series whose con-
vergence or divergence is known.
Consider the following two series of positive terms:
(A) al + a2 + a3 + + an + ... ,
(U) u1 + u2 + u3 + " - + Un + .
Theorem 1. If (A) converges to a limit A and if each term of (U) is
less than or equal to the corresponding term of (A), then (U) converges.
Proof: Let
Since itm 5 am for m = 1, 2, 3, , we have Un < An for all values of
n. Hence, taking the limit as n - oo, we obtain
lim Un < lira A n = A.
n-- ao n->.ao

Thus (U) converges by Theorem 1, Article 114.

Theorem 2. If (A) diverges and if each term of (U) is greater than or
equal to the corresponding term of (A), then (U) diverges.
Proof: If (U) were a convergent series, then, since Un > an, it
would follow from Theorem 1 that (A) converges. This, however,
contradicts the hypothesis that (A) diverges. Hence (U) must be
divergent.
Note: Observe that the convergence or divergence of a series is un-
affected by the omission or addition of a finite number of terms, since such
an alteration merely changes the limiting value by a constant amount.
Although any series whose convergence or divergence is known may
be used as a comparison series, the following are particularly useful.
284 Infinite Series

Comparison series for convergence:

a+ar+ar2+...+arn-1+... (a >0, 0 <r< 1).
+Zp+3p+...+np+... (p>1).
Comparison series for divergence:
a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn-1 + ... (a > 0, r >_ 1).

1 +2+3+...+n+.. .
1 1 1

Example I. Determine the convergence or divergence of the following

series by a comparison test
1 1 1 1
1.3+244+3-5+...+n(n+2)+...,

Solution: Consider the j5 series which, for P = 2, is known to converge

1+
1

22
+ 32 +...+ 1

n2
+...
Comparing the respective nth terms of the series, we see that
1 1
112 + 2n < n2.

for all positive integral values of it. Hence, by Theorem 1, the given series
converges.
Example 2. Determine the convergence or divergence of the following
series by a comparison test
2 3 4 n+ 1 +
44+3-5+...+n(n+2)
1.3+2
Solution: Considering the nth term of the given series, we see that for
all positive integral values of n
n+1 n+1 1 1

n(n+2) n n+2>n+2
However, the series
3+4+5+...+n+2+...
1 1 1 1

is known to diverge. Hence, by Theorem 2, the given series diverges.

Example 3. Prove that the series : f

n dx - 1 is convergent.
,=.. n-1 X n
 Ratio Test 285

Solution: Since 11x is a decreasing function of x for x > 0, it follows, as

in the proof of the integral test, that
1 I it dx 1

n< n-1 x <n-1 (1)

Subtracting 1/n from each term of (1), we have

0<<n_1
n dx _ 1 1 1

x it<n(n-1) <(n-1)2
Thus, by comparison with the p series for p = 2, the given series is con-
vergent.

117. Ratio Test

In a series of positive terms
4t1 + U2 + U3 + ... + 4tn + 2tn+1 + .. . (1)

suppose that
un+1
lim = R.
n->oo un
Then
1. if R < 1, the series converges,
II. if R > 1, the series diverges,

III. if R = 1, the test fails.

Proof: I. Since R < 1, there exists some number r between R and
1. Also since the ratio 4tn+1/u approaches R as n increases without
limit, there must be a term in the series, say the kth, such that for
n >_ k all ratios un+1/2tn are less than r. Thus we have
2tk+1
< r, or uk+1 < ruk,
uk
16k+2
< r, or 26k+2 < ruk+1 < r2uk,

2tk+3
< r, or 4tk+3 < rutk+2 < r31tk,
2tk+2
.................................
Hence each term of the series
4tk+1 + 2tk+2 + itk+3 + + 4tk+m + (2)

is less than the corresponding term of

4tkr + 4tkr2 + 4tkr3 + ... + Ukrm + . . (3)
286 Infinite Series

However, (3) is convergent, since it is a geometric series with r < 1.

Therefore, by comparison, (2) is also convergent, as is (1) by the addition
of the constant sum it, + u2 + + Uk.
II. When R > 1, it follows from the definition of a limit that there
is a term in the series (1), say the kth, such that for it >_ k all ratios
ltn+l/Un are greater than 1; that is, the terms get larger. Hence
lim un is not zero and the series diverges.
n-* o0

Note: Observe that the above proof is valid when Un+i/utn increases
without limit as n -> oo. Hence a series is divergent if
lim stn+l/2tn = 00.
n--* co

III. The failure of the test when R = 1 is illustrated by the p

series. For this series the test ratio is
2tn+1 _ (it + 1 y j _ (1 -
Un

and its limit as it -> oo is always 1 regardless of the fixed value of p.

We know, however, that the P series converges when p > 1 and di-
verges when P < 1. Hence, when R = 1, the ratio test fails to
determine whether the series is convergent or divergent, and other tests
must be used.

Illustration I. The series 2 + 2, + 23 + +n22 + is conver-

gent since
n + 2 n + 3
Un = un+1 = 2n+1'
2n

and

lim un+1 = lim 1 it +3 1

n--* ao un n-*oo 2n+2 2

1I I
3 I I

Illustration 2. The series is diver-

10 + 103 + 105 102n-1 +
gent, since
n! (n + 1)!
Un = 102n-1 un+1 = 102n+1'
and
lim din+1 = lim it + 1 _ cc
n->ao Ytn n-->ao 100
 Exercise 287

EXERCISE 71
Determine the convergence or divergence of the following series, using a
comparison test.

+ + + Ans. Convergent.
12 2.22+ 3.2 3+ 2n

2. +2n-1+..

1
3. + (2n) n+ Convergent.

4.
1.2 + 3.4 + 5.6 +
+(2n-1)2n+ 1

1 1 1 1
+ Divergent.

: 2n +
5.
V =4 + 6=+
3 4 5 n+ 2
+...+ n(n+
6.
1.2 + 2 33 + 3 4 1) +

7.
1 + 1n2 + fn-3
+...+ inn +... Divergent.
1 1 1 1

8. 1 23+234+345+ +n(n+1)(n+2)
1 1 1 1

2 + 31 + 473 + + (n + 1)17n + Convergent.

9.

10. 2sinir + 22sin i + 23 sin 3 + + Znsinn +

Determine the convergence or divergence of the following series, using

the ratio test. If the ratio test fails, use a comparison test.
1 1 1
II. 1 + 1 + 1 1 +- . Ans. Convergent.
2! 3! n!

12.
2
3 + 33 2 + 43 3 +...+ n+1
3n +.. .

1 1 1 1
13. Convergent.
T. + 3.5 + 5.7 + . . . + (2n - 1) (2n + 1) +
2n1)7rn + .. .
14. 2 + 3j2 + 5T3 + ... + (2n

15. 1 1 + + + + Divergent.
1/1.2 + 172.3 1/3.4 1)

16. 4 5 6 } ... + n+3 + .. .

1.2.3 + 2.3.4 + 3.4.5 n(n + 1)(n + 2)
17.
2t 4! 6!
+ ... + (2n)!
(! + .. . Divergent.
(1!)2 + (211)2 + (31)2
288 Infinite Series

+ ...+ 1 + .. .

+.2
1 8. n2
1 ± 12 + 1 + 2 2 + 1 + 3 2 +
1
19. + 1 + 1/e + + 1+n +'' ' Ans. Divergent.
1+e+1 +1 e

1.2 1.2.3
20.
1
+...+. 1.3.5 n!
T + 1 . 33 + 1 3 5 ... (2n - 1)
Prove the following theorem which is known as the limit test.
Theorem. If >un is a series of positive terms and if a real constant p
exists such that
lim npun = K > 0, (1)
n--> 00

the given series will be convergent when p > 1 and divergent when p < 1.
Hint: Consider first the case p > 1. Let k be a constant greater
than K. From (1) it follows that there is some term of the series, say
the rth, such that for n >_ r we have npun < k. Hence iin < k/nP.
Since p > 1, it follows by a comparison test that Dun converges. Give
a similar proof for the case p < 1.
22. Use the limit test (Problem 21) to determine the convergence or di-
vergence of the series given in Problems 6, 9, 15, and 18.
23. Using the fact that in(m1+ in + 1 find a simpler expression
1) in
1 1 1
for Sn = + 1), ahence find the limiit of Sn as
1.2 + 2 3 + n( n + 1)
co. Ans. 1.
Prove that Hint:
it + 1 + (n + 1) (n + 2) +
24. 1 1 < 1 Consider
n
00

(n + 1) -k.
x=1
25. If un ? un+1 > 0 and u2 + 114 + U8 + 1116 + diverges, show that
00
un/n diverges.
n=1
00
26. If un > 0 and ;' < k < 1 for all n, prove that un converges.
n=1
27. If the series in Example 3, Article 116, converges to S, show that

-S.
n--> oo

118. Alternating Series

A series `whose terms are alternately positive and negative is called
an alternating series.
 Alternating Series 289

Alternating Series Test. If u1, zt2, u3, are Positive numbers,

the alternating series
111 - U2 + 1(3 - ' ' ' - 112k + 112k+1
is convergent, provided that
(a) ul > u2 > 1ti3 > ' ', and (b) lim It,, = 0.

Proof: The sum of 2k terms of the series maybe written in either of

the following forms:
S2k = (1(1 - u2) + (u3 - uq) + ... + (u2k-1 - U2k), (1)
S2k = u1 - (u2 - 123) - ... - (u2k-2 - U2k-1) - u2k. (2)

Since un > un+1 for all n, each difference within parentheses in (1)
and (2) is either positive or zero. Hence (1) shows that S2k is positive or
zero, and (2) shows that S2k < ul for all positive integral values of k.
Therefore, by Theorem 1, Article 114, S2k approaches a definite limit,
say S, as k - oo.
Now consider an odd number of terms
S2k+1 = S2k + u2k+1.
By hypothesis, 112k+1 approaches zero as k -- oo ; hence
lim S2k+1 = lim S2k + lira u2k+1 = S + 0 = S.
k--)- co k-+co k-* o0

This part of the proof is necessary, since otherwise the series might be an
oscillating series such as 1 - 1 + 1 - 1 + . Therefore, since Sn
approaches the same limit S whether n is even or odd, it follows that the
given series is convergent.
Example. Test for convergence :

+ + (-1) n -1 n +
1
+3
Solution: The given series is alternating with
1
un = and Un+1 = +

Since (a)
n nn
n + 1 for all n and (b) lim 1 = 0, it follows from the
alternating series test that the series is convergent.
As a direct consequence of the above theorem, we have the following
corollary.
290 Infinite Series

Corollary. In a convergent alternating series, the error made in

taking S. as an approximation for the value S is less than the absolute value
Of Un+1.

Illustration. In the example above, the sum of the first nine terms is
0.746 and the value of the series differs from this by less than ulo = 0.1.
That is, the value of the series lies between 0.645 and 0.746.
119. Absolute and Conditional Convergence
A convergent series
ul + u2 + u3 + ... + acn + .. . (1)

where the terms ul, U2, 113, may have different signs, is said to be
absolutely convergent if the series of absolute values,
1211! + 11121 + I113J + ... + I11nl + ..., (2)
is convergent.
Illustration 1. The series 1 - 12 + 4 - 19 + is absolutely convergent,
since 1 + 2 + 4 + 1 + is convergent.
If a series is convergent but not absolutely convergent, it is said to be
conditionally convergent.
Illustration 2. The series I-2+3-4+ is conditionally con-
vergent, since 1 + I + 3 + 4 + is divergent.
Theorem 1. A series is convergent if the series of its absolute values is
convergent.
Proof: Denote by S n the sum of it terms of (1), by Pn the sum of the
positive terms in S, and by Nn the sum of the absolute values of the
negative terms in Sn; then Sn = Pn - N. Likewise, let Sn denote
the sum of n terms of (2) ; then Sn = P,, + Nn.
By hypothesis, (2) converges ; therefore S, approaches a limit, say
S', as n -- oo. Since all terms in (2) are positive, we have Sn = P. +
N. < S'; hence Pn < S' and Nn < S'. Moreover, since P. and Nn
never decrease as n increases, it follows from Theorem 1, Article 114,
that they approach limits, say P and N, respectively. Hence we have
lim S n = 11m (P n - N n) = P - N.
n-+ oo n-* oo

Therefore the series (1) is convergent.

Using Theorem 1, an evident extension to the ratio test may be
made, as summarized in the following theorem.
Theorem 2. If in a series whose terms are not all positive the absolute
value of the ratio of the (n + 1)st term to the nth term approaches a limit R
 Exercise 291

as n increases without limit, the series is absolutely convergent if R < 1 and

divergent if R > 1. If R = 1, the test fails to determine the convergence
or divergence of the series.
In order to determine the convergence or divergence of a given
series, the following procedure of testing is suggested.
TESTS FOR CONVERGENCE
1. If lim it. 0 as n -} oo, the series diverges.
2. If lim un = 0 as n -- oo, then try
(a) The alternating series test. If this test does not apply, try
(b) The ratio test. If this fails, try for absolute convergence with
(c) The comparison test. If this is difficult, try
(d) The integral test.

EXERCISE 72
Determine a series with the given beginning terms, and test for divergence,
absolute convergence, or conditional convergence. (Answers may vary.)
1
- 22 + 23
5
- 24 + . Ans. Abs. cony.
1 1 1 1
2.
33 - .5 + 6:7 - 8.9 + ...,
3.
3
-5+?-9+ Divergent.
1 1 1 1
4.
+10 - 12+

5. 1-5+1/5 77
Cond. cony.
3 32 33 34
6. - 4i .+ - .+ . .

T1 6! T1

7. 2(3) - 4(3)2 - 6(3)3 + 8()4 - Abs. cony.

8. 1 - 111 -I- 112 113 + .. .
9. 2-1 - 2-3 + 2-5 + 2-7 - -}- Abs. cony.
10.
3 - 7 + 11 15 +
2! 4!
11.
1
_}..92+93+94+...
3!
Divergent.
1 _ 1 1 _ 1
12.
log 2 log 3 + log 4 log 5 +
1 22 33 44
13. Divergent.
10 30 + 50 70 +
102 103 104
14. 10 - iii + 5! - -T!- +
.. .
292 Infinite Series

Ans. Cond. conv.

15.
132 - 243 + 354 465

16.

7.
2 1 _ 1

e - e1/2 + e113 - e114 + .

1 _ 1

. Divergent.
18. 1+2-3-++-- .
2 3 4
19. 1- 22 1 + 32 + 1 -+1 +
42 '
Cond. conv.

20. Sin-1 1 - 2 Sin-1 + Sin-1 3 - 4! Sin

T! 4 +
00

21. If un > un+1 > 0 for all n, and (-1)n-lun = S, show that the
n=1
partial sums satisfy the inequality S2k < S < S2k+1
22. If un > Zln+1 > 0 for all n, and u7z --- 0 as n oo, prove that
n-lztin
7 (-1)
n=1 1 + un
converges.
00
23. If 2"0cn is convergent and > un is absolutely convergent, prove that
n=1 n=1
00

cnun is absolutely convergent. Hint: Convergence implies I cnI <

n=1
M < oo for all it.
Go CO

24. If 0 < a < 1 and cn is convergent, prove that 2 cnan is absolutely

n=1 n=1
convergent. Hint: Convergence implies lim 1cn+1lcn 1 < 1.

120. Power Series

An infinite series of the form
ao + alx + a2x2 + :.. + anxn + ... (1)
in which ao, al, a2, , an, are constants and x is a variable, is called
a power series in x. The totality of values of x for which a power
series converges is called its interval of convergence. This interval
always includes the value x = 0, and its range is determined by the
ratio test as illustrated in the following examples.
Example I.

Solution:
x+3++
Find the interval of convergence of the series
x2

By the ratio test, we find

x3 xn

xn+1 n n
lim un+1 = lim lim n + 1 xl
new un n-+w n + 1 xn n--> co
1x1.
 Exercise 293

Hence the series converges when x is numerically less than 1, and diverges
when x is numerically greater than 1. When x = 1 or x = -1, the ratio
test fails, and the corresponding numerical series
1 - Z -{- 3 - 4 +...' -1 - Z - 3 - I -...
must be tested by other means. Thus the first of these is convergent by the
alternating series test, and the second is divergent since it is the negative of
the harmonic series. Hence the interval of convergence is - 1 < x < 1.
Example 2. Find the interval of convergence of the series
x2 xn
x+2 -} -x3
j-! +..-+ n + .. .

Solution: Using the ratio test, we have

un+1 xn+l nl X
lim = lim = lim n+1 = 0.
Un n-* o0 (n + 1)I xn
Hence the series converges for all values of x.
If the power series (1) is convergent in the interval - r < x < r, and
possibly also at one or both end points, the positive number r is called
the radius of convergence of the power series.
Theorem. If r is the radius of convergence of the power series (1),
then the series is absolutely convergent for all x such that jxl < r.
Proof: It follows from the ratio test that lim an+1 r < 1, since
n-->oo an
otherwise there would exist values of x within the interval where the
series is divergent. Hence, for any xo within the interval, it follows
from Ixol < r that
lim an+1 xo < 1.
21--* CO an

In accordance with the ratio test this means that (1) is absolutely
convergent for x = xo, and the theorem is proved.

EXERCISE 73
Find the interval of convergence for each of the following series.
1. 1 -}- x -}- x2 + ... + x n -1 + .. . Ans. -1 < x < 1.
2. x - 2x2 + 3x3 -...+ (-1)n-lnxn +...
3. x+21x2+3!x3+...+n!Xn+. x=0.
4. X +x22 +x33 +...+ xnn +.. .
294 Infinite Series
x3 x5 x2n-1
5. x - 3 + 5 - ... + (-1)n-1 (2n - 1)! + Ans. All values of x.
x5 x2n-1
6.
x3
x-2+3-...+(-1)n-1 n +...
7. 2x+4x2+8x3+...+2nxn+..
x2 xn-1
8. 1 -x+ 2-...+
2
(-1)n-1 (n - 1 )
2+.

xn-1
9. 1 + xV2 x2
+ V3 +...+ 1/n_ +...-
xn
10. x+ x23 x3
+322+...+.3n-1+..
2
11. 1x2+22
22+32
x3
23+...+n2xn2n+
x2 x3 xn
12. x+22+33+...+nn+
13. x-3+5-7+....
x3 x5 x7

x2
14. x5 + 2.52 +
x3
+
x4
+...
1 3.53 4.54

15. 1 - 3x2 +5x24 - 7x3

8
+.... -2<x<2.
x2 x4 xs
16. 1 -2a2+4a4-6a6+...' (a > 0)

17. (x - 1) + 1(x - 1)2 + 3(x - 1)3 + 0<x<2.

18. (x - 2) - 2(x - 2)2 + 3(x - 2)3 -
1 9. 1 +x+3+
2
x+3
32
+... 2

20.
+
21.
x 2 11 + `x 2 1)3 + `x 2 115
1) !x 1\2 Ix 13
x 2
22 sine x 23 sin3 x
22. 2 sin x + + + .
22 32
23. ex + e2x + e3x + ...
24. (log x)2 + (log x)4 + (log x)6 + .
25. If r is the radius of convergence of 00 anxn, show that the limit
n=0
approached by Ian+lr/anI as it --> oo cannot be greater than 1. Hint:
If lim Ian+1r/an I -* 1 + 21t, where It > 0, prove that the series diverges
at the point xo = r/(1 + It) by showing that lim Ian+lxo/anI >
(1 + 21t)/(1 + It) > 1.
 CHAPTER 16

Expansion of Functions

121. Introduction
By ordinary long division, we may obtain quotients such as

1 - x
= 1 +x+x2 +x3+ . (1)

The series on the right side of (1) is convergent in the interval - 1 < x
< 1, and for values of x in this interval it can be shown that the sum of
the series equals the value of the function from which it was obtained.
Accordingly, we say that the right member of (1) is a power-series
expansion or development of the function 1/(1 - x) for values of x in
the interval - 1 < x < 1.
The question now arises as to whether other functions such as
1 -+x and sin x can be similarly represented by power series. In the
next article we will show how, in certain circumstances, this may be
done. To do this, however, we shall need the following theorem which
will be proved in Article 124.
Theorem. A .Power series which represents a junction f (x) may be dif-
ferentiated term by term for all values of x within its interval of convergence,
and the power series thus obtained equals f'(x).
Illustration. Differentiating both sides of (1), we find
1

(1 - x)
= 1 + 2x + 3x2 + , - 1 < x < 1.

Observe that the same result is obtained when the function (1 - x)-2 is
expanded in accordance with the binomial theorem ; thus

(1 - x)-2 = 1 - (-2)x + (-2)(-3)

1.2
x2 - (-2)(-3)(-4) x3 +...
1.2.3
= 1 +2x+3x2+4x3+ .

295
296 Expansion of Functions

122. Maclaurin's Series

Let us assume that a function f (x) can be represented within a
certain interval of convergence by a power series of the form
f (X) = Co + C1x + C2x2 + ...._}. cnxn + (1)

where the c's are constants to be determined.

Setting x = 0 in (1), we see at once that
co=f(0).
Also, from the successive derivatives of (1),
f'(x) = C1 + 2C2x + 3c3x2 + .. .
f"(x) = 2!c2 + 3!C3x + 4.3 c4x2 + ...
f '(x) = 3!c3 + 4!c4x + 5.4.3 c5x2 +
...................................

when x = 0, we find
f '(O) = C1,
f"(0) = 2!C2,
f,,,(0)
= 3!c3,

Solving for the c's and substituting in (1), we obtain

f (x) = f(0) + f '(0) x +

f /2 0) X2 + ... + J (n)(O) xn + ....
!
(2)

This series is called Maclaurin's series, or the bower-seyies ex-

pansion off (x) about x = 0. It is named for the Scottish mathematician
CoIin Maclaurin (1698-1746).
In order to obtain (2), observe that f (x) and all of its derivatives
must exist at x = 0. Thus, In x, cot x, and 1/x3 have no Maclaurin's
series.
Example I. Obtain the Maclaurin's series for sin x:
Solution: Letting f (x) = sin x, we obtain the derivatives f'(x) = cos x,
f "(x) = -sin x, f'(x) = -cos x, f (4) (x) = sin x, . Thus, when x = 0,
we find f (0) = 0, f'(0) = 1, f"(0) = 0, f'(0) =_ 1, f (4) (0) = 0, . Hence,
by substitution in (2), we obtain the result

sin x = x - x3
I
+
- -T!
x5 x7
._! + . .. ,
(3)
 Exercise 297

Using the ratio test this series may be shown to be convergent for all
values of x. As a result, when x = 2, we find on substitution in (3) that
sin 2 = 2 - (1.3333) + (0.2667) - (0.0254) + (0.0014) -
= 0.909.
Note: To find the Maclaurin's series for a function such as sin x2, it is
simpler to obtain the expansion for sin y and then substitute x2 for y. The
direct procedure of computing the derivatives of f (x) = sin x2 leads to
involved computations.
Example 2. Obtain the Maclaurin's series for (1 + x)P where P is a
real number other than 0, 1, 2, 3, .

Solution: By taking f (x) = (1 + x)P, we find

f'(x) = P(1 + x)P-1; hence f '(0) _ j5,
f"(x) = j5(j5 - 1)(1 + x)p-2; hence f"(0) _ P(P - 1),

f(n)(x) = p(p - 1) ( - n + 1)(1 + x)P-n; hence

fIn)(0) = j5(j5 - 1) ..(p-n+l).

By substitution in (2), we obtain the familiar binomial series
(1 +x)P= 1 +
px+$($2i 1)x2+...+P(P- 1)..np -n+ 1)xn+...

EXERCISE 74
Obtain the following Maclaurin's series and establish their convergence
for the intervals indicated.
X2
I. ex = 1 + x + 2 + x31 + , all values.
X2 x4 xs
2. cos x = 1 - 2!
+ - + , all values.
It! 0!

3. In +x) =x - x2
2 + x3
3 - 4x4 + -1<x<1.
4. 1 1
1-x+x2-x3-}- -1 <x< 1. ,

1 3x5 +. ...
1x3 _{...2.45
2.3
5. Sin-' x = x - - 1 <x < 1. It can Note:
be shown by advanced methods that this series is convergent for
x = +1.
6.
Tan-lx=x- x3 + x5
5 - x? -1 <x < 1.
--
298 Expansion of Functions
Verify the following expansions.
7. 1+x_=1+2x-4x2+sx3- .
/-,1
8. 3"V +x = 1 -{- 3x - 9x2 + 81x3 -
9. sin 4 +x)= /2\1
2

2!
3

3!
++
2 4 6
10. (ex+e-x) = 1 +2 +4 +6 +...
II. tanx = x + 3x3 +isx5 + 177sx7 +...
12. sec x = 1 d-- 2x2 + z 4x4 + z ox6 + ...
13. In cos x = - 2x2 - i 2x4 - 45x6
14. 11 4 - x = 2 + isx + zs6x2 + zfr x3 + .
x4 xs
15. cos x2=1-f+4 -x126i +
16. sin 2x = 2x -
23x3
3! +
25x5
5!
- 27x7
7! .+ .
.

Using the above Maclaurin's series, compute the following numbers to

three decimal places.
17. Ve'. Ans. 1.649. 18. In 1.2.
19. sin 1. 0.841. 20. cos 10°.
21. Sin-14 0.253. 22. 13/1.1.
23. sec 3. 1.058. 24. Tan-10.4.
25. Using the identity 47r = Tan-1 ; + 2 Tan-1 3, find the value of IT to
four decimal places. Ans. 3.1416.
26. If two power series have the same radius of convergence r # 0, and if
anxn = bnxn
7z=0 n=0
for every x in the interval Ixj < r, prove that an = bn for every it.
123. Algebraic Operations with Power Series
The operations of algebra may be applied to power series in the same
manner that they are applied to polynomials provided that the given
series satisfy certain conditions of convergence. These conditions are
contained in the following theorems, which are stated without proof in
order that we may devote our attention to a study of their application.
Theorem I. Addition. Two Power series may be added together for
all values of the variable for which both series converge. Symbolically, if
f(x) = ao + alx+ a2x2 + . . . , g(x) = bo+ blx+ b2x2 +..., (1)
then
f (x) + g(x) _ (ao + bo) + (a1 + b1)x + (a2 + b2)x2 + .
 Algebraic Operations with Power Series 299

Theorem 2. Multiplication. Two power series may be multiplied to-

gether for all values of the variable for which one series is convergent and
the other is absolutely convergent. Symbolically,
f (x) g(x) = aobo + (albo + aobl)x + (a2bo + aibi + aob2)x2 + ..
Illustration. Using the Maclaurin's series given in Problems 1 and 2,
Exercise 74, we have
+
excosx= I1 -- x+ 2 + 1(1
x2 x2 x4
z +4
1 +x - 3x3- x4...}_...,

Theorem 3. Division. If r is the smallest root (in absolute value) of

g(x) = 0 and if the series (1) converge respectively for l xl < F and
l xl < G, then the quotient series corresponding to f (x)/g(x) converges in the
interval l x l < Q where Q is the smallest of the numbers r, F, and G.
Note: When r = 0, the above theorem implies that division is not per-
missible. However, if bo = bi = . . . = bk = 0, division is valid provided
that ao = ai = . . . = ak = 0. For example,
x x
sinx x-6x3+... -1-6x2+....
7
=1+6x2+ 1

x4
360+..., (x 0).

In accordance with Theorem 3, this series converges in the interval - 7r <

x <7T.
Theorem 4. Substitution. The power series obtained by substituting
the second series of (1) in the first converges to f [g(x)] for those values of x
for which l x l < G and l u l < F where u = g(x).
Example. Find the power series in x for ecos x.
Solution: Letting cos x = 1 - z, where
z2 x24 ...i_6
x4 x6
-..., (2)

we have
r z2
-3-!
z3
+...1 (3)

Substituting (2) in (3), we obtain

r
ecosx = e[1 - x2 x4 _ 31x6
...]'
2+6 720 +
which converges for all values of x.
300 Expansion of Functions

It should be noted that the required result is difficult to obtain by writing

cost x
ecos x = 1 + co E; x + + ,
2t
and then substituting the series expansion for cos x.

EXERCISE 75
Find the power-series expansions of the following functions, using the
theorems of Article 123. Determine the interval of convergence.
x4
1(ex + e-x). Ans. 1 + x2Z + 41
x6
+ 6-1 + , all values.
2. cos x - sin x.
3. cost x = 1(1 + cos 2x). 1 - x2 + 3x4 - 45x6 + , all values.
4. cos3 x = (cos 3x + 3 cos x).
4 rr 3 5 7
5. In 1+ ...1, IxI <1.
6. ex sin x.
7. e-x cos 2x. 1 - x - 2x2 + s x3 + , all values.
8. In2 (1 - x).
9. (1 + x2) Sin-' x.
ex
10.
1 -xcos

x
1 - sin x

12.
2-ez
6 - 3x2
13.
6-5x+x2
In (1 + x)
14.
1 -x2
X2
15.
1 - cos x
16. esin z.
17. esin-1 x.
18. In (1 - x + x2).
19. In (1 + sin x). x - 2x2 + 6x3 - 12x4 + ..., IxI < IT.
20. 1/3 + cos x.
Using power series, evaluate the following limits.
sin x - x tang x - x2
21 lim x3 Ans -1 s. 22 . lim x4
x--*o x-+o
tang x - sine x
23. lim ln2 (1 + x) 6. 24. lim
x->o x csc x - 1 x-+O x3(ex - e-x)
 Differentiation and Integration of Power Series 301

25. What is the coefficient of x3n in the Maclaurin's expansion of

(1 + x + x2) -1? Ans. 1.
26. Prove Theorem 1, Article 123.

124. Differentiation and Integration of Power Series

Power series may be differentiated and integrated in accordance
with the following theorems.
Theorem I. A power series that represents the function f (x) may be
differentiated term by term for all values of x within its interval of con-
vergence, I xj < r, and the power series thus obtained represents the
function f'(x).
Proof: If x and xo are two different values of the variable within
the interval of convergence of the power series 002 anxn that represents
n=0
the function f (x), then, in accordance with Theorem 1 of the preceding
article, we have
f (x) - f (xo) _ an X11 - xo
x - xo n=o Lx -xo
00
anxn-1 + xn-2x0 +.... + x0n-11.
n=0
By taking the limit as x - xo, we find
00
f'(xo) = lim .f (x) - .f (xo) = naxo-1,
(1)
x - xo
x-+xo n=0

The radius of convergence for the series in (1) is at least as large as

r, since x0 can be any value in the interval jx < r.
By use of differentiation, we can prove the following theorem.
Theorem 2. A power series can be integrated term by term between
any limits lying in its interval of convergence.
00

Proof: Let f (x) = 2 anxn, I xl < r, and consider the series

n=0

F(x) = 00 an xn+l, Ixl < r'. (2)

n=o n + 1
By differentiating (2), we obtain
F'(x) _ Oc' anxn (3)
n=0
Thus F'(x) = f (x), and we have

F(x) = Jf(x) dx or F(x) - F(xo) = Jf(x) dx.

xo
302 Expansion of Functions

By a comparison test with the series for f (x), we see that (2) con-
verges for all x in the interval jx I < r. Hence its radius of convergence
is at least as large as r, that is, r' > r. In accordance with Theorem 1,
however, the radius of convergence of (3) is at least as large as that of
(2), that is, r > r'. Hence it follows that r' = r, meaning that the
radius of convergence is unaltered when a series is either differentiated
or integrated.

Illustration I. Differentiating the series

sin x = x -
x3
3!
+
x5
- (4)

we obtain
x2
cosx= 1 -T! +4x4
Both series converge for all values of x.
Illustration 2. Integrating the series

1+x
1 = 1 -x+x2-..., IxI < 1,

from 0 to x, we obtain
In (I + x) = x - 2x2+ IxI < 1.
Example I. Find the power series for Sin-' x by integration.
Solution: By the binomial theorem, we have
1.3 1.3.5
1
= (1 -x2)-1/2= I +2x2+2 44x4+2-4.6
1
X6 +
1 -x2
Integrating from 0 to x, we obtain

Sin-1x=1/1 dx
-x2x+21x3 1.3 x5 +....
fox 3 +2 4 5 (5)

Both series converge for IxI < 1.

Note: Observe that the value of ,r may be compufed from (5) by setting
x=2. Thus
+2 2)5+...,
6=2
whence ir=
Example 2. Find approximately the value of 1 sinx A.
fo x
 Exercise 303

J='
Solution: Using the first three terms of (4), we obtain the approximation
1 ssin xJo (1-32+54)dx
x3 x5 1
18+600]0=0.9461.

Lx

EXERCISE 76
Find the power series for the first of the following functions by differenti-
ating the power series corresponding to the second function.
x3 x5
I. sin x ; cos x. Ans. x - T! + 5 - , all values.
2. (1 - x)-2; (1 - x)-1.

3. sec2 x ; tan x. 1 + x2 + 3x4 + IxI < 27r.

4. sin x + x cos x ; x sin x.
5.
((2

-
xX))

' 1
ez
x
2 + 5x + 8x2 + , IxI < 1.
6. cos x/(1 + sin x); In (1 + sin x).
Find the power series for the first of the following functions by integrating
the power series corresponding to the second function.
7. Tan-' x; 1/(1 + x2). Ans. X - 3x3 + 5x5 - IxI < 1.
8. In (1 - x); 1/(1 - x).
9. In cos x; tan x. - 2x2 - i 2x4 - 45x6 - , IxI < Z7r.
lni1+x;

0fo
10. 1 1x2
11. In (x + 1/1 -+x2); I/ N/1 + x2. X - 6x3 + 40x5 - ... , IxI < 1.
12. In (sec x + tan x) ; sec x.
Find approximately the values of the following integrals.
e-x2
13. sin x2 dx. Ans. 0.3103. 14. dx.
fo J0
52/3 1/2
15. V1 - x3 dx. 0.6408. 16. ex cos V dx.
1/3 a-x2 1/2 cos x
dx. 0.3275.
17.
1/1 x2
18. I

r0 1 -x dx.
oo

19. ex In (1 + x) dx. 0.0342. 20. J0 cos x dx.

I

21. If f (x) = (1 + x) P, then (1 + x) -Pf (x) = 1, and by differentiation we

obtain
(1 + x)f'(x) - pf(x) = 0.
Show that the binomial series given in Example 2, Article 122, satisfies
this differential equation.
304 Expansion of Functions
22. Determine a function f (x) such that
1
f0f (x) dx = 1 - 22 +T2--42+....
1 1

x2 x3 x4
Hint: Differentiate fox f (x) de x= x- 22
+ 32 - T2 + .

125. Approximation Formulas Derived from Power Series

If the variable is sufficiently small, we may use the first few terms of
a power series as an approximation formula for the function which it
represents.
Illustration I. First approximation Second approximation
(1 +x)n 1 + nx 1 + nx + sn(n - 1)x2,
e-x 1-x 1 -x+ 2x2.

In accordance with the corollary of Article 118, if x assumes values

such that the terms of an alternating series decrease, then the error
introduced by the approximation is less than the magnitude of the first
term omitted.
Illustration 2. Approximation Maximum error
sin x x, 1 6x3 l ,

sin x x - 6x3, 112 x5l

Thus sin 0.3 = 0.3, with an error not greater than 6(0.3)3 = 0.0045.
Hence 0.2955 < sin 0.3 < 0.3.
Example. For what values of x will the approximation formula sin x = x
give results correct to three decimal places?
Solution : Since the maximum error is given by 1 6x3 I, we must have
I 6x3 < 0.0005, or lx < 13/0.003 = 0.1442 . . . rad.
Thus the formula sin x = x is valid to three decimal places for values of x
between - 0.144 and 0.144, or in degrees, between - 8.2° and 8.2°.
Note: Observe that the above discussion of errors applies only to
alternating series. Errors, in general, will be considered in Article 127.
EXERCISE 77
How accurate is each of the following approximation formulas for the
values of x indicated?
I. sin x = x - 6x3 ; (a) 30°, (b) 90°.
Ans. (a) Error < 0.00033, (b) error < 0.08.
2. cos x = 1 - 2x2; (a) 30°, (b) 90°.
 Taylor's Series 305

3. e-x = 1 - x; (a) 0.1, (b) 0.5.

Ans. (a) Error < 0.005, (b) error < 0.125.
4. (1 + x)1/2 + 2x; (a) 0.01, (b) 0.1.
5. Tan-1 x = x - 3x3; (a) 0.5, (b) 1.
Ans. (a) Error < 0.00625, (b) error < 0.2.
6. In (1 + x) = x - 2x2; (a) 0.1, (b) 0.4.
For the indicated value of x, how many terms of the Maclaurin's series of
the following functions must be taken to obtain the value of the function
correct to four decimal places?
7. sin x; x = 45°. Ans. 3. 8. cos x; x = 30°.
9. (1 + x)1/2; x = 0.2. 5. 10. e-x; x = 1.
11. Tan-1 x; x = 5. 12. In (1 + x) ; x = 0.2.
For what range of values of x will the following approximation formulas
be correct to four decimal places?
13 sin x = x - sx3 + lzox5. Ans. jxj < 0.8212.
14 . cos x = 1 - 2x 2 + 24x4 .

15. (1 + x)-1 = 1 - x + x2. jxj < 0.03684.

16. In (1 + x) = x - 2x2 + 3x3.

17. e-x = 1 - x + 2x2. jxj < 0.06694.

18. Tan-1 x = x - 3x3 + 5x5.
19 .
1
If h i s sma ll , s how th at (A - h) 2 - 1
(A + h) 2 " 4h
A3

20. If h is small, show that sin (A + h) - sin (A - h) 1z 2h cos A.

126. Taylor's Series

We have seen that certain functions, such as In x, cannot be repre-
sented by a Maclaurin's series. However, by substituting x - 1 for z
in the expansion
ln(1 +z) =z - 2z2+ -1 <z <1
it is apparent that In x can be represented by the series
Inx = (x - 1) - 1(x - 1)2 + 3(x - 1)3 0 < x 5 2.
In general let us assume that a function f (x) can be represented
within a certain interval of convergence by a series of the form
f(x) = co + ci(x - a) + C2(x - a) 2 +...+ Cn(x - a) n +..., (1)

where a is an arbitrary constant and the c's are constants to be de-

termined.
 306 Expansion of Functions

Setting x = a in (1) and the successive derivatives of (1), we find,

as in Article 122, that
c2 - f"(a) f, n, (a)
co = f (a), c1 = f'(a), Cn =
2! n!

Thus if f (x) can be represented by a series of the type (1) that series must
have the form

f (x) = f (a) + f'(a)(x - a) + f 2a) (x - a)2 + .. .

fcn>(a)
+
n!
(x - a)n + ... , (2)

This series, which includes Maclaurin's series as a special case (a = 0),

is called Taylor's series. It is named for the English mathematician
Brook Taylor (1685-1731).
Another form of Taylor's series is obtained by placing x = a + h in
(2) ; thus

f (a + h) = f (a) + f'(a) h + Za h2 + ... + f n,a) hn + .... (3)

Example. Expand sin x in powers of x - fir.

Solution: Differentiating f (x) = sin x, we have f'(x) = cos x, f"(x) _
{-sin x, f (x) = -COs x, f(4) (x) = sin x, Thus, when x = 4 7r, we -fi/nd
"\4TT)
(47T) = sin 4Tr = 2 V/2, f'(417) _ V -2, _ 2 V G, f-(1-7T) 2 V V 2,
f(4)(.177 Hence, by substitution in (2), we obtain the result
4) = 2 , .

+...]
sin x = 21 2L1 + (x (x
2!47r)2
- (x 3!47r)3
-}- . (4)

Using the ratio test, we can show this series to be convergent for all values
of X.

The series (4) is especially useful in computing the sines of angles

which are near to 45 °. Thus, taking x = 46° = i "67T radians, we have
x -,-err= 1 °= i8107r=0.01745,
(x - 1 .) 2 = 0.00030,
(x - T T) 3 = 0.00001.
Substituting in (4), we obtain
sin 46° = 0.70711[l + 0.01745 - 0.00015 - . ] = 0.7193.
 Exercise 307

EXERCISE 78
Verify the following expansions and determine the interval of convergence.

COS x = 21/2 1 - (x (x 2'x)2 + + all values.

J
r 2
2. ex = e I I + (x + 1) + (x 2! 1) + 1, all values.
L

(x
3. sin x =
1
+ 23 - 61 l1 2
(x - 7T)2
3
all values.

4. lnx-In2=x22-(x222) + x233) 0<x<_4.

5. 1/x = 1 + 2(x - 1) 8(x - 1)2 + 0 < x < 2.
2
6. cos (a + x) = cos a - x sin a - 2, cos a + all values.
2 3
7. ln(a+x)=lna+a 2a2+3a3-..., -a<x<_a.
8. 0<x< zir.
9. sin (fir + x) = 1 -
X2
+
x4
4!
- , all values.

10. sin 2x = 1 - 2 (x - 412 + 4! (- 4)4

- )
all values.
I. Square the series of Problem 1 to find the expansion of cost x in powers
of x - IT. Ans. [1 - 2(x - irr) + a(x -
12. Differentiate the series of Problem 3 to find the expansion of cos x in
powers of x - *r.
13. Integrate the series of Problem 8 to find the expansion of In cos x in
powers of x - 41-7T. Ans. In z - (x -7r) - (x - 4) 2 - .
z
14. Divide the series of Problem 10 by that of Problem 1 to find the expan-
sion of sin x in powers of x - lair.
15. Differentiate the series of Problem 4 to find the expansion of 1/x in
powers of x - 2. Ans. 2 - +(x - 2) + 8 (x - 2) 2 - .
6. Differentiate the series of Problem 8 to find the expansion of sect x in
powers of x - fir.
Approximate the following numbers to five decimal places by the use of
series.
17. sin 47°. Ans. 0.73135. 18. cos 44°.
19. sin 87°. 0.99863. 20. sin 35°.
21. tan 46°. 1.03553. 22. a-0.3.

23. 1/4.02. 2.00499. 24. e1.2 (e = 2.718282).

25. In 1.04. 0.03922. In 2.01 (In 2 = 0.693147).
26.
27. Find the area between the x axis and the curve y = (x - sin x)/x3 from
x = 0 to x = 1, correct to four decimal places. Ans. 0.1639.
308 Expansion of Functions

28. Find the area between the x axis and the curve y =1/j - x4 from
x = 0 to x = 2, correct to four decimal places.
.1
29. Evaluate (x4 - 8x3 + 6x2 + 8x + 7) dx by writing the integrand
f3"

as a power series in x - 3. Ans. -5.323898.

r1.2
30. Evaluate 1/x3 - 3x2 + 3x dx to five decimal places. Hint: Sub-
J
stitute z + 1 for x.

127. Taylor's Theorem

In order to determine the conditions under which a Taylor's series
will represent a given function, we shall establish the following theorem.
Taylor's Theorem. If f (x) and its first n derivatives are continuous
and single-valued in the interval a < x < b, then
a)2
f (b) = f (a) + (b - a) f'(a) + (b 2!
(b `b )n f (n)(xl),
(n a 1n +1 f(n-1)(a) + n!
(1)

where a < x1 < b.

The relation (1) is known as Taylor's formula.*
Proof: Let R n represent the remainder defined by the relation

f(b) = f (a) + (b - a) f'(a) + + ((n a)1) 1 f(n-1)(a) + Rn. (2)

!

In order to determine the value of R, let us define the function P(a,b)

by the relation
Rn- (b-a)n
n! P'
and write down the auxiliary function
F(x) _ .f (b) - .f (x) - (b - x) f'(x)
-(b nlx)np, (3)
(n )!

which is formed from (2) by changing a to x in all terms except P.

It follows from (2) that F(a) = 0 and from (3) that F(b) = 0.
* Observe that for n = 1 Taylor's formula becomes the law of the mean (Article 76).
For this reason (1) is often called the extended law of the mean.
 Taylor's Theorem 309

Hence, in accordance with Rolle's theorem (Article 75), F'(x) must be

zero for some value xi between a and b.
Differentiating (3) with respect to x, we observe that all terms cancel,
except the last two, and we have

F,(x) = -
(b - x)n-1 (b - x)n-1

P. (4)
(n - 1)! (n 1)!

Substituting in (4) the value x = xi, for which F'(xi) = 0, we obtain

f (n) (xi) = P ; hence
Rn = (b - a)n
f(n)(xi), a < xi < b, (5)
n!

which proves the theorem.

It follows from (1) that the Taylor's series represents f (x) for those
values, and only those values, for which the remainder Rn approaches zero
as n increases without limit. *
Observe that the remainder term in (1) is merely the next term in
Since nothing is known
the series with ft n) (a) replaced by ft n) (xi).
concerning xi, except that it lies between a and b, we cannot evaluate
Rn exactly. We may, however, find a maximum bound for the
remainder by choosing for xi that value between a and b which makes
Rn as large as possible.
The relation (5), named for the French mathematician Joseph Louis
Lagrange (1736-1813), is called Lagrange's form of the remainder.
Another remainder formula, attributed to Cauchy, can be obtained in
the following manner.
Take F(x) as defined in (3), and consider the function

(b x) n
G(x) = F(x) + P. (6)
n!

Since F(b) = 0 and F(a) = 0, we have from (6)

(b
G(b) = 0 and G(a) _ n!a)n P = Rn. (7)

By the law of the mean, we have

G(b) - G(a) = G'(xi) (b - a), a < x1 < b.

* It is possible for Taylor's series to converge for values of x for which the limit of
the remainder is not zero. In most elementary cases, however, the interval of con-
vergence is the same as that for which the remainder approaches zero.
310 Expansion of Functions
Hence from (7), (6), and (4) we find

0 - R,, = (b - a) [F'(xi) - (b
(b - xl)n-1. fIn,(xl)
- (b - a) f
(n - 1)!
L

+ (b-x1)n-1P- (b-x1)n-1 PJ1

(n - 1)! (n - 1)!
Solving for Rn, we obtain Cauchy's form of the remainder
Rn- (b-a)(b-xl)n-l f(n) (x1), a < x 1 < b.
(n - 1)!
Example. Evaluate AAe-, using six terms of Maclaurin's series and estimate
the accuracy of the result.
Solution: Taking six terms in Maclaurin's expansion of ex and putting
x = 2, we have
2 1 3 1 4 1 5
e1/2 = 1 + 1 + (2) + (2) + 2) + (2) + R6
2 2! 3! 4! 5!

= 1.648698 + R6.
Since (b - a) = 2 and f (6) (x) = ez, we have
(6) s
R6 = ezl,

where 0 < x1 < 2.

The number ezl must be less than e1/2, and since e1/2 < 41/2 = 2, it fol-
lows that

R6 < ..6.2 = 0.00004.

Hence the value of Ve-, correct to four decimals, is 1.6487.

EXERCISE 79
Evaluate each of the following numbers as directed and estimate the
accuracy of the result.
1. $'e, using five terms of Maclaurin's series for ex.
Ans. 1.3956, R5 < 0.00005.
2. In 0.98, using three terms of Maclaurin's series for In (1 - x).
3. 0.98, using three terms of Maclaurin's series for 1'1 - x. Hint:
Substitute 0.81 for 0.98 in R3. Ans. 0.98995, R3 < 0.000001.
 Exercise 31 1

4. 13/0.95, using two terms of Maclaurin's series for 13/1 - x.

5. Sin-1 (i), using one term of Maclaurin's series for Sin-1 x.
Ans. J, R3 < 0.0102.
6. sin 29°, using three terms of Taylor's expansion of sin x about x = jar.
7. cos 47°, using two terms of Taylor's expansion of cos x about x = arr.
Ans. 0.682, R2 < 0.0005.
8. Tan-1 (i), using two terms of Maclaurin's series for Tan-1 x. Note
that the series is alternating.
9. How many terms of Maclaurin's series for ex must be used to evaluate e
correct to four decimal places? Ans. 9 are sufficient.
10. How many terms of Maclaurin's series for In (I - x) must be used to
evaluate In 0.95 correct to four decimal places?
. How many terms of Taylor's expansion of sin x about x = lIr must be
taken to give sin 28° correct to five decimal places? Ans. 3.
12. How many terms of Maclaurin's series for 1 - x must be taken to
give 1/0.97 correct to four decimal places?
13. For Maclaurin's expansion of ex, show that
xnex
Rn < when 0 < x,
n Y

and

IRnI < In!

xl n when x < 0.
14. For what interval of the variable x will the first three terms of Mac-
laurin's series for ex give an error less than 0.005? (See Problem 13.)
15. For Maclaurin's expansion of In (1 - x), show that
xn+1
(n + 1)(1 - x)n+1' when 0 < x < 1,
IRnI <

and
xI n+1 when-1 <x<0.
IRnI <n+1'
16. For what interval of the variable x will the first two terms of Maclaurin's
series for In (1 - x) give an error less than 0.0005? (See Problem 15.)
17. Show by long division that
to
1-t = 1 +t+
1 t2+...+to-1 +

1-t
By integrating from 0 to x, where 0 < x < 1, show that

ln(1 -x) = -x- x22 - x33 -...- nxn -Rn,

312 Expansion of Functions

where
f x to dt fx dt = xn+1
Rn = hence IRnI < 1 to
0 1 -t ;
1 -x 0 (n + 1)(1 x)

Compare this result with that obtained in Problem 15.

18. If f(a) _ .. = f (n-1)(a) = 0 and f (n) (a) 0, use Taylor's theorem to
show that when n is even f (x) has a relative minimum or a relative
maximum at x = a according as f (n) (a) is positive or negative, respec-
tively. When n is odd, prove that f (x) has neither a maximum nor a
minimum at x = a.
 CHAPTER 17

Hyperbolic Functions

128. Definitions of the Hyperbolic Functions

We shall now consider six exponential functions which have pro-
perties very much like those of the trigonometric functions. Because
of their relation to the equilateral hyperbola (Article 135), they are
called the hyperbolic functions, and individually are known as the
hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic cosine, etc. They are defined as follows.
ex - e-x cosh x 1
sink x = coth x =
2 sinh x tanh x'
ex+e -x 1
cosh x = sech x =
2 cosh x'
ex - e -x 1
tanh x = ex+e-x csch x =
sinh x
These are read "hyperbolic sine of x," etc.*
By substituting - x for x in the definitions, we find
sinh (- x) = - sinh x,
cosh (- x) = cosh x,
tanh (- x) = - tanh x.
With these relations and the values given in Table III, page 508, we
can plot the graphs shown in Figure 124.

X X

y=sinh x y= cosh x y=tank x

Figure 124
* The abbreviations are sometimes read as "sine h of x," etc.
313
314 Hyperbolic Functions

129. Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions

Using the definitions given in the preceding article, we obtain the
identities
cosh2 x -sinh2 x = 1,
tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1,
coth2x-csch2x= 1.
For example, to establish the first relation, we have
ex e-x\ 2 ex 2 e-x 2
cosh2 x - sinh2 x = r 2 lI

e2x- 2+e-2x 4
- 4
e2x+2+e-2x

- 4 =4=1.
Illustration 1. If tanh x = 5i then sech x = 1/1 - (5)2 = 5. Hence
cosh x = 1/sech x = 4, and sinh x = cosh x tanh x = 4
By addition and subtraction, it also follows from the definitions that
cosh x + sinh x = ex,
cosh x - sinh x = e-x.
These relations are useful in establishing many other formulas.
Illustration 2.
sinh (x + y)
ex+y - e-x-y exey - e-xe-Y
2 2
(cosh x + sinh x) (cosh y + sinh y) - (cosh x - sinh x) (cosh y - sinh y)
2
= sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y.

130. Derivatives and Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions

It can be shown from the definitions in Article.128 that
du,
dx sinh u = cosh u dx coth u - csch2 u du,
d du, d-
cosh u sinh u sech u = - sech u tanh u du,

du
dx tanh u sech2 u dx , dx csch u - csch u coth u
 Exercise 315

where u is a differentiable function of x. Thus, for example,

d d eu + e-u _ eu - e-u du du
sinh it = cosh u dx.
dx dx 2 - 2 dx =
For each of the above differentiation formulas there is a correspond-
ing integral formula, the first two of which are

f sinh u du = cosh u + C,

cosh u du = sinh u + C.
J
In addition to these, we can establish the following formulas.

ftanh u du = J sinh u du = In cosh u + C,

cosh u
cosh u
f coth u du =
J sinh u
du = In sinh u + C,
J
cosh u
f sech u du = du = Tan-1 (sinh u) + C,
J J cosh2 u
f csch u du = In (coth u - csch u) + C.
The last of the above formulas is derived as follows.
coth u csch u - csch2 It
f csch u du du
J j Goth u - csch u
f d(coth u - csch u)
coth u - csch u
= In (coth u - csch u) + C.
Ilsech2

fx x dx = f x d(tanh x)

= x tanh x - J tanh x dx = x tanh x - In cosh x + C.

EXERCISE 80
1. Using Table III, evaluate (a) sinh 2, (b) tanh 0.87.
Ans. (a) 3.6269, (b) 0.7006.
2. Using Table III, find x when (a) sinh x = 0.709, (b) cosh x = 1.5.
3. Without tables, find cosh x when sinh x = 2 . Ans. iz
4. Without tables, find tanh x when cosh x = 3.
316 Hyperbolic Functions

5. Using the exponential definitions, prove that tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1,

and coth2 x - csch2 x = 1.
6. Prove the addition formulas
sinh (x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y,
cosh (x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y,
tanh (x ± y) = tank x + tank y
1 ± tanh x tanh y
7. Replacing y by x in the formulas of Problem 6, show that
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x,
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x,
2 tank x
tanh 2x =
1 + tanh2 x
8. Using the formula for cosh 2x and replacing x by Ix, prove that
x cosh x - 1
sinh 2 =
2
x cosh x + 1
cosh 2=
2 '

tanh
X _ cosh x - 1
2 ± cosh x + 1'

9. Using the exponential definitions, prove that

(cosh x ± sinh x) n = cosh nx ± sinh nx.
Using the relations given in Article 129 and the preceding problems, prove
the following identities.
10. sech x + sinh x tanh x = cosh x.
I. coth x - tanh x = sech x csch x.
12. sinh x + csch x = cosh x coth x.
13.
1 + cosh x - sinh x
= 2 csch x.
sinh x 1 + cosh x
14. sinh2 x - sinh2 y = sinh (x + y) sinh (x - y).
15. sinh 3x = 4 sinh3 x + 3 sinh x.
16. cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x - 3 cosh x.
Draw a sketch of each of the following equations.
17. y = coth x. 18. y = sech x.
19. y = csch x. 20. Y = sinh'l - x2.
Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x.
21. sinh2 X. Ans. sinh 2x. 22. cosh (1/x).
23. In cosh 2x. 2 tanh 2x. 24. coth (1 - x2).
 The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions 317

25. ex sinh x. Ans. e2X. 26. sinh (sin x).

27. sinh (In x2). X + x-3. 28. sech3 (1 - x2).
Evaluate the following limits.
sinh x cosh x - 1
29. lim Ans. 1. 30. lim
x-+0 X x-+O
tanh 2x
3 1. lim 2. 32. lim
X- *O X x- O
1 - sech x 34. lim
33. lim 0.
x x->0 x

Evaluate the following integrals.

35. fcosh 4x dx. Ans. I sinh 4x + C. 36. sech 4x tanh Ix dx.

J
37. I x sech2 x2 dx. 2 tanh x2 + C. 38. fcsch4 2x dx.

39. x2 sech 3x3 dx. Tan-' (sinh 3x3) + C. 40. fsinx sinh x dx.
J
01 r1
41. tanh x dx. 0.4338. 42. sinh2 x dx.
J 1

43. From the definitions show that for all x

x3 x4
sinhx=x+3 +5x5 + x2
cosh x=1+x, +4 + .

44. By dividing the series expansions of Problem 43, show that

tanh x = x - 3x3 + 15x5 - 31 5x7 +
This expansion is valid when jxj < 37r.
45. Find the area between the curve y = cosh x and the x axis from x = 0
to x = 1. Ans. 1.1752.
46. Find the centroid of the area described in Problem 45.
47. Find the volume generated if the area of Problem 45 is revolved about
the x axis. Ans. 1ir(2 + sinh 2) = 4.4194.
48. Show that y = tanh (3 In x) is the equation of a hyperbola and sketch
its graph.

131. The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

As for the trigonometric functions, we write y = sinh-1 x to repre-
sent the equation x = sinh y, and we call the function sinh-1 x the
inverse hyperbolic sine of x. In like manner we define five other
inverse hyperbolic functions: cosh-1 x, tanh-1 x, etc.
Since the hyperbolic functions were defined in terms of exponential
318 Hyperbolic Functions

functions, the inverse hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of

logarithmic functions. These relations are
sinh-1 x = In (x + 1/x2 + 1), (all x),
cosh-1 x = In (x ± 1/x2 - 1), (x > 1),
tanh-1 x = 2 In 1 +
axc'
(-1 < x < 1),
I
coth-1 x = 2 In x + (x2 > 1),

sech-1 x = In 1
\x
±
N x2
1 - 1), (0 < x < 1),

csch-1 x = In (x + x + 11, (x2 > 0).

For example, to establish the first of these relations, we observe that

the equation y = sinh-1 x is equivalent to
ey - e-y
x = sinh y = 2

Multiplying by 2ey, we obtain

(ey) 2 - 2x(ey) - 1 = 0.
Solving this equation by means of the quadratic formula, we find
ey=x+ 1 +x2.
The negative solution, x - \/I+ x2, is discarded since ey is positive for
all real values of y. Finally, by taking logarithms, we have
y = sinh-1 x = In (x + 1 + x2),
for all values of x.
The other formulas can be derived in a similar manner.
Observe that the function cosh-1 x is double-valued. In subse-
Note:
quent work Cosh-1 x will denote the positive branch In (x + 1/x2 - 1).

132. Derivatives of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Writing the formulas of the preceding article in terms of u, where it
is a differentiable function of x, we obtain the following derivatives.

dx sinh-1 u = 2
1/u+1 -, (all u),

d
dx
Cosh-1 u =
1/ u 2
- 1 dx , (u > 1),
 Exercise

d ju
tanh-1 u =1 1
u2
TX
d du
dx
coth-1 u = u2 1 1 dx

dx Sech-1 u = u
1 u2 dx' 1
(0<u< 1),
d csch -1 u =
dx
-1 du
(u2>0).
\/u 2(l + u2) dx
Illustration. If y = tanh-1 (sin x), then
Y= 1 d cosx
sec x.
1 - sine x dx (sin x) = cost x =

133. Integrals Leading to Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Because of the relations given in Article 131, we see that the integral
formulas 121 and 122 may be written in the alternate form

121 5_du u2a =sinh1 a + C, (all

+
12 udu
f = Cosh-1
a + C, (u >a>0).
J a2
du
122 W2
u2 = a tanh-1 a + C, < a2).

122 f U2-a2= -acoth-1a +C, > a2).

J
These formulas can also be verified by differentiation in accordance
with Article 132.
EXERCISE 81
1. Using Table III, evaluate (a) sinh-1 0.4, (b) cosh-1 2.
Ans. (a) 0.39, (b) ± 1.32.
2. Using Table III, find x when (a) sinh-1 x = 1.6, (b) tanh-1 x = 2.5.
3. Derive the logarithmic expression for cosh-1 x.
4. Derive the logarithmic expression for tanh-1 x.

5. Derive the formula for dx sinh-1 x.

dx
6. Derive the formula for tanh-1 x.
7. Show that sinh (sinh-1 x) = x and cosh (sinh-1 x) = 1 + x2.
8. Show that the two values for cosh-1 x differ only in sign.
320 Hyperbolic Functions

Draw a sketch of each of the following equations.

9. Y = sinh-1 x. 10. Y = cosh-1 x.
11. Y = tanh-1 x. 12. y = sech-1 x.
Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x.
13. sinh-1 3x. Ans. 3/ 9x2 + 1. 14. Cosh-- -1x.

I5. Cosh-1 (sec x). sec x. 16. tanh-1 (1 - x2).

17. csch-1 (tan x). - Icsc x1. 18. cosh (sinh-1 x).
19. tanh-1 ez. - I csch x. 20. ecoth-1 z.
Evaluate the following limits.
sinh-' x Cosh-1 x
21 Urn Ans. 1. 22 lim
z-+o X z-+1 x --I
23. lim x coth-1 x. 1. 24. lim x csch-1 x.
00 X-4-00
25. lim [sinh-1 x - In x]. In 2. 26. lim [tank-1 x + In (1 - x)].
X--). 00 X-1 2
Evaluate the following- integrals using the formulas of Article 133.
dx x dx
27. f Ans. sinh-1 + C. 28.
J 1x2 + 4 4x2-9
29.
x dx 2
8 tanh-1 4 + C. 30.
f dx
J 16-x4 J 9x2 - 25
dx dx
31. f Cosh-' (x - 1) + C. 32. r
J1/x2-2x Jx2-4x+3
1
dx dx
33. f Ans. 0.56. 34. x2
Jo 1/x2 + 2x + 2 -1 4 -
35.
dx
In 2. 36.
f n/2 cos 0 dO
J58 x2-4x o 1 + sine 0
3 5
37. Show that sinh-1 x = x - 2 3 + 2.4 5 - , for x2 < 1.

38. Show that tanh-1 x = x +x33 + x55 + , for x2 < 1.

39. Find the area between the curve y = sinh-' x and the x axis from x = 0
to x = 2. Ans. 1.65.
40. Find the area between the curve y = cosh-1 x and the line x = 4.

134. Relations Between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

By the methods of the preceding chapter, we know that for all real
z we have
z2 z3

sinz=z-3i+5i-i+
z3 z5 z7
 Relations Between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions 321

Z2 zg
cos z = 1 - + z4
4! - 6i + ,
T!
Z3 z5 z7
sinhz = z +3!- + _!
+
T!

z2 z4 zs
cosh z = 1 + z, + + + .
4-I 6!

In more advanced works it is shown that the above series are also
convergent when z is any complex number a + ib, where i =
and a and b are real. For this reason, when z is a complex number, the
series is taken as a definition of the function.
2 4
Illustration. cos i means 1 - 2 + 4 - , and since i2 = 1, i4 = 1,
and so on, we have
1
cos i = 1 + + 4, + = cosh 1 = 1.5431.

Note: Using the above series as definitions of the functions, it can be

shown that the usual formulas and identities satisfied by the functions are
valid when the variable is complex. As an example, by use of the formula
for the sine of the sum of two angles, we may write
sin (a + ib) = sin a cos ib + cos a sin ib. (1)

Placing z = ix in the above series and using the identities i 2 = - 1,

i3 = _j, i4 = 1, etc., we obtain the relations

eix=
x2
2i + +ilx-3 !!
x3 11

cosx+isinx,
x3
sin ix = i (x + 3!+ = i sinh x,
2
cos ix =1+ 2+ = cosh x,

sinh ix = i x - x3
31+
= i sin x,
2
cosh ix = 1 - 2i + = cos X.

The first of the above relations is attributed to the Swiss mathe-

matician Leonard Euler (1707-1783) and is known as Euler's formula.
Observe also that by using the above relations, (1) can be written in
the form
sin (a + ib) = sin a cosh b + i cos a sinh b.
322 Hyperbolic Functions

Example. If In (x + iy) = it + iv is defined by the relation eu+i v

x + iy, show that
In (x + iy) = In N/_x2 -+y2 + i tan-1 x
Solution: Using Euler's formula we have
x + iy = eu+iv = eueiv = eu(cos v + i sin v).
Equating real and imaginary parts, we find
x = eu cos v, y = eu sin v. (2)

Squaring the equations (2) and adding, we obtain

x2 + y2 = e2U cost V + e2u sine V = e2u;
hence
u= In (x2+y2) =1nVx2+y2.

Dividing the equations (2), we obtain

y - eu sin v = tan v;
x eu cos v
hence

v= tan-1 Z.
x

Observe that the function In (x + iy) is multiple-valued, since the inverse

tangent function is multiple-valued. Note, however, that the various values
of the function, as used here, differ by even multiples of IT and not by multiples
of Tr.

135. Geometric Interpretation of Hyperbolic Functions

Consider the circle x2 + y2 = 1 and the equilateral hyperbola
x2 - y2 = 1, whose equations may be written parametrically as
indicated in Figures 125 and 126.
For the circle, the parameter 0 is a measure of the central angle AOP
in radians. Hence the area of the sector AOP is given by Z0.

For the hyperbola, we find a similar result as follows.

Area AOP = Area BOP - Area BAP
= Zxy - 1/x2 - 1 dx
X
= Z x 1/x 2 - 1 - z [X\/X2 - 1 - In (x + 1/x 2 - 1) 11

=
i Cosh-1 x = Zu.
 Exercise 323

x=cos 0, y=sin 9 x=cosh u, y=sinh u

Figure 125 Figure 126

Thus for the circle we have

x = cos 0, y = sin 0, 2-0 = Area A OP,
and for the hyperbola
x = cosh it, y = sinh u, 2 u = Area A OP.
In this respect we see that the hyperbolic functions have the same
relationship to the equilateral hyperbola as the trigonometric functions
have with respect to the circle.
EXERCISE 82
Using the addition formulas and the relations in Article 134, prove each
of the following.
I. sin (x ± iy) = sin x cosh y ± i cos x sinh y.
2. cos (x ± iy) = cos x cosh y + i sin x sinh y.
3. sinh (x ± iy) = sinh x cosy ± i cosh x sin y.
4. cosh (x ± iy) = cosh x cosy ± i sinh x sin y.

Use the relations in Problems 1-4 and Article 134 to express the following
complex numbers in the form u + iv.
5. sin i. Ans. 1.1751. 6. cos 2i.
7. cosh 4i. - 0.654. 8. sinh N..
9. sin (1 + i). 1.30 + 0.641. 10. cos (2 - i).
I. sinh (2 - i). 0.28 - 0.951. 12. cosh (2i - 3).
13. et'. -1. 14. e2nt.
15. In i. i(2n + 21)ir. 16. In (1 + i).
17. In (-1). i(2n + 1)7r. 18. In (3 - 4i).
19. 21 = ei In 2. 0.77 + 0.641. 20. ii = ei In i.
324 Hyperbolic Functions

Prove that In
1 + ix = i2 tan-1 x.
1 - x
21.
i
22. By use of the identity
e(n+Mx - eix
eix + e21x + ... + enix =
eix - 1 '
show that
sin 2nx sin (n + 1)x
sin kx =
k=1 sin 2x
n sin Inx cos 2(n + 1)x
cos kx =
k=1 sin -1x
 CHAPTER 18

Solid Analytic Geometry

136. Rectangular Coordinates

The position of a point in space can be determined by giving its
directed distances from three mutually perpendicular planes. These
distances are called the rectangular coordi-
nates of the point. The three planes are z
called coordinate planes, their three lines
of intersection the coordinate axes, and X I

their point of intersection the origin. / p

-
I

The three axes, called the x axis, y axis, /Y '

Y
and z axis, are marked in equal units, posi-
tive on one side of the origin and negative on
the other. The positive sides of the axes are x
ordered with respect to one another, so as to Figure 127
form what is called a right-handed system of
coordinates. That is, if the index finger of the right hand points in
the direction of positive x and the middle finger toward positive y, the
thumb points toward positive z.
A point is denoted by (x,y,z),
z where the coordinates represent
4 the distances of the point from
3 the yz plane, the zx plane, and
the xy plane, respectively, as
2
shown in Figure 127.
1

-Y the space into eight parts called

octants. The region in which
4
all coordinates are positive is
called the first octant; we will
have no occasion to refer to the
others by number.
In order to represent a figure
Figure 128 in space on a plane, we shall use
325
326 Solid Analytic Geometry

what is known as parallel projections. Draw the axes OY and OZ at

right angles on a sheet of ruled paper, as shown in Figure 128, and then
draw OX through 0, making an angle of 135° with each of them. If
the unit of length on the y and z
axes is taken as the side of one of
the small squares, the diagonal
length of a square along the x axis
is denoted by 2. In this type of
drawing parallel lines will represent
parallel lines, and any plane figure
parallel to the yz plane will appear
in its true form.
Y

137. Distance Between Two Points

To find the distance d be-
tween two points P1(xi,yi,zi) and
Figure 129 P2(x2,y2,z2), we pass planes through
each point parallel to the co-
ordinate planes. These planes form, as shown in Figure 129, a
rectangular parallelepiped, or box, with PiP2 as a diagonal, and edges
of length x2 - xi, Y2 - yi, and z2 - z1.
Since the square of the diagonal of a rectangular parallelepiped is
equal to the sum of the squares of its sides, we have
d = "V (x'2 - x1 2 + (y2 - y')2 + (Z2 - Z1)2.
Illustration. The distance between the points (2,-2,1) and (3,0,-1) is
d=1/(3-2)2+(0+2)2+(-1- 1)2=-/(1)2+(2)2+(-2)2=3.
138. Point on the Line Joining
Two Points z
Let P(x,y,z) be any point lying
on the line joining Pi(xi,yi,zi) PZ
and P2(x2,y2,z2), and so located
that the segment PiP is a given
fraction k of the entire segment
P1P2 ; thus
P1P = x
/ Y

Draw a line through P1 Figure 130

parallel to the x axis, and let
planes through P and P2 parallel to the yz plane intersect this line at
A and B, respectively. Then, as shown in Figure 130, P1AP and
 Exercise 327

P1BP2 are similar right triangles ; hence

P1A _ PIP = k
or P1A = kP1B.
P1B P1P2
However, P1B = X2 - xl and P1A = x - x1; thus we have
x-xl=k(x2-xl).
A similar result for y and z is readily derived. Hence the coordinates of
P are
x = x1 + k(x2 - xl), y = yl + k(y2 - yl), z = z1 + k(z2 - zl) (1)
In particular, if P is the mid-point of P1P2, we have
x = 2(x1 + x2), y = 2(yl + y2), z = 2(z1 + z2).
Example. If the point (a,b,2) is on the line joining the points (4,-2,3)
and (- 5,4,0), find a and b.
Solution: Substituting in (1), we have
a=4+k(-5-4), b= -2+k(4+2), 2=3+k(0-3).
From the last equation k = ; hence we have
3
a=4-9(3) = 1 and b= -2+6(1)=O.
EXERCISE 83
I. Plot the points (4,5,6), (3,-2,1), (-2,0,4), and (0,-4,0).
2. Plot the points (2,3,-2), (-4,5,0), (-2,-3,-1), and (-1,2,-4).
3. From the point (4,5,6) draw line segments perpendicular to each of the
coordinate planes.
4. From the point (2,5,3) draw line segments perpendicular to each of the
coordinate axes.
5. Draw a rectangular parallelepiped, or box, with its edges parallel to the
coordinate axes and having points (2,2,4) and (5,6,3) as vertices of a
diagonal.
6. In the xy plane draw a circle with radius 5 and center at the origin.
7. Where is a point located if (a) x = 0, (b) x = y = 0, (c) x = y =
z = 0? Ans. (a) yz plane, (b) z axis, (c) origin.
8. Where is a point located if (a) x = y, (b) x = y = z?
9. Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the
point (3,4,5) to (a) the x axis, (b) the xy plane.
Ans. (a) (3,0,0), (b) (3,4,0).
10. Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the
point (4,3, - 2) to (a) the z axis, (b) the zx plane.
328 Solid Analytic Geometry
Find the distances and mid-points between the following points.
II. (3,4,2), (1,6,3). Ans. 3, (2,5,2). 12. (1,-2,3), (4,0,-3).
13. (2,-4,1), (2,2,3). 12, (4,-1,2). 14. (3,0,-2), (5,-4,2).
15. (4,-3,2), (-2,3,-5). 11, (1,0,-2). 16. (-2,-2,5), (5,1,-4).
17. Find the points that trisect the segment joining the points (3, - 1,5) and
(0,S,-4). Ans. (2,1,2), (1,3,-l).
18. If a line is extended from A (- 1,0,2) through B(1,3, - 1) to a point C so
that BC = AB, find the coordinates of C.
19. Find the coordinates of the point where the segment joining the points
(2,-2,1) and (5,1,-2) crosses the xy plane. Ans. (3,-1,0).
20. Find the coordinates of the point where the segment joining the points
(2, -1,2) and (- 6,3,4) crosses the yz plane.
21. Show that the points (1,-1,3), (2,1,7), and (4,2,6) are the vertices of a
right triangle, and find its area. Ans. 2 14 .
22. Show that the points (2,-2,1), (3,1,2), and (1,2,1) are the vertices of a
right triangle, and find its area.
23. Show that the points (1,2, -1), (3, - 2,3), and (4,2,2) are the vertices of
an isosceles triangle, and find its area. Ans. 9.
24. Show that the points (-1,0,2), (3,2,0), and (2,- 3, -1) are the vertices
of an isosceles triangle, and find its area.
25. Prove that the points (1,2,-1), (2,5,-2), (4,4,-3), and (3,1,-2) are
the vertices of a rectangle, and find its area. Ans. 66.
26. Find the points on the x axis that are 7 units distant from the point
(2,6,3).
27. Determine a and b so that the points (1, -1, - 3), (2,0, -1), and (a,b,3)
lie on a straight line. Ans. a = 4, b = 2.
28. If the mid-point of a segment is (6,4,2) and one end point is (2,5, -1),
what are the coordinates of the other end?
29. Determine the vertices of a triangle whose sides have the mid-points
(3,2,3), (-1,1,5), and (0,3,4). Ans. (4,4,2), (2,0,4), (-4,2,6).
30. Two vertices of a triangle are (3,5,-2) and (5,-1,4), and the medians
intersect at (2, -1,1) . Find the third vertex of the triangle.
139. Direction of a Line
When a line in space is taken in a definite sense from one extreme to
the other, the line is said to be directed. If two lines intersect, their
angle of intersection is taken as the angle between their positive direc-
tions. If the lines do not intersect, the angle between them is defined to
be the angle between two intersecting lines whose directions are the
same as those of the given lines. Thus, as far as directions are con-
cerned, any line can be substituted for another line having the same
direction.
 Direction of a Line 329

For a directed line L passing through the origin the angles a, 6, and
y formed by L with the x, y, and z axes, respectively, are called the
direction angles of L, and the cosines of these angles are the direction
cosines of L.
If the positive sense of L is reversed, the z
direction ang l es are repl ace d b y th ei r suppl e-
It
,------T,
ments, and hence the signs of the direction i'
--I----XP
cosines are reversed . Thus in order to have
z
a unique set of direction cosines, L must be i

a directed line.
Consider now any point P(x,y,z) on L,
as shown in Figure 131. Denoting the O r i . Y
length of OP by r, we have ' _"
cosa=x,

cosy, cosy=z, (1)

Figure 131
where
r = 1/x2+y2+ z2.
Illustration I. The direction cosines of the line from the origin to the
point (6, - 2,3) are cos a = ;, cos P = -;, cos y = ;, since
r = (6)2 + (-2)2 + (3)2 = 7.
If we square relations (1) and add, we obtain
x2 y2 z2 r2
COS2 a + cos2 P + cos2 y = y2 + r2 + r2
r2
Hence the direction cosines of any line satisfy the relation
COS2 CE + COS2 3 + COS2 y = 1. (2)

If a = 45° and fi = 60°, it follows from (2) that

Illustration 2.
cos2 y = 1 - cos2 45° - cos2 60° = 1 - -
_ '.
Hence cos y = ± 2, and y = 60° or 120°.
Any set of numbers a, b, c that are proportional to the direction
cosines of a line are called direction numbers of the line, and written
in the form [a,b,c] will be referred to as the direction of the line. To
find the direction cosines of a line when its direction [a,b,c] is known,
we set
a = k cos a, b = k cos 8, c = k cos y, (3)

where k is a constant of proportionality. Squaring and adding these

equations, we obtain
a2 + b2 + C2 = k2(COS2 a + COS2 N + COS2 y) = k2.
330 Solid Analytic Geometry

Hence k = ± Va2 + b2 + C2; substituting this value in (3), we have

a R b
COS a = , Cos N =
± \/a2 + b2 + C2 A/a2 + b2 + C2
C
COSY =
± -V a2 + b2 + C2
where the sign of the radical is either positive throughout or negative
throughout, depending on which of the two possible directions of the
line is desired.
If d is the length of the line segment from the point P1(xl,yl,zl) to
P2(x2,y2,z2), as shown in Figure 129, it is clear that the direction
cosines of P1P2 are
x2 d- xl , Y2 z2 zl
cos a = cos P = d yl, cos)' =
d
Hence the direction of a line segment from the point P1(xl,yl,zl) to the
point P2(x2,y2,z2) can be expressed as [X2 - xl,y2 - yl,z2 - z1].
Illustration 3. Direction numbers for the line through the points
(-1,0, - 3) and (0,4,5) are [0 - (-1),4 - 0,5 - (- 3)] or [1,4,8]. Since
12 + 42 + 82 = 81 = 92, the direction cosines are 1,or-s, -s9s s]
As a special instance of the above result, it follows that direction
numbers for a radius vector drawn to the point P(x,y,z) are [x,y,z].

140. Angle Between Two Lines

Let L1 and L2 be two lines with directions [al,bl,cl] and [a2,b2,C2],
respectively. In order to find the angle between L1 and L2, consider
the radius vectors drawn from the origin to
the points P1(al,bl,cl) and P2(a2,b2,C2) as
shown in Figure 132. These vectors have
d the same directions as L 1 and L2, and hence
P2 (a2, b2,c2) the angle P10P2 is 0. Letting OP1 = T i,
Y OP2 = y2, and P1P2 = d, we have by trigo-
nometry
y2
cos - 2
+ y2 - d2
2r1r2
(1)
Figure 132
However, by the distance formula, we have
r = a2 + b2 + C 2 , = a22 + b22 + c2,
r2 2

d2 = (a2 - al) 2 + (b2 - b1) 2 + (C2 - C1) 2.

 Exercise 331

On substituting these relations in (1) and simplifying, we obtain the

following result.
Theorem. The angle 95 between two lines having the directions
[ai,bi,ci] and [a2,b2,C2], respectively, is determined by the relation
aia2 + bib2 + cic2
Cos 95 = 2
1/al + bl + Ci1/a2 + b2 + C2 ( )

Illustration. If [1,2,2] and [3,4,- 12] are the directions of two lines, we
have

cos
- (1) (3) + (2) (4) + (2) (-12) - 1

(3)(13) 3'

Hence the angle between the lines is 109.5°.

Since two lines are perpendicular when, and only when, cos c = 0,
we have the following result.
Corollary. Two lines having the directions [ai,bi,ci] and [a2,b2,C2J,
respectively, are perpendicular when, and only when,
aia2 + bib2 + cic2 = 0. (3)

Note: Since the direction cosines of OPi and OP2 in Figure 132 are
al, bi, ci,
cos al = cos Pi = cos yi =
ri ri ri

and
b2 C2,
cos a2 = a2, cos 2 = Cos Y2 =
Y2 r2 Y2

respectively, we find on substituting in (2) that the angle between two lines
can be expressed in terms of their direction cosines as
COS 0 = COS al COS a2 + COS 91 COS 92 + COS yi COS y2.

Example. Find the direction of a line that is perpendicular to each of

two lines whose directions are [3,2, -1] and [1, - 3,4], respectively.
Solution: Denoting the direction of the required line by [a,b,c], we have
from (3)
3a+2b-c=0 and a-3b+4c=0.
If we solve these equations for a and c in terms of b, we obtain a = - 3b
and c = 13b. Since only the ratios of a, b, and c are significant, on taking
b = 13 we obtain the direction [-5,13,11] for the required line.
332 Solid Analytic Geometry

EXERCISE 84
1. If a line makes an angle of 45° with OX and 60° with OZ, what angle
does it make with OY? Ans. 60° or 120°.
2. If a line makes an angle of 45° with the x and y axes, what angle does it
make with the z axis?
3. Draw radius vectors so that cos a = 3 and cos P _ - 3.
4. Where must a point lie if its radius vector has (a) cos a = 0, (b) cos a
= 2, (C) Cos a = 1?
5. What are the direction cosines of the x axis? Ans. [1,0,0].
6. What are the direction cosines of a line that makes equal angles with the
axes?
Find direction cosines for the lines that have the following direction
numbers.
7. [2,-2,1]. Ans. [33]. 8. [3,-2,-6].
9. [3,3,-3111 - [i,ii, -ii] 10. [- 4 3
Find direction numbers for the line that joins the following points.
11. (2,0, -1), (4, -2,3). Ans. [1, -1,2]. 12. (5,1,- 3), (2,7,3).
13. (1,3,4), (-2,3,7). [1,0,-1]. 14. (-3,-2,4), (-3,5,4).

Find the acute angle between two lines that have the following direction
numbers.
15. [1,1,0], [2,1,2]. Ans. 45°. 16. [1,-1,0], [-1,0,-1].
17. [3,4,5], [1,3,0]. 47.9°. 18. [1,2,3], [3,2,1].
Using direction numbers, prove the following.
19. The points (1, 0, - 2), (3, -1,1), and (7, - 3,7) lie in a straight line.
20. The points (-2,1,-5), (-1,0,-2), and (2,-3,7) lie in a straight line.
21. The points (-1,1, 3), (1, - 2,4), and (4, -1,1) are the vertices of a right
triangle.
22. The points (2,-1,2), (3,1,3), and (5,0,3) are the vertices of a right
triangle.
23. The points (1,0,2), (3,-1,3), (2,2,2), and (0,3,1) are the vertices of a
parallelogram.
24. The points (3,1,-2), (3,0,1), (5,3,2), and (5,4,-1) are the vertices of a
rectangle.
25. Find direction numbers for a line that is perpendicular to each of two
lines whose directions are [2,-1,2] and [3,0,1]. Ans. [1,-4,-3].
26. Find direction numbers for a line that is perpendicular to each of two
lines whose directions are [-1,2,4] and [2,3, -2].
27. Find direction numbers for a line that is perpendicular to the triangle
formed by the points (2,3,1), (6,-3,2), and (4,0,3). Ans. [3,2,0].
 Equation of a Plane 333

28. Using the formula, Area = lab sin C, find the area of the triangle whose
vertices are A(3,0,1), B(-1,4,1), and C(0,-1,2).
29. Find the angles of the triangle given in the preceding problem.
Ans. A = 64.8°, B = 35.3°, C = 80.0°.
30. Show that three edges of a tetrahedron whose vertices are (1,3, -1),
(-1,2, -1), (2,1,0), and (0,5,4) are mutually perpendicular, and find its
volume.

141. Locus of a Point in Space

The locus of a point moving in space in accordance with some single
condition is usually a surface. Thus the surface of a sphere is the locus
of a point that moves at a constant distance from a fixed point.
For a locus to be of value analytically, however, it is important that
we be able to express the given condition in terms of the coordinates of
a point on the locus. If this is done, the result is called the equation
of the locus.
The locus of points equidistant from the points (0,0,0) and
Illustration.
(2,2,2) has the equation Vx2 + y2 + z2 = 1/(x - 2) 2 + (y - 2) 2 + (z - 2) 2.
Squaring and simplifying, the equation of the locus becomes x + y + z = 3.
Conversely, we can state the following.
The locus of an equation in one or more of the variables x, y, and z is
usually a surface, and this surface contains those points, and only those,
whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
Note: In exceptional instances an equation may have a locus other than
a surface. For example, the locus of x2 + y2 = 0 is the z axis, and the locus
of x2 + y2 + z2 = 0 is the origin. An equation such as z2 = - 4 has no
locus, since no real points will satisfy the equation.

142. Equation of a Plane

Let [A,B,C] be the direction of a line L that is perpendicular to a
plane RS at the point P1, as shown in Figure 133. Since the plane can
be considered as the locus of a point P which
moves so that PIP is always perpendicular
to L, the equation of the plane can be
obtained by applying this condition. Thus,
since [x - x1, y - yl,z - z1] is the direction
of PIP, we have
Figure 133
A(x - xi) + B(y - yi) + C(z - z1) = 0.
This is called the point-direction form of the equation of a plane.
It is to be noted particularly that the direction associated with a plane
334 Solid Analytic Geometry

is the normal (or perpendicular) direction to the plane. The above

equation also establishes the following theorem.
Theorem I. Every plane can be represented by an equation of the first
degree.
Conversely, every equation of the first degree
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0. (1)

represents a plane. For if x', y', and z' are values satisfying (1), we
have
A x' + By' + Cz' + D = 0. (2)

Subtracting (2) from (1), we can express (1) in the form

A(x-x') +B(y-y') +C(z-z') = 0.
This, however, is the equation of a plane through the point (x',y',z')
with a normal direction [A,B,C]. Thus equation (1) represents a
plane, and we have the following result.
Theorem 2. The locus of an equation of the first degree is a plane.
The linear equation
Ax+By+Cz+D=O (3)

is called the general form of the equation of a plane. If certain of the

variables in (3) are missing, as indicated below, the plane has the
property stated.
Ax+By+D=0, perpendicular to the xy plane,
Ax + Cz + D = 0, perpendicular to the zx plane,
By + Cz + D = 0, perpendicular to the yz plane,
Ax + D = 0, parallel to the yz plane,
By + D = 0, parallel to the zx plane,
Cz + D = 0, parallel to the xy plane.
Example I. Sketch the locus of the equation 2x + 3y + 4z = 12.
Solution: Since the equation is of first degree, it represents a plane.
Setting y = 0 and z = 0 in the equation, we get -x = 6. This value is
called the x intercept, and indicates where the plane cuts the x axis. In a
similar manner, we find the y and z intercepts to be 4 and 3, respectively.
The lines that the plane forms with the coordinate planes are called the
traces of the plane. The equations of the xy, yz, and zx traces for the given
plane are
2x+3y= 12, 3y+4z= 12, 2x+4z= 12,
respectively. The traces and intercepts are shown in Figure 134.
 Normal Equation of a Plane 335

Example 2. Find the equation of a plane through the point (1,2, - 1) and
parallel to the plane 2x - 3y + 4z + 6 = 0.
Solution: A line normal to a plane has as direction numbers the co-
efficients of x, y, and z, respectively.
Thus, for the given plane, the normal z
direction is [2,-3,4]. Since parallel " N,k
planes have the same normal directions,
the equation of the required plane is
2(x - 1) - 3(y - 2) + 4(z + 1) = 0,
or
2x - 3y + 4z + 8 = 0.
Example 3. Find the equation of
the plane through the point (4,3,6) and
perpendicular to the line joining that
point to the point (2,3,1).
Solution : The plane is perpendicu- Figure 134
lar to the line joining the given points;
hence its normal direction is [4 - 2,3 - 3,6 - 1] or [2,0,5]. Therefore the
equation of the plane is
2(x-4)+5(z-6)=0,
or
2x + 5z - 38 = 0.

143. Normal Equation of a Plane

Let P denote the length of the radius vector drawn perpendicular to
the plane
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, (1)

as shown in Figure 135. Since OP is normal

to the plane (1), its direction cosines are
A
cos a = +VA2+B2+C2

B
cos +VA2+B2+C2,

C
Figure 135 COs y = (2)
+ VA 2 + B2 + C2
where the same sign of the radical is taken throughout. Since the
336 Solid Analytic Geometry

coordinates of P are (p cos a, P cos /3, P cos y), on substituting in (1)

we have
PA cos a + PB cos /3 + PC cos y = - D.
Inserting the values (2), we obtain
pA2 + pB2 + pC2
+VA2+B2+C2- - D.

hence

/, -D
P - -V/
± A2 + B2 + C2
Thus if equation (1) is written in the form
Ax+By+Cz _ -D C2, (3)
± VA2 + B2 + C2 + 1'A2 + B2 +
where the sign of the radical is chosen to make the right member
positive, the coefficients of x, y, and z are the direction cosines of the
radius vector drawn perpendicular to the plane and the constant
denotes its length. Equation (3) is called the normal form of the
equation of a plane.
Illustration I. The equation of the plane 2x - y + 2z + 6 = 0 in
normal form is
2x-y+2z _ -6
-1/(2)2 + (-1)2 + (2)2 _ (2)2 + (-1)2 + (2)2'
or

-3x+3y-3z=2.
The distance from the point (xi,yi,zi) to a plane whose equation is
(1) can be found in the following manner. The equation of a plane
parallel to (3) and passing through the given point can be written as
Ax+By+Cz _ Ax,+By,+Cz1
(4)
± VA 2 + B2 + C2 ± VA 2 + B2 + C2'
where the sign of the radical in (3) and (4) is the same. In this case
the right side of (4) may be positive or negative, but in either event
the distance between the given point and (1) is equal to the distance
between the parallel planes (3) and (4), which in turn is given by the
difference in the right members of (3) and (4). Thus we have the
following result.
 Planes Determined by Three Conditions 337

Theorem. The distance d from the plane (1) to the point (xi,yl,zl) is
d=Axi+By,+Cz1+D

± VA2 + B2 + C2
where the sign of the radical is taken opposite to that of D.
Illustration 2. The distance from the point (2,-3,-l) to the plane
2x-3y+6z+7=0 is d=2(2) -3(-3) 7 6(-1)+7= -2 The
numerical value 2 denotes the distance, and the negative sign signifies that
the given point and the origin are on the same side of the plane.

The angle between two planes is by definition either of the sup-

plementary angles between the normals to the planes. Since the
coefficients of x, y, and z are direction numbers of the respective
normals, it follows from (2), Article 140, that the angle 0 between the
planes
Aix+Biy+Ciz+Di=O, A2x+B2y+C2z+D2=0
is determined by
A 1A 2 + B1B2 + C1C2
COS A = -I-
VA2+B2+C2V 2+B2+C2
Illustration 3. The cosine of the acute angle between the planes x +
2y- 2z=5and3x-5y+4z=2is
Cos
(1)(3) + (2)(-5) + (-2)(4) - 1

3.5 V2_ I V2_

hence 0 = 45°.

144. Planes Determined by Three Conditions

Although four arbitrary constants appear in the equation of a
plane, a division by one of them indicates that the equation contains
only three essential constants. Hence three independent conditions
will determine a specific plane.
Example I. Find the equation of the plane that contains the points
(1,-2,4), (4,1,7), and (-1,5,1).
Solution: The equation of the plane passing through the first of the given
points is
A (x - 1) + B (y + 2) + C (z - 4) = 0. (1)
338 Solid Analytic Geometry
Substituting the coordinates of the other two points in (1), we obtain
3A + 3B + 3C = 0,
-2A+7B-3C=0.
Solving for A and C in terms of B, we get A = -I OB and C = 9B. Sub-
stituting these values in (1), we obtain
-1OB(x- 1) +B(y+2) +9B(z-4) = 0.
Dividing by B and simplifying gives the required equation
1 Ox - y - 9z + 24 = 0.
Example 2. Find the equation of the plane that contains the point
(1, - 1,2) and is perpendicular to each of the planes 2x + 3y - 2z = 5 and
x+2y-3z=8.
Solution: The equation of the plane containing the given point is
A(x-1)+B(y+1)+C(z-2)=0. (2)
Applying the condition of perpendicularity of (2) with each of the given
planes, we have
2A + 3B - 2C = 0,
A + 2B - 3C = 0.
Solving these equations, we find A = - 5C and B = 4C. Hence the
required equation is
-5C(x- 1) +4C(y+ 1) +C(z-2) =0,
or
5x-4y-z=7.
Example 3. Find the equation of a plane that is 1 unit distant from the
origin and has the xy trace 3x + 4y = 13.
Solution: The general equation of a plane that has the given trace is
3x+4y+kz= 13. (3)
Writing (3) in normal form, we have
3x+4y+kz _ 13
32+42+k2.
x/32+42+k2
Since the right member represents the distance to the origin, we have
13
= 1.
i./25-:: 2

Solving, we find k = ± 12. Hence the two planes,

3x+4y ± 12z = 13,
satisfy the given conditions.
 Exercise 339

EXERCISE 85
Draw the traces of the following planes. Find the intercepts and the
distance of the plane from the origin.
1. 2x+3y+6z= 12. Ans. d = 1;. 2. x-4y+8z=8.
3. 12y-5z=60. d=i3. 4. 3x+4y= 12.
Find the equation of the locus whose points satisfy the following condition.
5. Equidistant from the points (1,3, -1) and (- 1,2,0).
Ans. 2x+y-z=3.
6. Distance from the point (1, -1,2) equals 3.
7. Equidistant from the zx plane and the point (0,5,0).
Ans. X2 + z2 = 10y - 25.
8. Sum of distances from the points (0,0,4) and (0,0, - 4) equals 10.
Find the distance between the following planes.
x-2y+2z=6, Ans. 16/9. 10.
5x-3y-4z=40,
9' {3x-6y+6z=2. - 5x + 3y + 4z = 20.
Find the acute angle between the following planes.

II .
+4y-z=5, A ns. 60° .
4x - Y+8z=9,
y+z=2. 12 .
x+3y+ z=4.
Find the distance between the given point and plane.
13. (3,2,-1), 7x-6y+6z+8=0. Ans. 1.
14. (-1,5,2), 4y-3z+6=0.
15. (-2,8,-3), 9x-y-4z= 0.
16. (4,-1,5), 5x + 6 = 0.
Draw a figure of the solid that is bounded by the following planes.
17. y+z=3, x=4, x=0, y=0, andz=0.
18.x=y, x+2z=10, x=0, y=6, andz=0.
19. x+2y+2z= 12, 3x+4y= 12, x=0, y=0, andz=0.
20. x+y+z=6, x=0, y=0, y=3, andz=0.
Find the equation of a plane parallel to the plane 6x - 3y - 2z + 9 = 0,
and satisfying the following conditions.
21. Passing through the point (-1,3, - 5). Ans. 6x - 3y - 2z + 5 = 0.
22. Passing at a distance 2 from the origin.
Find the equation of a plane perpendicular to the line joining the points
(2, -1,2) and (3,2, -1), and satisfying the following conditions.
23. Passing through the point (4,-2,1). Ans. x + 3y - 3z + 5 = 0.
24. Having an x intercept equal to 3.
340 Solid Analytic Geometry
Find the equation of the plane containing the following points.
25. (3,-1,-4), (-2,2,1), and (0,4,-1). Ans. x + z + I = 0.
26. (-1,2,0), (3,2,-1), and (5,1,1).
Find the equation of the plane through the point (2,0,1), perpendicular to
the plane 2x - 4y - z = 7, and satisfying the following conditions.
27. Passing through the point (- 1,2,0). Ans. 6x + 5y - 8z = 4.
28. Perpendicular to the plane x - y + z = 1.
29. Find the point of intersection of the planes x + 5y - 2z = 9, 3x -
2y+z=3, andx+y+z=2. Ans. (2,1,-1).
30. Do the points (-1,3,6) and (2,- 3,0) lie on the same side of the plane
2x-3y+4z=12?
31. Two faces of a cube lie in the planes 2x - y + 2z - 3 = 0 and 6x -
3y + 6z + 8 = 0. Find the volume of the cube. Ans. 4913/729.
32. Find the area of the triangle that the coordinate planes cut from the
plane x + 4y + 8z = 16. Hint: Find the volume of the tetrahedron.
33. Find k so that the plane (k + 1)x - y + (2 - k)z = 5 is perpendicular
to the plane 2x + 6y - z + 3 = 0. Ans. k = 2.
14. A plane parallel to the y axis passes through the points (-2,3,1) and
(1,-4,2). Find its equation.
35. A plane through the z axis is perpendicular to the plane 3x - 5y -
2z = 7. Find its equation. Ans. 5x + 3y = 0.
36. A plane through the origin is perpendicular to the plane 2x - y - z = 5
and parallel to the line joining the points (1,2,3) and (4,-1,2). Find
its equation.
37. Find the equation of a plane that makes an angle of 45° with the z axis,
and has x and y intercepts of 3 and 4, respectively.
Ans. 4x + 3y ± 5z = 12.
38. Find the point equidistant from the four points (0,0,0), (0,3,0), (0,0,5),
and (3,4,2).
39. If a plane has non-zero intercepts a, b, and c, show that its equation is
x/a + y/b + z/c = 1. This is called the intercept form of the equa-
tion of a plane.
40. A plane through the points (8,0,0) and (0,8,0) is tangent to the sphere
that has its center at the point (2,2,2) and a -radius of 2. Find its
equation.

145. Equations of a Line

Two surfaces will generally intersect in a curve, although it is
possible that parts of the surfaces may coincide, they may have isolated
points in common, or they may not intersect at all. The latter instances
are exceptional, and in general we can state the following.
 Equations of a Line 341

The locus of two simultaneous equations in space is a curve containing

those points and only those Points whose coordinates satisfy both equations.
Since two equations of the first degree represent two planes, and
since non-parallel planes intersect in a line, we have the following result.
Theorem. The locus of two simultaneous equations of the first degree
A1x+Biy+C1z+D1=0,
(1)
A2x+B2y+C2z+D2=0,
is a straight line, provided A,:B1:C1 A2:B2:C2.
The equations (1) are called the general form of the equations of a
line. Since many planes can be passed through a given line, and since
any two of these determine the line, it is evident that the representation
(1) is not unique.
Of the many planes passing through the line (1), those that are per-
pendicular to the coordinate planes are of special interest. These-planes
are called the projecting planes, and their traces give the projections of
the line on the coordinate planes.
Illustration. The equation of the xy projection of the line x + 2y - z = 0,
3x - y + z = 4 is found by eliminating z between the equations. Thus,
adding the equations, we have
4x + y = 4. The projections on
the other coordinate planes can be
found in a similar manner.
Example. Determine the points
where the line
3x-2y+6z=0,
x+2y-2z=8
pierces the coordinate planes, and
draw the line. Find direction
numbers for the line.
Solution: Substituting x = 0
in the given equations, we obtain Figure 136

-2y+6z=0,
2y-2z=8,
which have the simultaneous solution y = 6 and z = 2. Thus the given line
pierces the yz plane at the point (0,6,2). In a similar manner, we find the
other piercing points as shown in Figure 136.
Since the line is now known to contain the points (0,6,2) and (2,3,0), its
direction numbers are the differences in the coordinates [2,-3,-2].
342 Solid Analytic Geometry

146. Symmetric Equations of a Line

The equations of a line through the point (xl,yl,zl) and having the
direction numbers [a,b,c] can be found as follows. If (x,y,z) is a point
on the line, it is necessary that the differences x - x1, y - yi, and
z - z1 be proportional to the direction numbers. This means that
x, y, and z must satisfy the equations
x-x1 y - Yi Z -Z1
(1)
a b c

The equations (1) represent two independent linear equations, and

are called the symmetric form of the equations of a line.
If (xi,yi,zi) and (x2, y2,z2) are two distinct points, the direction of the
line joining them is [X2 - x1,y2 - y1,z2 - zl]. Hence the equations
of the line are
x-x1 _ Z-Z1 y-yl (2)
X2 X1 Y2 Y1 Z2-Zl
The equations (2) are called the two-point form of the equations
of a line.
Illustration. The equations of the line through the points (1,2, - 1) and
(2,2,0) are
x-1 _y-2 z+1
1 0 1 '
or x - z - 2 = 0, y - 2 = 0.
Note: When any of the constants a, b, and c are zero, we shall mean by
the form (1) the equivalent equations
a b c
x-x1 Y - Yi z -z1
x 0 z 1 = 0 = 0,
Thus the form = = means the equations determined from
x z
1 0 0 y
which in this case are y = 0 and z = 0.
If the equations of a line are given in general form, an equivalent
symmetric form can be found merely by finding two points on the line
and then substituting in (2).
Example I. Write the equations of the line x - y + 2z = 2, 2x + y -
z = 1 in symmetric form.
Solution: Setting z = 0 in the equations and solving, we find that x = 1
and y = -1. Letting x = 0 and solving, we obtain y = 4 and z = 3.
 Equations of a Line 343

Thus, since (1, -1,0) and (0,4,3) are two points on the line, the equations of
the line in symmetric form are
x-1y+l
_ z
- 1 5 3r

Example 2. Find the equations of a line through the point (-1,3,4) and
perpendicular to the plane 3x - y - z = 5.
Solution: Since the normal (or perpendicular) direction to the given plane
is [3, -1, -1], the equations of the required line are
x+l y-3 z-4
3 -1 -1
x 1 = y z
Example 3. Show that the lines x = y = z + 2 and 0
1 2
meet, and find their point of intersection.
Solution: Writing the equations of the lines in general form, we have
x=y,y=z+2andy=0,z=2x-2.
In order that the given lines meet, it is necessary that these four equations
have a common solution. Since x = 0, y = 0, and z = - 2 satisfy all four
equations, the given lines intersect at the point (0,0, - 2).
Example 4. Find the equation of the plane that contains the line
x-2_ y _ z+3
and is parallel to the line
x+1 _y-2 z
3 2 4 2 = 3T

Solution: Writing the equations of the first line in general form, we have
x+3y-2=0, 2y+z+3=0. (3)

All values of x and y that satisfy (3) will also satisfy the relation
(x + 3y - 2) + k(2y + z + 3) =0. (4)

Hence (4) represents a family of planes passing through the line (3). Writing
the equation (4) in general form, we have
x + (2k + 3)y + kz + (3k - 2) = 0. (5)

In order that the second of the given lines be parallel to (5), its direction
[4,2,3] must be perpendicular to the normal direction of the plane (5). This
means that
4(1) + 2(2k + 3) + 3(k) = 0.

Hence k = - ;°-; substituting this value in (5), we obtain the equation of the
required plane.
7x+y- lOz-44=0.
344 Solid Analytic Geometry

EXERCISE 86
Find the points where the following lines pierce the coordinate planes, and
draw the lines.
1. x + y + 4z = 6, 2x - 3y - 2z = 2. Ans. (0,-2,2), (2,0,1), (4,2,0).
2. 2x+y+z=6, x+2y-z=0.
3. x-y+2z=2, 2x - 3y+4z=0. (0,4,3), (6,4,0).
4. 4x-3y-5z= 1, 15x= 12y+20z.
Find the equations of the line through the following points.

5. (1,3,-2), (2,2,0). Ans.

x2-y2-z
1 -1 2*
6. (2,-2,3), (-1,2,5).
x + l y - 3 z - 4
7. (-1,3,4), (4,3,9).
1 0 1

8. (3,-1,-2), (5,3,-2).
Write the following equations in symmetric form.
9. x+2y+3z= 1, x+y+2z=0. Ans.
x+1 y-l z
1 1 -1
10. x+2y+4z=0, 2x-i-4y-z=9.
x- 2 y- 1
II. 3x+y-2z=7, 6x-5y-4z=7. 2 0
z
3
12. 2x+4y+z=4x+2y-z=3.
x
13. Find the acute angle between the lines = 2 = z and 5 4 z3
Ans. 45°.
Y1 1
14. Find the equations of the line parallel to the line 1 = = z and
2
passing through the point (1,-2,0).
15. Find the equations of the line perpendicular to the plane 2x + 3y -
7 = 0 at the point (2,1,0). Ans.
x-2 =y-1 = z
2 3 0
16. Show that the points (3 4 2) 2 2 3 and (3 , 1, 6) lie on a line and find its
equations.
Find the equation of the plane containing the line x = y = z and satisfy-
ing the following conditions.
17. Passing through the point (1,2,3). Ans. x - 2y + z = 0.
x+1 = y = z
18 . Parallel to the line
3 2 -1
19. Passing through the line x + 1 = y + 1 = z. x - y = 0.
20. Passing through the line x = 2y = 3z.
 Exercise 345

21. Show that the line 3 = y2 = 2 is parallel to the plane 2x + 2y -

z = 6, and find the distance between them. Ans. 2.
22. Find the acute angle between the line 3 1 - and the plane x +
2y=7.
23. Find the point on the line x = y = z that is equidistant from the points
(3,0,5) and (1,-1,4). Ans. (2,2,2).
24. Find the equation of the plane through the points (1,0,1) and (1,1,0) that
is parallel to the line x = y = z - 1.
25. Find the equations of the line through the point (4,3,2) that is per-
z 0
pendicular to the z axis. Ans.
4
3 2
x
26. Show that the line 1 = y l = z 2 2 is in the plane 2x + 4y +
1
z = 0.
27. Show that the linesx+y-3z=0, 2x+3y-8z=1 and3x-
y-z=3, x+y-3z=5areparallel.
28. Find the equation of the plane determined by the lines in Problem 27.
x
29. Show that the lines = y +
3 = z+1
and
x - 3 = y = z - 1 inter-
1 2 3 2 1 -1
sect by finding their point of intersection. Ans. (1,-1,2).
30. Find the equation of the plane determined by the lines in Problem 29.
31. Find the distance between the parallel lines 6 and x 6 7
= y2 =
y _z+1 1
Ans. 3.
-2 1
32. Find the distance from the point (2,3,4) to the line x = y = z.
z 6
33. Find the distance between the lines 1 = 2 = 3 and
3 2 1

Ans. V6_.
34. Find the area of the triangle whose sides have the equations
3 4 5'
X Y = z
and
x y+5 z+16
2 1 2 1 3 7
35. If t is a parameter, show that x = xl + at, y = yl + bt, z = z1 + ct
are parametric equations of a line that passes through the point (xl,yl,zl)
with direction numbers [a,b,c].
36. Show that I B1 C1 I I C1 A 1 , and IA2
A 1 B1 I are direction numbers
B2 C2 C2 A21 B2
for a line whose equations are A1x + Bly + Clz + D1 = 0, A2x +
B2y+C2z+D2=0.
346 Solid Analytic Geometry
147. Equation of a Surface
It is apparent from our previous work that an equation in the vari-
ables x, y, and z usually represents a surface. In order to depict
graphically the nature of a surface, the following considerations will
prove helpful.
Extent. The extent of a surface is the ranges of the variables x, y,
and z which are permissible as coordinates of a point on the surface.
Thus, for the equation x2 + 4y2 + 9z2 = 36, the permissible ranges of
the variables are - 6 5 x < 6, - 3 < y 3, and - 2 < z < 2, respec-
t, vely.
The intercepts of a surface are determined by the
Intercepts.
points where the surface cuts the coordinate axes. Thus, for the
equation x + y2 - z2 = 4, the surface has an x intercept 4, y intercepts
- 2 and 2, and no z intercepts.
Traces. The traces of a surface are the curves of intersection of the
surface with the coordinate planes. Thus, for the equation x2 + y2 +
z = 4, the xy trace is the circle x2 + y2 = 4, the zx trace the parabola
x2 + z = 4, and the yz trace the parabola y2 + z = 4.
Sections. The sections of a surface are the curves of intersection of
the surface with specified planes. Thus, for the equation z = xy, the
section in the plane y = 4 is the line z = 4x, and the section in the plane
x = y is a parabola whose points are determined by the equation z = y2.
Symmetry with respect to a coordinate plane. A surface is symmetric
with respect to the yz plane if, and only if, its equation is unaltered when
x is replaced by - x. Similar statements hold for symmetry with
respect to the other coordinate planes. Thus, for the equation
x + y2 + z2 = y, the surface is symmetric with respect to the xy plane,
and it is not symmetric with respect to the yz or zx planes.
Symmetry with respect to a coordinate axis. A surface is symmetric
with respect to the x axis if, and only if, its equation is unaltered when
y and z are replaced by -y and - z, respectively. Similar statements
hold for symmetry with respect to the other coordinate axes. Thus,
for the equation z = xy + y2, the surface is symmetric with respect to
the z axis, and it is not symmetric with respect to the x or y axes.
Symmetry with respect to the origin. A surface is symmetric with
respect to the origin if, and only if, its equation is unaltered when x, y,
and z are replaced by - x, -y, and - z, respectively. Thus, for the
equation x2 + z2 + xy = 4, the surface is symmetric with respect to
the origin.
Example I. Sketch the surface whose equation is
x2 y2 z2
1.
16+ 9 + 4 =
 Equation of a Surface 347
Solution: Setting pairs of the variables equal to zero in turn, we obtain
the x, y, and z intercepts ± 4, ± 3, and ± 2, respectively.
Setting each of the variables equal to zero in turn, we find that the traces
in the yz, zx, and xy planes are ellipses whose respective equations are
y2
y2 z2 x2 z2 x2
9+4 16+4 16+9 = 1.

Since the surface is symmetric with respect to the origin and all the
coordinate axes and planes, the first-octant
sketch shown in Figure 137 is sufficient to
indicate the appearance of the surface.
Example 2. Sketch the surface whose
equation is z2 = x2 + y2.
Solution: It is evident that the zero inter-
cepts and the traces z = ± x and z = ± y are
not sufficient to determine the appearance of
the surface. Hence we take sections parallel
to the xy plane. Thus, for z = 2 and
z = -2, we obtain circular sections whose Figure 137
equations are x2 + y2 = 4. These sections
together with the traces give the cone shown in Figure 138.
Observe, as in this example, that when a surface is of infinite extent, we
sketch only the portion of it that is included between sections parallel to one
(or more) of the coordinate planes.

Any surface which is generated by a

straight line that remains parallel to a fixed
line and intersects a fixed curve is called a
cylinder. The curve is called a directing
curve, the moving line a generator, and a
particular position of the generator is an
element of the cylinder.
A section by a plane perpendicular to the
generators is called a right section, and it is
evident that all right sections are identical
curves. If the right sections have centers,
Figure 138 the line through these centers is called the
axis of the cylinder.
In accordance with these definitions, we have the following result.
Theorem. An equation in two variables represents a cylinder whose
generators are perpendicular to the plane of the two variables and whose
directing curve is the trace of the equation in that plane.
348 Solid Analytic Geometry

For example, if xl and yl are values satisfying the equation

f (x,y) = 0, it follows that the coordinates
of all points on the line x = xi, y = yl
are on the surface. The surface is thus
generated by these lines, all of which are
perpendicular to the xy plane and pass
through the xy trace.
Example 3. Sketch the surface whose equa-
tion is + Vz- = 'Va.
Solution: Since the yz trace of the surface is
a parabolic arc as shown in 66, page 9, we obtain
Figure 139
the cylindrical surface shown in Figure 139.

148. Quadric Surfaces

A surface whose equation is of the second degree in the variables
x, y, and z is called a quadric surface. Except for degenerate cases,
these surfaces can be classified into the nine types that are listed below.
Ellipsoid. The locus of the equation
x2 y2 z2
a2 + b 2 -{-
C2 = 1

is an ellipsoid. This surface is symmetric with respect to the three

coordinate planes, is bounded, and has a
point of symmetry at the origin, called the
center.
The segments of length 2a, 2b, and 2c
along the coordinate axes are called the
axes of the ellipsoid. When these axes are
equal, the surface is a sphere.
Hyperboloid of one sheet. The locus of
the equation
x2 y2 z2 Figure 140
a2+b2-C2= 1
is a hyperboloid of one sheet. This surface is symmetric with respect to
the z axis, called the axis of the surface, and has a point of symmetry
at the origin, called the center.
Sections of this surface made by the planes z = k are ellipses. The
ellipse is smallest when k = 0, and increases in size as k increases
numerically. The surface thus extends indefinitely in each of these
directions.
 Quadric Surfaces 349

Hyperboloid of two sheets. The locus of the equation

x2 y2 C2= 1 z2
a2- b2-

Figure 141 Figure 142

is a hyperboloid of two sheets. This surface is symmetric with respect

to the x axis, called the axis of the surface, and has a point of sym-
metry at the origin, called the center.
Sections of this surface made by the planes
x = k are ellipses starting with a point-ellipse
when Ik = a, and increasing in size as k in-
creases numerically. The surface thus consists
of two distinct parts that extend indefinitely in
each of these directions.
Elliptic paraboloid. The locus of the equa-
tion
x2 y2 z
a2 + b2 C

is an elliptic paraboloid. This surface is sym- Figure 143

metric with respect to the z axis, called the axis
of the surface, and the axis intersects the surface at a point called the
vertex.
Sections of this surface made by the planes z = k are ellipses
starting with a point-ellipse when k = 0, and increasing in size as k
350 Solid Analytic Geometry

increases numerically with the same sign as c. The surface thus lies
on one side of the xy plane and extends indefinitely in one direction.
Hyperbolic paraboloid. The locus of the equation
x2
a2 - y2 z
b2 c
is a hyperbolic paraboloid. This
surface is symmetric with respect
to the z axis, called the axis of
the surface, and the axis inter-
sects the surface at a point called
the vertex.
Sections of this surface made
by the planes x = h are parabolas
Figure 144 that open upward or downward
in accordance with the sign of c.
Sections made by the planes y = k are parabolas that open in the
opposite direction. The surface thus is "saddle-shaped" at the vertex
and extends indefinitely in all directions.
Elliptic cone. The locus of the equation
x2 y2 z2
a2 + b2 C2

is an elliptic cone. This surface is symmetric

with respect to the z axis, called the axis of
the surface, and has a point of symmetry at
the origin, called the vertex.
Sections of this surface made by the
planes z = k are ellipses starting with a
point-ellipse when k = 0 and increasing in
size as k increases numerically. The surface
thus extends indefinitely in each of these
directions. Since the trace of this surface
in either the zx or yz plane consists of a
pair of intersecting lines (degenerate hyper- Figure 145
bola), the surface can be considered as a
limiting surface existing between a hyperboloid of one sheet and a
hyperboloid of two sheets.
Elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic cylinders. The loci of equations
in two variables, such as
x2 y2 x2 y x2 y2
a2 + b2= 1, a2=
b a2- b2= 1,
 Exercise 351

Figure 146

are called elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic cylinders, respectively.

These surfaces have elements perpendicular to the xy plane, and are
named in accordance with their trace in that plane.

EXERCISE 87
Sketch and name the locus of each of the following equations.
1. x2+4y2+16x2=64. 2. x2+4y2+16x2=64z.
3. x+4y2+z2=0. 4. 2z=8-x2-y2.
5. X2 - 4y2 + 9z2 = 36. 6. y2+z2=4x2+4.
7. x2-4y2+9z2=0. 8. x2-4y2+9z2=4x.
9.2x+z2=4. 10. x2+y2=2(x+y).
11. x2=y2+z2+4. 12. 4y2-x-9z2=36.
Factor the following equations and describe the locus of each.
13. Z2 - 2z - 3 = 0. Ans. Two planes. 14. X2 - y2 = 0.
15. x2z + y2z = 0. xy plane and z axis. 16. yz + 1 = y + z.

Draw a figure of the solid in the first octant that is bounded by the co-
ordinate planes and the following surfaces.
17. x2+y2+z2=25, y=4.
18. y2+z2=25, x2+z2=25.
19. 4x2+y2+4x2=64, x2+y2= 16.
20. 4x2+4y2+z2=64, y+z=4.
21. x2+y2=64-8z, x=4, y=4.
22. x2+y2=z2+9, z = 4.
23. x2+y2=16, x+y+z=8.
24. x2+y2+4z= 64, x2+y2=z2.
25. Find the center and radius of the sphere whose equation is x2 + y2 +
Z2 = 6x + 8z.
Ans. C(3,0,4), 5.
352 Solid Analytic Geometry
26. Find the equation of the sphere of radius 2 whose center is at the point
(1,-1,0).
27. Find the equation of the sphere in the first octant that has a radius 3
and is tangent to the three coordinate planes.
Ans. x2+y2+z2-6x-6y-6z+18=0.
28. Find the equation of the sphere that is tangent to the plane 6x + 6y +
7z = 22 and has its center at the origin.
29. Find the equation of the central quadric Axe + By2 + Cz2 = K that
passes through the points (2,2,2), (1,0,0), and (0,2,3).
Ans. 20x2 - 31y2 + 16x2 = 20.
30. Find the equation of a cone whose yz trace is the ellipse y2 + 2z2 = 1
and whose vertex is at the point (2,0,0).
 CHAPTER 19

Partial Differentiation

149. Functions of Two or More Variables; Continuity

In the preceding chapters we have discussed the applications of the
calculus to functions of a single variable. We shall now apply the same
principles to functions of more than one independent variable.
If three variables x, y, and z are related so that, for each number
pair (x, y) in a domain of real numbers, we obtain one or more real
values for z, then z is said to be a function of two variables defined
in the domain D. If the number pair (x, y) is considered as the
rectangular coordinates of a point in a plane, the domain of definition
may be considered as a region in the coordinate plane. Thus, for the
function
z = V9 - x2 - y2,
the domain consists of all coordinate number pairs corresponding to
the points on or interior to the circle x2 + y2 = 9. The corresponding
range of the function is 0 < z < 3.
In the same manner, a correspondence in which a real number y is
determined by n numbers (xi, X2, , xn) is called a function of n

variables, and is written as y = f (xi, x2, , xn) .

In the work that follows we shall be concerned primarily with
functions which are continuous. The definition of continuity for a
function of two variables is given below. A similar definition holds
for functions of more than two variables.
A function f (x, y) of two independent variables is said to be continuous
for x = a and y = b, if it is defined for these and for neighboring values,
and if
lim f (x,y) = f (a,b),
x->a
y-+6

no matter how x and y approach their respective limits a and b.

353
354 Partial Differentiation

For instance, f (x,y) = xy is continuous at any point (a,b), since

If(x,y) -f(a,b)I = Ixy-abl = Ixy - xb+xb - abj
I x(y - b) I + Ib(x - a) I
can be made arbitrarily small by making both I x - a I and I y - b I small.
x2 - y2
Illustration. Observe that the function f (x, y) = is not con-
x2 + y 2
tinuous at (0,0), since f (0,0) is undefined, and furthermore
lim Llim f (x, y)1 = 1 and lim rlim f (x, y)1 = -1.
x-- O y-*O 1J y->O Lx-- O J

By writing f (x, y) in polar coordinates, we obtain f (r cos 0,r sin 0) _

cos 20, which indicates that the function can assume all values between -1
and 1 no matter how close the point (x, y) is to the origin.
Note also that the function f (x, y) = (x2 + y2)1/x2 - 1 is discontinuous
at the origin, since (0,0) is an isolated point.
Considering x, y, and z to be the rectangular coordinates of a point
in space, we know from analytic geometry that a relation of the form
z = f (x,y) represents, in general, a surface.
From a geometric point of view the defini-
tion of continuity states essentially that a
sufficiently small change in the independent
variables produces an arbitrarily small change
in the function. Thus, in Figure 147, the
increment Oz is small when Ox and Ay are
small. Conversely, when the function is con-
tinuous, Oz approaches zero when Ax and
Ay both independently approach zero.
A function f (x, y) is said to be continuous
in a region of the xy plane when it is con-
Figure 147 tinuous at each point of the region. A
continuous function of two or more variables
has properties similar to those of a continuous function of one vari-
able. For example, if f (x, y) is continuous in a domain D, then there
exist points in D where f (x, y) attains its maximum value M, its
minimum value m, and any intermediate value from m to M.

150. Partial Derivatives

Let us consider a function z of two independent variables
z = f (x,y). (1)

If y is held constant in (1), z becomes a function of x alone. As a result,

 Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives 355

we can compute the derivative of z with respect to x. The derivative

found in this manner is called the partial derivative of z with respect
to x, and is denoted by the symbol az/ax. In like manner, when x is
held constant, we can find the partial derivative of z with respect to y.
This derivative is denoted by az/ay.
Illustration. If z = x2 + 3xy - 4y2, we obtain

ax=2x+3y, -=3x-8y.
Y

Other symbols used to represent the partial derivatives of a function

of two variables are

TX 'a' ax f (x, y) , fx (x, y) , _fx, zx,

a
ayz, of,
y
a f(x,.Y), fy(x,y), fy,
y
zy.

In general, a function u = f (x, y,z, ) of any number of variables

may have a partial derivative with respect to each of its variables.
Thus, in accordance with the definition of a derivative, it follows that
au t (x + Ox, y,z, ...) - f (x, y,z, ... )
lira
ax Ax->0 Ox

and so on for the other variables, provided the limits exist.

x3
Example. If z = Y, show that x ax + y az = Z.
xY Y

Solution: Writing z = x2y-1 - x-1y2, we have

zx = 2xy-1 + x-2y2, zy = -x2y-2 - 2x-ly.

Hence
xzx + yzy = 2x2y-1 + x-1y2 - x2y-1 - 2x-1y2

= x2y-1 - x-'y2 = Z.

151. Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives

Let z = f (x, y) be the equation of the surface shown in Figure 148.
If a plane is passed through any point P of the surface parallel to the
xz plane, we cut from the surface a curve APB. As a point moves
along this curve, its coordinates z and x vary while y remains constant,
and the slope of the tangent line at P represents the rate at which z
356 Partial Differentiation

Figure 148

changes with respect to x. Thus the partial derivatives have the

geometrical significance
az
= tan a = slope of APB at P,
ax
az = tan = slope of CPD at P.
ay

152. Partial Derivatives of Higher Order

Since the partial derivatives of a function z = f (x, y) are themselves
functions of x and y, they may in turn be differentiated. Their partial
derivatives, if they exist, are called the second partial derivatives of
z, and each is denoted by one of the following symbols.
a az a2z a2f
TX (ax) ax2 - zxx ax2 - fxx,
a (OZ) 02Z a2f
= zyx =
ax ay) - ax ay ax ay = fyx
a (OZ) a2z a2f
T ax= ay ax = zxy = ay ax = f xy,
a 'az\
ay J
- a2z
ay2 = zyy = ay2
a2f
fyy
ay

Of the four derivatives shown above only three are usually distinct
from one another. This is true since it can be shown that zyx and zxy
 Exercise 357

are identical for all values of x and y for which the derivatives are
continuous.
Illustration I. If z = x3y + 4xy2, we have
zx = 3x2y + 4y2; hence zxy = 3x2 + 8y,
and
zy = x3 + 8xy; hence zyx = 3x2 + 8y.

Because of the above property, it follows that a mixed partial

derivative of higher order may be obtained by differentiating with
respect to the variables in any order whatsoever. As an illustration
of the manner of proof, we have
a3z a az a a2z a3z
ax2 ay ax ax ay = ax ay ax = ax ay ax'
and
a3z a2 az a2 az\ a3z
ax ay ax = ax ay ax = ay ax ax, = ay ax2
Thus we conclude that a function of two variables has only four
distinct partial derivatives of the third order, namely,
a3z a3z a3z a3z
ax3' ax-2 ay' ax ay2' ay3.

The above discussion applies in like manner to functions of any

number of variables.
Illustration 2. If V = x2 + y2 + z2, then Vz = 2x, Vy = 2y, Vz = 2z,
and Vzx=Vyy=V22=2,Vzy=Vzz= Vyz=0.

EXERCISE 88

I. What is the domain of Jx + Y as a real function? At what points

Y
is it discontinuous? Ans. X2 > y2 and x = y; x + y = 0.
2. What is the domain of xy/ln (x2 + y2 - 1) as a real function? At what
points is it discontinuous?
3. The function f (x, y) _ sinx(x- -yy) x y, and f (x, y) = h, x = y is
continuous. What is the value of h? Ans. 1.
2x2 2
4. Is the function f (x, y) =
x2 +yy2'
(x, y) (0,0), and f (0,0) = 0
continuous?
358 Partial Differentiation
Find the first partial derivatives of the following functions.

5. u=x+y Ans .
ax= (x+y) 2' ay (x+y)2
6. 1c= x2-y2.
7. z = x sin (y - x).
Ans. zz = sin (y - x) - x cos (y - x), zy = x cos (y - x).
8. z = In (x + x2 _ y2).
x y2
9. V= Cot-1 L Ans. vz = + y2, vy =
x x2 x2 +
10. v = Sin-11/1 - x2y2.

II. u=xy+yz+zx. uz=y+z, uy=x+z, Uz=x+Y.

12. u=In x2+y2+z2.

13. If f(x,y) = 2x2 - xy, find f.,(2,3) and fy(2,3). 5, -2.

14. If f(x,y) = x y find f,(1,0) and fy(1,0).

x
15. If F(x,y) = In (x2y - xy2), find F,(3,2) and Fy(3,2). 4 -1
3, 2

16. If F(x,y) = e-z tan (x + y), find Fz(0, l rr) and Fy(0,yr).
22
17. If z = z + y, show that x ax + y ay = 3z.
18. If z = Ax3 + Bx2y + Cxy2 + Dy3, show that xzz + yzy = 3z.
ez+y
19. If u = e+ey,showthata +aau =u
Y
20. If u = (Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2)n, show that xuz + yuy = 2nu.
21. If z = e-y cos (x - y), show that zz + zy + z = 0.
22. If u = x3 + y3 + z3 - 3xyz, show that xuz + yuy + zuZ = 3u.
23. If u = exly + eylz + ezlx, show that xuz + yuy + zuZ = 0.
24. If u = x2y + y2z + z2x, show that it, + uy + uz = (x + y + z)2.
82z a2z
In each of the following show that =
ax ay ay ax

25. Z = (x2 + y2)3/2. 26. z= x+Y

x-y
27. z = Sin-1 y
x
28. z=1n(x+1x2+ Y2)
2 2
In each of the following show that az2 + ay2 = 0.
29. z = In (x2 + y2). 30. z = ex sin y + ey sin x.
2xy
31. z = Tan-1 Z. 32. z = Tan-1 x2-y2
x
a
33. If it = (Ax2 + By2)3, verify that
ax231a Y aY ax2
34. If z = In (x - y) + tan (x + y), show that zxx = zyy.
 Increment and Total Differential of a Function 359

35. If z = xy + y In xy, show that xzxx + yzxy = y2zyy.

36. As (x, y) - (0,0), prove that x + y approaches a limit but that xly does
not.
37. If f (x, y) = x2 - y2, how close to the origin should the point (x, y) be
taken in order that f f (x, y) - f (0,0) 1 < 0.01?
Ans. - 0.1 < x,y < 0.1.
38. If f (x, y) = 2xy/(x2 + y2) for (x, y) (0,0) and f (0,0) = 0, show that
8f/8x and 8f/8y exist at (0,0) but are not continuous there.
39. A function f (x, y,z) is said to be homogeneous of order n provided
f (tx,ty,tz) = to f (x, y,z). If its partial derivatives exist, prove that
xfx + yfy + zfz = n f (x, y,z).
40. If f (x, y) is a homogeneous function of order n and if its second partial
derivatives exist, show that x2fxx + 2xyfxy + y2fyy = n(n - 1)f(x,y).

153. Increment and Total Differential of a Function

Let us consider a function of two independent variables z = f (x, y) .

If x and y are assigned arbitrary increments Ax and Ay, the given

function changes by an amount
Az=f(x+Ax,y+Ay) -f(x,y), (1)

which is called the increment of the function.

Illustration I. If z = 2x2 + 3y2, we have
z+Az=2(x+Ax)2+3(y+Ay)2.
Hence
Az = 4x Ax + 6y Ay + 2(0x) 2 + 3 (Ay) 2.
In general, the increment Az may be expressed in the form indicated
in the following theorem.
Theorem. If z and its first partial derivatives are continuous in the
neighborhood of the point (x,y), then

Az = Ax + az Ay + E1 Ax + E2 Ay, (2)
ax y
where E1 and E2 are quantities such that
lira E1 = 0 and lim E2 = 0.
Ax,Ay-->.O Ax,Ay-*0

Proof: Adding and subtracting f (x, y + Ay) in the right member

of (1), we have
Az = f (x + Ax,y + Ay) -f(x,y+Ay) +f(x,y+Ay) -f(x,y). (3)
360 Partial Differentiation
Applying the law of the mean, Article 76, to each of the two differ-
ences in (3), we obtain

f(x+Ox,y+Ay) -f(x,y+oy) =Oxaf(x+01Ax,y+Dy),

f(x,y + oy) - f(x,y) = Ay af(x,y + 02 ay),
where 0 < 01 < 1 and 0 < 02 < 1. Substituting these relations in (3),
we have
Oz = fz(x + 61 AX, Y + Dy) Ox + .fy(x,y + 62 Oy) Ay- (4)
Since by hypothesis the partial derivatives are continuous near
(x, y) , we may write
fz(x + 6 ox,y + Dy) = fz(x,y) + E1,
fy(x,y + 02 Dy) = fy(x,y) + E2,
where E1 and E2 are quantities such that
lim E1 = 0, lira E2 = 0.
Ax,Dy-*0 Ay->0

Substituting in (4), we obtain the result (2), and the theorem is

proved.
Note : Observe in Illustration 1 that El = 2 Ox and E2 = 3 Ay.
For sufficiently small values of Ox and Ay, we see that Oz is given to
any desired accuracy by the sum of the first two terms in the right
member of (2). This sum is called the total differential or differential
of z and is denoted by the symbol dz. Thus, by definition,

dz = ax Ax + az Oy (5)
y
When z = x or z = y, the equation (5) gives respectively dx = Ox
or dy = Ay. For this reason, we define the differential of each inde-
pendent variable to be the same as its increment. The relation (5) may
then be written in its usual form
dz = ax dx + az dy. (6)
y
A similar definition applies to functions of more than two inde-
pendent variables. For example, if it = f (x,y,z), we have

du = au dx + au dy + au dz. (7)
ax ay az
 Approximations and Errors 361

Illustration 2. If u = xy2z3, then by (7) we have

du - y2z3 dx + 2xyz3 dy + 3xy2z2 dz.
The general differential operations that apply to functions of a
single variable may easily be shown to apply to functions of several
variables. For example, if it is a differentiable function of x and y,

.
it follows for z = tan u that

Hence
- = sect u ax and
y
ay
= sect u
ay

Oz 8z au 8u
dx + dy = sect u dx + dy ,
ax ay ax ay
which by (6) means that
dz = sect u du.

154. Approximations and Errors

When small changes are made in the variables of a function u, it
follows from the discussion in the preceding article that the differential
du may be taken as an approximation for Au. This is also true when
the variables are measurements which are subject to small experimental
errors. In the latter case du is called the approximate error in U.
Example I. Two sides and the included angle of a triangle change from
6, 8, and 30° to 6.2, 8.1, and 29°, respectively. Find, approximately, the
change in the area.
Solution: Using the relation A = 2xy sin 0, we obtain the differential
of area
dA = y sin 0 dx + Jx sin 0 dy + xy cos 0 d0. (1)

From the given data we have x = 6, y = 8, 0 = 30° and dx = 0.2, dy =

0.1, dO = 1° _ -7r/180. Hence, by substitution in (1), we find

dA = 2(8) 2 (0.2) + 2(6) 2 (0.1) + 2(6)(8)( 23)(- 7T

180

= 0.4 + 0.15 - 0.363 = 0.187.

The actual increase is AA = 0.174.

As in Article 20, if du is the error in u, the ratio dulu is called the

relative error in u, and 100(du/u) the percentage error. The follow-
ing example illustrates how logarithmic differentiation may be used to
determine a relative error.
362 Partial Differentiation
Example 2. The diameter and height of a right circular cylinder are
measured to be 5 and 8 inches, respectively. If each of these dimensions
may be in error by ± 0.1 inch, find the greatest possible percentage error in
the volume of the cylinder.
Solution: The volume V of a right circular cylinder with diameter x and
height y is V = 4 x2y. Taking logarithms, we have
In V=1n4 +2inx+iny;
hence, by differentiation,
__x
dV2dx dy
+ y
It is apparent that dVI V will be greatest when dx and dy are positive.
Thus, taking x = 5, y = 8, dx = 0.1, and dy = 0.1, we obtain a maximum
relative error of
dV = 2(5 +
81 = 0.0525,

and a maximum percentage error of 54%.

EXERCISE 89
Find the total differential of each of the following functions.
1. 3x3 + 4x2y - 2y3. Ans. (9x2 + 8xy) dx + (4x2 - 6y2) dy.
2. Vx2 + y2.
3. (x2 - y2)3. 6(x2 - y2)2(x dx - y dy).
4. Sin-' (ylx)
5. xy + z2. y dx + x dy + 2z dz.
6. If the partial derivatives of the function u(x,y,z) exist, prove that
d(sin u) = cos u du.
Find the increment and differential of each of the following functions for
the given values of the variables and their increments.
7. x2-2xy+3y2; x=2, y=1, Ax=0.3, Ay = -0.1.
Ans. 0.58, 0.4.
8. xlny+ylnx; x=y=1, Ax=0.01, Ay = 0.02.
9. x x=6, y=2, Ox=0y=4.
10. yTan -lxy; x =2, y=0.5, Ax= -0.05, Dy=0.01.
II. x2yz3; x = y = 1, z=2, Ax=Az=0.1, Ay= -0.2.
Ans. 0.964648, 1.2.
12. exsin(y-z); x=y=z=0, Ax= -0.1, Dy=0.2, Az=0.05.
 Exercise 363

13. Find the approximate change in the length of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle when its legs change from 6 feet and 8 feet to 6.1 feet and
7.9 feet, respectively. Ans. -0.02 ft.
14. Find an approximate value of 1/(4.99)3 - (2.02)2. Hint: Use z =
1/x3 - y2 and find z + dz.
15. Find by use of differentials the approximate area of a right triangle if
the length of the long leg and hypotenuse are 14.9 inches and 17.1 inches,
respectively. Ans. 62.6 sq. in.
16. Find, approximately, the amount of metal in a closed tin can 3 inches in
diameter and 5 inches high, if the metal is 3 2 inch thick. Hint : Use
V = 17rD2H and find dV.
17. Find by use of differentials the approximate total area of a right circular
cone whose base radius and height are 5.03 inches and 11.89 inches,
respectively. Ans. 90.24ir sq. in.
18. Using differentials, find an approximate value for µ = sin i/sin r when
i = 29°30' and r = 46°.
19. Two sides and the included angle of a triangle are found by measure-
ment to be 40 feet, 33 feet, and 60°, respectively. If there is a possible
error of 0.5 foot in measuring each side and 0.5° in measuring the angle,
what is approximately the greatest possible error in the computed value
of the third side? Ans. 0.76 ft.
20. A chord of a circle and the central angle which it subtends are measured
to be 6 inches and 60°. If there are possible errors in these measure-
ments of 0.1 inch and 1 °, respectively, find the greatest possible relative
error in the computed value of the radius.
21. The specific gravity of a body is given by the formula s = A/(A - W),
where A is the weight in air and W the weight in water. If, for a certain
body, A = 16 pounds, W = 8 pounds, and each of these values may
be in error by 0.01 pound, what is approximately the greatest possible
error in the computed value of s? Ans. 0.00375.
22. If each of the dimensions of a rectangular box is measured with an error
not exceeding 1 %, what is approximately the greatest possible per-
centage error in the computed value of the volume?
23. The bases and side of an isosceles trapezoid are found by measurement
to be 4 feet, 10 feet, and 5 feet, respectively. If each of these measure-
ments may be in error by 2%, find approximately the greatest possible
percentage error in the computed value of the area. Ans. 4.9%.
24. When two electrical resistances rl and r2 are connected in series or in
parallel, the circuit resistance R is given by R = ri + r2 or 1/R =
1 /rl + 1 /r2, respectively. If the values ri and r2 are subject to the same
percentage error e, show in both cases that e is approximately the
greatest percentage error in R.
364 Partial Differentiation
155. Total Derivatives
Let us now consider the function
z = f (x,y), (1)
where x and y are both continuous functions of a third variable t ;
that is,
x = ON, y = CO. (2)

If the values (2) are substituted in (1), z becomes a function of the

single variable t, and its derivative may be found in the usual manner.
Thus, as given in (2), Article 153, we divide Az by At to obtain
Oz _ az Ox az Ay Ax Ay
(3)
Ot TX t + ay 0t + Elot + E20t'
and then let At approach zero. However, as At approaches zero, it
follows from Ox = 0(t + At) - 0(t) and Ay = b(t + At) - fi(t) that
Ax and Ay also approach zero. Hence
lim E1 = 0, lim E2 = 0,
At-->O

and in the limit (3) becomes

dz az dx az dy
dt ax dt + ay t (4)

provided the indicated derivatives exist.

Multiplying both members of (4) by dt, we see that formula (6) of
Article 153 is also valid when x and y are related variables.

Illustration 1. If z = x In y, x = t2, y = et, then ax = In y, = Y'

dx dy
= 2t, = et, and by (4)
(2)
2
et = 3t2.
dt = (In et) 2t +
The above result could be obtained more easily by first writing
z = t2 In et = t3, and then differentiating. This method of substitution
is usually more difficult, however, and is often impossible when the
relations (2) are given implicitly.
Following a similar procedure, we have the following result.
Theorem. If u is a function of n variables x, y, z, , and each of
these variables is a function of t, then
du au dx au dy au dz
dtaxdt+aydt+azat+
 Total Derivatives 365

Taking t = x, we can write the above result in the following form.

Corollary. If u is a function of n variables x, y, z, , and each
of the (n - 1) variables y, z, is a function of x, then

du au au dy au dz
(6)
dx =ax+aydx+ azdx+.. .
Illustration 2. If z = x/y and x2 + y2 = a2, then zz = 1/y, zy = -x/y2,
x + yy' = 0, and by (6)
2 + x2 2
ax=y+ Y y3
y2 Yl

Observe in the above illustration the difference in meaning between

dz/dx and az/8x. The partial derivative az/ax is obtained from z =
f (x, y) on the supposition that y is constant, whereas y is actually a
function of x and hence must vary as x varies. On the other hand, we
have
dz
= lim
(Oz

dx AX-+0

where Oz is the total increment of z caused by the increment Ox and the

related increment Ay. In order to emphasize its meaning, dz/dx is
called the total derivative of z with respect to x.
The above formulas are useful in many applications where several
time-rates are involved.
Example. The height of a right circular cylinder is 50 inches and de-
creases at the rate of 4 inches per second, while the radius of the base is 20
inches and increases at the rate of 1 inch per second. At what rate is the
volume changing?

Solution: Using the formula V = 7rr2h and applying (4), we obtain

dV = 27rrh dr + ,Tr2 dh
W dt dt

Since h = 50, r = 20, dt = -4, and dt = 1, we find

dV
27r(20)(50)(1) + 7T(20)2(-4)

Thus the volume is increasing 1257 cubic inches per second.

366 Partial Differentiation
156. Chain Rule for Partial Derivatives
A functional dependency such as that discussed in the preceding
article is often indicated by writing
u--->- (x,y,z, )-mot. (1}

This is called a chain relation and is used to indicate that the function
u is defined in terms of intermediate variables x, y, z, , each of

which in turn is expressed in terms of the variable t. The relation (1)

means essentially that u is a function of one independent variable and
as such could be written as u = f (t).
In a similar manner u can be expressed as a function of two variables
s and t in a chain relation
u -* (x, y, z, ...) -.. (s, t). (2)

In this case each of the intermediate variables is a function of both s

and t. If the variables is held constant, the relation (2) becomes a
relation like (1) and so, by the theorem in the preceding article, we have
au au ax au ay all az
(3}
at ax at + ay at + az at +
where the partial derivatives with respect to t imply that s is being
held constant. Similarly, if t is held constant we obtain
au au ax au ay au az
(4)
as = ax as + ay as + az as +
The relations (3) and (4) indicate in general how the chain rule
operates. It is immaterial how many intermediate and independent
variables are involved in the chain. Observe, however, that a partial
derivative such as (3) involves all of the intermediate variables and only
one independent variable.

Illustration. If w = u2 + v2, and it = xyz, v = x2 + z2, the partial

derivative of w with respect to y is
aw aw au aw av
ay auay +avay
_ (2u) (xz) + (2v) (0) = 2x2yz2.
Note: A function is sometimes expressed in a form such as u =
f (x2 - y2, xy) ; this signifies a chain relation u = f (s,t), s = x2 - y2, t = xy.
Thus, for example, we find au/ax = (af/as)2x + (af/at) y. However, since s
and t were not involved in the given function, it is customary to write fl and
 Differentiation of Implicit Functions 367

f2 to indicate the partial derivatives with respect to their positions in the

function ; thus for the given relation we would write
au _

157. Differentiation of Implicit Functions

If z = f (x, y) and y is a function of x, it follows from Article 155
that
dz _ of of dy
dx ax ay dx

For z = 0 identically, we have dz/dx = 0; hence

ax+af d =0.
ay dx

Solving for dy/dx, we obtain the following result.

Theorem 1. If y is defined as an implicit function of x by the equation
f (x,y) = 0, then
of
of
dy
dx
- ax
af,

ay
# o. (1)

ay

Illustration 1. If f (x, y) - x siny + y cos x = 0, we have

ax = sin y - y sin x, ay = x cos y + cos x,

and by (1)
dy siny - ysinx
_xcosy+cosx.
ax= (2)

The method of implicit differentiation discussed in Article 43 always

gives the same result as (1). For example, differentiating the function
of Illustration 1, we obtain

sin y + x cos y dI + (cosx-2 - y sin xl = 0,

which leads to (2).

Now let z be defined as a function of x and y by the equation
368 Partial Differentiation
F(x,y,z) = 0. If y is held constant, F(x,y,z) reduces to a function of
x and z alone, and by use of (1) we obtain
8F
8z 8x 8F
0,
8x 8F 8z
8z

where the left member is a partial derivative since y is held constant.

In a similar manner, by holding x constant we find 8z/8y.
Theorem 2. If z is defined as an implicit function of x and y by the
equation F(x,y,z) = 0, then
8z Fx 8z Fy
Fz 0. (3)
8x Fz' ey Fz'

Illustration 2. IfF=x3+y3+z3+3xyz= 0, we have

Fx = 3x2 + 3yz, FY = 3y2 + 3xz, Fz = 3z2 + 3xy,
and by (3)
as x2 + yz as y2 + xz
8x z2 + xy' ay z2 + xy

EXERCISE 90
Find du/dt in each of the following.
1. u=x2-2xy+y2, x = ( t + 1)2, y1 ) 2 . Ans. 32t.
2. u= x = sin t, y = sec t.
Tan-1 (xy),
3. u = x sin y, x = 1/t, y = Tan-1 t. -t/(l + t2)3/2.

4. u=InJz+y) x =sect, y=tan t.

Find du/dx in each of the following.
5. u = (x - Y)/(1 - Y), y = x-2. Ans. 1 - (x + 1) -2.
6. u = Sin-' (x/y), y = 1/1 + x2.
7. u = In (x2 + y2 + z2), y = x sin x, z = x cos x. 2/x.
8. u = (x + y)/(x + z), y = In x, z = In (1/x).

Find dy/dx in each of the following.

9. 2x3 + 3x2y - y3 = 1. Ans. 2x/(y - x).
10. In (x2 + y2) = 2 Tan-' (y/x).
II. 2x2-3xy+y2=0. 1 or 2.
12. xyyx = 1. Hint: Take logarithms.
 Exercise 369

Find azlax and azl ay in each of the following.

13. X2 + y2 + z2 = 9. Ans. -x/z, -y/z.
14. xy + yz + zx = 4xyz.
15. ex + ey + ez = - (ey + ez) I (ex + ey),
ex+y+z.

- (ex + ez)l (ex + ey).

16. z=y Tan-1 (zx).

Find aul ax and aul ay in each of the following.

17. u=r2+s2, r=x+y, s=x-y. Ans. 4x, 4y.
18. u=P+qr, P=x2, q=xy, r=y2.
19. it = r2 sin 20, r= x2 + y2, 0 = Tan-1 (Y/x). 12y1, 12x1.
20. u=(yn-n)/(m+n), m = sin (x + y), n = sin (x - y).
21. Angle A of triangle ABC is decreasing at the rate of 2° per second, while
the sides AB and A C are increasing at the rates 2 and 3 feet per second,
respectively. If at a certain instant A = 60°, AB = 8 feet, AC = 5 feet,
how fast is the area of the triangle changing? Ans. 14.4 sq. ft./sec.
22. In Problem 21, how fast is the side BC changing?
23. A particle P is moving with a constant speed of 13 feet per second clock-
wise around the circle x2 + y2 = 25, where x and y are expressed in
feet. When P passes through the point (3,4), how fast is it moving away
from the point A (0,2)? Ans. s 13 ft./sec.
24. In Problem 23, find the angular velocity of the line AP.
25. If f (x, y) = 0, show that dx2 = - (f 2 fxx - 2fj yf __Y + f 2f yy) If 1
26. Use the transformation y - ax = is, y + ax = v to find the partial
differential equation in V, is, and v that corresponds to
V - a ay = 0.
2
27. If u = f (x + iy) + g(x - iy), where i = V - 1, show that az2 -}
a2u
aye0.
28. By use of the relations x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0, express Laplace's
2 C92

equation ax2 + 2 = 0 in polar coordinates.

29. If f (x, y) = 0 and g(x,z) = 0, and z is taken for the independent variable,

show that agx ay dz ax az

When y is eliminated from the two equations z = F(x, y) and G(x, y) = 0,
the result can be written as z = H(x). Express the derivative H'(x) in
terms of Fx, Fy, G, and Gy.
31. If F(p,v,t) = 0, show that LP at 8v = -1. Explain.
at TV ap
370 Partial Differentiation

32. If E = f (V,T) and PV = k, where k is a constant, find (aE) and

(v).PNote: The notation (8E/8P)T signifies that P and T are to be

considered the independent variables.
33. If w = F(xz, yz), show that x w + yaw = z
ay 8z

158. Tangent Line and Normal Plane to a Curve

Let the equation of the curve shown in Figure 149 be
x=f(t), y = g(t), z=h(t), (1)

and let P(xi,yl,zi) and Q(xi + Ox, yi + Ay, zi + Oz) be two points on
the curve corresponding to the values ti and ti + At of the parameter.
The direction cosines of PQ, in accordance with 44, page 6, are pro-
portional to the numbers [Ox, Ay, Oz], and
hence to
Ox Ay Oz (2)
[At fit' :Kt
As At approaches zero, Q approaches
P along the curve, and if the line PQ
approaches a limit, this limiting line is
called the tangent line at P. Hence the
direction numbers of the tangent at P are
the limits of (2), that is,

Figure 149
(dx
f T, 1'
di I l'
dz(3)
dill
L I (dy\ ( I
where the subscript indicates the value for t = ti.
Thus, in accordance with 47, page 6, the equations of the line
tangent to the curve (1) at P(xi, yi,zi) are
x - xty - yt z- zi. (4)
dx dy dz
(dt 1 dt (dt 1

Also, in accordance with 46, page 6, the equation of the plane normal
to the curve (1) at P(xi, yi,zi) is
(4y)
1(y - yi) + (dr ) 1(z - zi) = 0.
dt 1 1(x - x1) +
(5)
dt
 Tangent Line and Normal Plane to a Curve 371

Illustration I. For the curve x = t, y = t2, z = t3 at the point where

ti = 2, we have xi = 2, yi = 4, zi = 8 and (dx/dt) i = 1, (dy/dt)1 = 4,
(dzldt)i = 12. Substituting these values in (4) and (5), we obtain the tangent
line
x-2 y-4 z-8
1 4 12
and the normal plane
(x-2) +4(y-4) + 12(z- 8) =0.
Now let us consider the curve defined in rectangular coordinates by
the intersection of the two surfaces
F(x,y,z) = 0, G(x,y,z) = 0, (6)

whose total differentials are

Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz = 0,
Gx dx + Gy dy + Gz dz = 0.
Solving the above equations for dy and dz in terms of dx, it can be
shown that
Fy Fz Fz Fx Fx Fy
dx : dy : dz = (7)
Gy Gz Gz Gx Gx Gy

Thus, in accordance with (3), these determinants evaluated at a

point P(xi, yi,zi) of the curve give the direction of the tangent line at
that point. The equations of the tangent line and normal plane may
then be found from (4) and (5) by using the values (7) in place of (3).
Illustration 2. Consider the circle which is defined by the equations
F(x,y,z) -x2+y2+z2 - 14 = 0,
G(x,y,z) = x2 + y2 - 5 = 0,
and which passes through the point P(1,2,3). For the above equations, we
have Fx = 2x, FY = 2y, Fz = 2z, and Gx = 2x, Gy = 2y, Gz = 0. Hence,
in accordance with (7), at P we find
4 6 6 2 2 4
dx:dy:dz = = -24:12:0 = 2:-1:0.
4 0 0 2 2 4

Thus by (4) the equations of the tangent line are

x-l y-2 z-3 z=3,
x+2y-5,
2 0 ' -1 - or

and by (5) the equation of the normal plane is

2(x- 1) - (y-2) =0 or 2x-y=0.
372 Partial Differentiation

Note: At points where all the numbers in (3) are zero, the tangent line
and normal plane are not determined. Such points are called singular points
of the curve.

159. Normal Line and Tangent Plane to a Surface

Let us consider a surface whose equation is
S(x,y,z) = 0, (1)

and let the equations

x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t) (2)

define a curve which lies on (1) and passes through the point P(xi,yi,zi).
Since the values (2) satisfy (1) for all values of t, it follows from the
theorem, Article 155, that
aSl dx (IS) dyl (IS) dzl 0.
dt1 + az1 dt I1 =
(3)
ax 1 1 dt)1 + ay 1

This relation expresses the fact that the lines having the direction
numbers
(4)

and
dx(T)i
(5)
C '
are mutually perpendicular. For a given point on the surface it is clear
that the numbers (4) represent a fixed direction. Since this direction is
perpendicular to (5), which are the direction numbers at P of any curve
on the surface, we call (4) the direction numbers of the normal to the surface
at the point P.
Thus the equations of the normal line to the surface (1) at P(xi,yi,zi)
are
y - yi x-z1 (6)
as)
ax `ay)1 (az)i
and the equation of the tangent plane to the surface is
as (x - x1) + as fi ( - Z1) = 0.
11(y - yi) + (7)
y f
 Exercise 373

Illustration. At the point (1,2,-2) of the ellipsoid S(x,y,z) = 9x2 +

4y2 + z2 - 29 = 0, we have
8S)
= (18x)1 = 18,
axle
(a'-S
Y )= (8y)1 = 16,
OS) = (2z) 4.
(az 1

Hence by (6) the equations of the normal line are

x- 1 y- 2 z+ 2
9 8 -2 '
and by (7) the equation of the tangent plane is
9(x- 1) +8(y-2) -2(z+2) =0.
EXERCISE 91
Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal plane to each of
the following curves at the point indicated.
1. x=t2+1, y=t-1, z=t3; t=1.
Ans. 2(x-2) =y= 2(z- 1);2x+y+3z=7.
2. x=2t4, y=t2, z= 1 -t3; t= 1.
3. x=2t-1, y=6-t2, z=4/t; t=2.
Ans. 2(x-3) = -4(y-2) = -(z-2);2x-4y-z+4=0.
4. x=t2+3t-4, y=t3-2t2+1, z=t2-t4; t=1.
5. x =cost, y = sin t, z = t; t =-17T.
Ans. x + z = 27r,y= 1;z-x=27r.
6. x=et, y=e-t, z =t; t=0.
7. x2+y2+z2=9, z=xy; (1,2,2).
Ans. 4(x-1)= -2(y-2)= 2(z-2);4x-5y+3z=0.
8. x2-y2+z2=2, 3x2+2y2-z2=2; (1,0,-1).
9. X2 + y2 = 25, 2x + y - z2 = 6; (3,4,2).
Ans. 18(x-3)= -'12 (y-4)=2(z-2); 16x - 12y + 5z = 10.
10. x+xy=z, z+zx=y; (2 ,3,2).
II. z=2x2-xy, xy+yz+zx=3; (1,1,1).
Ans. x= 1,y+z=2;y=z.
12. x + In y = z, y + In z = x; (1,1,1).
Find the equations of the normal line and the tangent plane to each of
the following surfaces at the point indicated.
13. X2 + y2 + z2 = 49; (2,3,6).
Ans. 2(x-2) = 2(y-3) = 6(z-6);2x+3y+6z= 49.
14. Z2 = x2 + y2; (3,4,5).
374 Partial Differentiation
15. xy + yz + zx = 11; (1,2,3).
Ans. 5(x- 1) = 4(y-2) = 3(z- 3); 5x + 4y + 3z = 22.
16. Z2 =x+y+2; (3,-1,2).
17. 4x2 + 3y2 + z2 = 8; (2 ,1,2).
Ans. 1(x-2) = 3(y- 1) =2(z-2);2x+3y+2z=8.
18. (x + y)2 + z2 = 25; (1,2,4).
19. xyz = x + Y + z; (2, 3,-1).
Ans. $(x-2)=s(y- 2)=s(z+ 1); 8x+9y+5z=2.
20. Vx- + Vy- + Vz- = 6; (1,4,9).
21. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the paraboloid z = axe + by2
at the point (xi,yi,zi). Ans. 2(z + zi) = axlx + byly.
22. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the ellipsoid axe + by2 +
cz2 = d at the point (xi, yl,zi) .

23. Show that the surfaces 4x2 + y2 + 9z2 = 108 and xyz = 36 are tangent
at the point (3,6,2).
24. Using (7), Article 158, find direction numbers for the straight line
fAix+Biy+Ciz+Di=0,
A2x+B2y+C2z+D2=0.
25. The surface z = x2 + 2y2 is cut by the curve x = t - 1, y = -2/t,
z = t2 - 1 at the point (1,-1,3). What is their angle of intersection?
Hint: Using 45, page 6, first find the angle between the curve and the
normal to the surface. Ans. 90° - Cos-I 8 = 12.1°.
3 161
26. Show that the curves x = 12, y = 1 - t, z = 2/t and x = 2t, y =
t2 - z = 1/t intersect at the point (1,0,2), and find their angle of
4,

intersection.
27. Show that the curve x = 3(t3 + 2), y = 2t2, z = 3t - 2 is per-
pendicular to the surface x2 + 2y2 + 3z2 = 15 at the point (2,2,1).
28. Find the angle at which the line x = y = z pierces the ellipsoid x2 +
y2+5z2=7.
29. Prove that the tetrahedron formed by the coordinate planes and any
tangent plane to the surface xyz = a3 has a constant volume equal to
9a3
z
30. Find the intercepts on the coordinate axes made by any tangent plane
of the surface x2/3 + y2/3 + z2/3 = a2/3, and show that the sum of their
squares is constant.
160. Maxima and Minima
A function f (x, y) of two independent variables is said to have a
relative maximum value (or minimum value) for x = a, y = b, if
f (a,b) is greater (or less) than f (x, y) for all values of x and y in the
neighborhood of a and b.
 Maxima and Minima 375

If f (x,y) has a maximum (or minimum) value at x = a, y = b, it

follows that the function f (x,b) of the single variable x has a maximum
(or minimum) at x = a. By Article 15, this means that

(of (x'b)l = 0.
\ ax x=a
Since a similar result holds for )the function f (a,y) we conclude that
if a function f (x, y) of two independent variables is to have a relative
maximum or minimum value f (a,b), it is necessary that

x f (x,y) = 0, ay f (x,y) = 0, (1)

for x = a, y = b.
Note: As for functions of a single variable, a relative maximum or mini-
mum may occur where the partial derivatives (1) do not exist. For example,
the function 1/x2 + y2 has an obvious minimum at (0,0), but neither partial
derivative exists there. In the remaining discussion we shall omit further
reference to this type of critical point.
Illustration. To find the minimum value attained by the function f (x, y) _
x2 + y2 + 2x - 4y, we apply (1) to obtain
a =2x+2=0,f =2y-4=0. Y

Solving, we find x = -1, y = 2, and hence f (-1,2) _ -5. Writing the

given function in the form f (x, y) = (x + 1) 2 + (y - 2) 2 - 5, we see that
- 5 is a minimum value.
By reasoning as above, we obtain the following general result.
Theorem. If a function of n independent variables f (x, y,z, ) and
its first partial derivatives exist in a region containing (a,b,c, ) as an
interior point, then in order that f (a,b,c, ) be a relative maximum or
minimum of f (x, y,z, .), it is necessary that
of=o, of
0, L (2)
ax ay ' az

for x = a, y = b, z = c,
Example I. Find the shortest distance from the point (1,2,3) to the plane
2x+2y+z=5.
Solution: The distance L from the given point to a general point
(x, y,z) of the plane is
L=1/(x-1)2+(Y-2)2+(z-3)2 (3)
376 Partial Differentiation
Taking x and y to be the independent variables, we substitute 5 - 2x -
2y for z, and on squaring, (3) becomes
L2_(x-1)2+(y-2)2+(2-2x-2y)2. (4)

Clearly, L is a minimum when L2 is a minimum; hence, applying (2) to (4),

we find
a(L2)
ax
-2(x- 1) -4(2-2x- 2y) = 0,
a(L2)
ay
=2(y-2) -4(2-2x-2y) =0.
Solving these equations simultaneously, we have
f5x + 4y = 5
hence x=s, Y=s
4x+5y=6;
Thus z = 5 - 2(9) - 2(-!-'-) = 93, and substitution in (3) gives
L = iv (-g)2 + (-9)2 + (-9)2 = 3.
Observe that 48, page 6, gives the same result.
When a function is defined in a bounded domain, it is possible that
the function may attain its absolute maximum or minimum at some
point on the boundary without satisfying the relations (2).
Example 2. The temperature in degrees centigrade at each point (x,y)
in the region x2 + y2 < 1 is given by T = 16x2 + 24x + 40y2. Find the
temperature at the hottest and coldest point in the region.
Solution: By applying (2), we find

aT =32x+24=0 and -=80y=0.

ay

Hence, at the critical point (-3/4,0), we find the minimum temperature

T = - 9°C.
Since the maximum temperature must necessarily be on the boundary,
we get the boundary temperatures by substituting 1 - x2 for y2 in the
formula for T; thus
T = - 24x2 + 24x + 40, -1 < x < 1. (5)

From dTldx = - 48x + 24 = 0, we find that T has a maximum value of

46 when x = 4 . For the given region this means that the temperature
attains its maximum value of 46°C at the two points (2, ± Observe
in (5) that the minimum boundary temperature is - 8°C.
 Exercise 377

EXERCISE 92
Find the maximum or minimum values of the following functions.
x2 + 2xy + 2y2 - 6y. Ans. - 9, min.
4x - x2 - y2.
4x+6y-x2- y2.
13, max.
2x-2x2+2xy- y2.
3xy - x3 - y3. 1, max.
x+y -lnxy.
1 1
7. xy + + y. 3, min.
z
e-(x2+y2).
8. xy
9. 2x2 + y2 + 2z2 + 2xy - 2y - 6z. - 61, min.
10. 16xyz - 4x2yz - 2xy2z - xyz2.
11. Find the maximum value of the function xye-(2x+Y/2) in the first
quadrant. Find its maximum value if, in addition, x + y = 1.
Ans. 1/e2, 2/9e.
12. Find two positive numbers whose sum exceeds the sum of their cubes
by the greatest amount.
13. Using calculus, find the shortest distance from the origin to the plane
2x+3y+6z=21. Ans.3.
14. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that has three
faces in the coordinate planes and one vertex in the plane x + 2y +
3z = 4.
15. Determine the constants in and k so that the sum of the squares of the
vertical distances from the points (0,3), (1,5), and (2,4) to the line
y = mx + k shall be a minimum. Ans. m = 2, k = 2.

16. An open tank in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped is to be built

to hold 500 cubic feet of acid. What dimensions will make the cost of
lining the tank as small as possible?
17. Find the shortest distance from the origin to the surface xyz2 = 2.
Ans. 2.
18. Find the shortest distance between the lines 2x = y = z and x = y =
26 - z. Hint: Minimize the distance between the points (p,2p,2p)
and (q,q,26 - q).
19. A long strip of tin 12 inches wide is made into a trough by bending up
equal amounts along the sides so as to form a trapezoidal cross section'
with equal base angles. Find the width across the bottom and the base
angles when the carrying capacity of the trough is a maximum.
Ans. 4 in., 120°.
20. Find the point (x, y) such that the sum of the squares of its distances
from the points (xi,yi), (x2, y2), and (x3, y3) is a minimum.
378 Partial Differentiation
21. Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that can be
inscribed in the ellipsoid x2 + 3y2 + 9z2 = 9. Ans. 8.
22. Find four positive numbers whose sum is 12 and whose product is a
maximum.
23. What is the shortest distance from the point (2,9i0) to the ellipsoid
9x2 + 16y2 + 36z2 = 144? Ans. 94.
24. For what point in space is the sum of the squares of its distances from
the points (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (0,1,0), and (0,0,1) a minimum?
25. Show that a triangle with constant perimeter has maximum area when
its sides are equal. Hint: Maximize A = 1/s(s - x) (s - y) (s - z)
where z = 2s - x - y and s is constant.
26. The temperature in degrees centigrade at each point (x, y) in the region
bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0, and x + y = 3 is given by T =
8x2 - 4xy + 5y2 - 4x - 8y. Find the temperature at the hottest
and coldest point in the region.
27. The electric potential at each point (x, y) in the region 0 < x, y < I is
given by V = 48xy - 32x3 - 24y2. Locate and find the maximum
and the minimum potential in this square region.
Ans. 2 at 22), -32 at (1,0).
28. Find the minimum volume bounded by the coordinate planes and a
plane that is tangent to the ellipsoid x2/a2 + y2/b2 + z2/c2 = 1 at a
point in the first octant.
29. If (x, y,z) is a point on the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = r2, show that the
maximum value of ax + by + cz is r1/a2 + b2 + c2. What can be
said of the plane ax + by + cz = r a2 bb2 + c2?
30. In a triangle ABC, show that sin sin sin 2C 2.
2A 2B
161. Differentiation of a Definite Integral
Consider the integral

F = Ja f (x, a) dx, ao a

where a is a parameter independent of x, and a and b are finite constants.

If a is given an increment Da, F is changed by an amount AF where
b
AF = fb f (x,a + Aa) dx - f (x, a) dx
J

Cf (x,a + La) - f (x,a)] dx,

Sa

whence
AF + La) - f (x,a) dx. (1)
fJ(x,a Da
 Differentiation of a Definite Integral 379

When f (x,a) is continuous and afl as exists, the law of the mean assures
the existence of an a' such that the integrand in (1) equals f,,(x,a'),
a < a' <_ a + Da. When of/aa is also continuous, we have fa(x,a') =
fa(x,a) + E(x), where E(x) -- 0 when Aa -- 0 for any x in a < x 5 b.
Thus (1) becomes

Aa
Jab
a f (x, a) dx +J f a
E(x) A. (2)

The last integral in (2) is less in absolute value than ME(b - a),
where M, is the largest value of c(x) in the interval a < x 5 b. It is
clear that ME can be made as small as we please by taking c(x)
sufficiently small. Hence, by taking the limit in (2) as Aa -* 0, we
obtain *
b

da fa as dx. (3)

Illustration. For the integral

1
Ff3(x+a)2dx= [(X +a)3l1 =3a2+3a+ 1,
we find dF/da = 6a + 3. On the other hand, by differentiating the integral,
we get
dF 1

da = fo 6(x+a)dx= 13 (x + a)21O = 6a + 3.
J

A more general result occurs when one or both of the limits of

integration also depend on a. Since the integral F is a function of the
upper limit b, we know by the Fundamental Theorem that
aF
ab = f (b,a) (4)

a
Similarly, since f (x,a) f (x,a) dx, we have
Ja f dx fib
F
-f (a, a). 5)
as

Thus, if the limits a and b are functions of the parameter a, then

from
dF
OF aF db aF da
= as + ab da + as da
do,

and the relations (3), (4), and (5), we have the following result.
* It can be shown that this result is valid for infinite limits, provided the given
integral is uniformly convergent.
380 Partial Differentiation
b(a)
Theorem. If F(a) = f (x,a) dx, where f (x,a) and fa(x,a) are
a(a)
continuous functions, and b'((x) and a'(a) exist, then
dF b(a) 8f (x, a) db da
da 8aa
dx + f (b,a) f (a,a) da. (6)
fa(a)
A definite integral whose value is difficult to obtain by elementary
means can sometimes be determined by using this rule of differentiation.
(' x
Example. Evaluate
ln x 1
dx, a > -1.
Jo
Solution : Let
F(a) = x In 1 dx. (7)
J0

Differentiating with respect to a, we obtain

F'(a) _ f
1 In x dx = xa+1 1
X. = 1

- ,l o In x [a + 1 i o 1+ a
Hence F(a) = In (1 + a) + C, and, since in (7) it is evident that F(0) = 0,
we find C = 0; therefore
herefore
1 xa - 1
dx = In (1 + a), a > - 1.
0 In x

EXERCISE 93
Find the derivatives with respect to a of the following integrals without
first integrating. Check your result by evaluating the integral and then
differentiating.
r
1. 11 (2ax + a2) dx. Ans. 4a. 2. cos (x + a) dx.
J I
rax- a /a
3. dx. 1 - In 4. 4. In ax dx, 0 < a < 1.
Jo x + a fl,

Use differentiation, when necessary, to evaluate the following integrals.

n dx IT
5. a > 1. See page 243. Ans.
Jo a-cosx v'a2- 1
(`n
6. In (1 + a cos x) dx, 0 < a < 1.
0
7 (co a-ax sin x
Jo dx a > 0. Cot-1 a.
X
ro a-x - e-ax
0
8. I dx, a > 0.
x sec x
 Exercise 381

In (1 + sin a Cos x)
9. dx, 0 <_ a 27r. Ans. ira.
f1T Cosx
0° Tan-1 ax - Tan-1 flx
10. dx, a > 0, >0.
fo x
ooe-x - e -ax
dx, a > 0. In a.
o x
fOi e-X2
12. cos ax dx.
o

13. J0: In (1 - 2a cos x + a2) dx.

0,ifa2 < 1,
7r In a2, if a2 > 1.
sin x dx
14.
Jo '\/1 -2acosx+a
sin ax
15. Show in two ways that the integral f 1'/2. dx has a constant value
/sa x
independent of a.
16. From f OO e-ax dx = 1, a > 0, by differentiation show that
o a
xne-ax dx = n!
JOO
0
an+1

17. From f 2dx = 7r

a > 0, by differentiation show that
o x+a 21/a
f o0 dx rr 1.3. . .(2n - 1) 1

Jo (x2 + (,) n+1 - 22.4 ... (2n) an+1/2

18.
From fOOO a-axe dx = 2 Ja, a > 0, by differentiation show that
1.3 ... (2n - 1)
J0
x2ne-axe dx = -V/7T
2 2nan+1/2
1 fn
19. Verify that y = - cos (x cos q) d is a solution of the differential
rr o

equation x dz2 + d- + xy = 0.
11x
20. Verify that y = f f (t) sin k(x - t) dt is a solution of the differential
k
2
equation dz2 + k2y = f (x), where k is a constant.
21. Prove that F(1) = ir(ln 2)/8 by differentiating

F(a) =
a
JO
In l+x2ax) dx, a>0
1

and evaluating the resulting integral.

382 Partial Differentiation
22. If the function f (x,a) and its first two partial derivatives with respect
to a exist and are continuous, we know by Taylor's formula for n = 2
that
(A2)2
f (x,a + Da) = f (x,a) + Dafa(x,a) + faa(x,a'), a < a' < a + Da.
Use this fact to prove the relation (3) in the preceding article.

162. Taylor's Series for Functions of Two Variables

If f (x, y) and all its partial derivatives are continuous in the neigh-
borhood of x = a and y = b, we may expand f (x, y) in a power series by
using the method of expansion which applies to functions of a single
variable. This is done by letting x = a + ht and y = b + kt, where
h and k are constants. Then
F(t) = f (x,y) = f (a + ht, b + kt) (1)

is a function of the single variable t, and by Maclaurin's formula

210)
F(t) = F(0) + F'(0) t + t2 + (2)

Differentiating (1) with respect to t, we have

F'(t) = fx(x,y)
dt + fy(x,y) d

= fx(x,y) h + fy(x,y) k. (3)

Differentiating F'(t) in the same manner, we find
F' (t) = fxx(x,y) h2 + 2fxy(x,y) hk + fyy(x,y) k2,
and so on for the higher derivatives. A study of the method by which
these derivatives are found indicates that they may be written sym-
bolically in the form

F'(t) _ (h - + k a) f (x,y),
2
F"(t) = h ax + k f (xy),
3
Fm(t) = h ax + k-a , f(x, y),
..........................
an+m
where (h
ax
)'(k f(x,y) means hnkm
axnaymf (x,y)
)m
 Taylor's Series for Functions of Two Variables 383

When t = 0, we have x = a and y = b ; hence

F(O) = f (a,b), F'(0) = h fx(a,b) + k fy(a,b),
If these values are substituted in (2), and t is taken equal to 1, we obtain
f (a + h,b + k) = f (a,b) + {h fx(a,b) + k fy(a,b)}

+ , {h2ixx(ab) + 2hk fxy(a,b) + k2fyy(a,b) + .. .

where h and k may now be considered as variables.

Replacing h by (x - a) and k by (y - b), we obtain Taylor's
series for a function of two variables
f (x,y) = f(a,b) + {(x - a) fx(a,b) + (y - b) fy(a,b)}
+ a)2fxx(a,b) + 2(x - a)(y - b)fxy(a,b) + (y - b)2fyy(a,b)
+ . (4)
Taking a = 0 and b = 0 in (4), we obtain an expansion correspond-
ing to Maclaurin's series
f(x,y) = f(0,0) + {xfx(0,0) + y fy(o,o)}
1
+ 2, {x2f(00) + 2xyfxy(0,0) + y2{yy(o,o)+ .... (5)

Illustration. To obtain the expansion of x In (x - y) about (2,1) we

compute
f (x, y) = x In (x - y), f(2,1) = 0,
fx(x,y) = In (x - y) + x/(x - Y), fx(2,1) = 2,
A(x,y) = -x/(x - y), fy(2,1) _ -2,

fxx(x,y) = (x - 2y)/(x - y)2, fxx(2,1) = 0,

fxy (x, y) = yl (x - y) 2, fxy(2,1) = 1,

J yy (x, y) = -X/(X - y) 2, fyy(2,1) _ -2.

Substituting in (4), we obtain the required result

xln(x-y)=2(x-2)-2(y-1)+
Note: Many expansions in two or more variables may be found by proper
use of the expansions for a single variable. For example, the Maclaurin's
series for exy is

exy = 1 + (xy) + (3)3+

384 Partial Differentiation
When the law of the mean (Article 76) is applied to F(1) for t = 0
to t = 1, we obtain
F(1) = F(0) + F'(t), 0 < t < 1.
By use of the relations (1) and (3), this can be written as
f (a + h,b + k) = F(a,b) + h fx(a + th,b + tk) + k fy(a + th,b + 1k),
0 < I < 1.
If we now set a + h = x, a + th = x', b + k = y, and b + tk = y', it
follows that a < x' < x and b < y' < y, and the preceding relation
becomes
a<x' < x,
f (x,y) = f (a,b) + (x - a)fx(x',y') + (y - b)fy(x',y') b<y'<y.
This is the analogue of the law of the mean for a function of two
variables.

163. Sufficient Condition for a Maximum or Minimum

In order that f (a,b) be a relative maximum or minimum value of
the function f (x,y), it was shown in Article 160 that the following
conditions must be satisfied.
fy(a,b) = 0, fy(a,b) = 0. (1)

The question as to whether the conditions (1) actually give a

maximum, a minimum, or neither, can in part be determined by
observing that x = a, y = b will be a critical value of f (x, y) when
I = 0 is a critical value of the function F(1) = f (a + ht, b + kt).
We know from Article 17 that a function F(1) has a maximum or
minimum value at t = 0, according as F'(0) = 0 and F"(0) < 0 or
F"(0) > 0, respectively. The condition F'(0) = 0 leads to (1), whereas
the conditions F"(0) >< 0 give
h2 fxx + 2hk fxy + k2 fyy 0 (2)

for x = a, y = b, and any values of h and k. If we multiply and divide

the left side of (2) by fxx, and then complete the square on the first two
terms of the numerator, we obtain*
(hfxx + k fxY)2 + -y)' fxx 0. (3)
fxx
* If fit = 0, use ffy and continue in a similar manner. If f== = 0 and f,, = 0, the
left side of (2) reduces to 2hkf=i which may be positive or negative according to the
choice of h and k. This means that f (a,b) is neither a maximum nor minimum value
of the function f (x,y).
 Exercise 385

If o - (fxx fyy - fxy) > 0, we see that the numerator of (3) is

positive for all values of h and k. Hence (3) will be positive or negative
according as fxx (or fyy, which by o > 0 must have the same sign) is
positive or negative. Thus if 0 > O, f (a,b) is a maximum or minimum
when fxx(a,b) is negative or positive, respectively.
If 0 < 0, it can be shown that (3) is positive for some values of h
and k, and negative for others. Thus in this case f (a,b) is neither a
maximum nor minimum.
If o = 0, further tests are needed to determine whether f (a,b) is a
maximum, a minimum, or neither. For example, when fxx = fxy =
fyy = 1, we have o = 0, and by (2) f (a,b) is a minimum. On the other
hand, when fxx = fxy = fyy = - 1, we have o = 0, and by (2) f (a, b) is
a maximum.
Theorem. If x = a, y = b is a solution of the equations
of=0, of=o, (4)
ax ay
and if for these values
a2f a2f a2f 2
> o, (5)
ax2 ay2 (ax ay
the function f (x,y) will have a relative maximum or minimum value f (a, b)
according as a2f/ax2 (or a2f/ay2) is negative or positive for x = a, y = b.
If (4) holds and o < O, f (a,b) is neither a maximum nor minimum. If
0 = 0, the test fails.
Example. Examine the function xy(x + y - 3) for maximum and
minimum values.
Solution: Let f(x,y) = xy(x + y - 3); then
fx=y(2x+y-3), fy=x(x+2y-3),
fxx = 2y, fxy = 2x + 2y - 3, fyy = 2x. (6)

Solving fx = 0 and fy = 0 simultaneously, we obtain the solutions (0,0),

(0,3), (3,0), and (1,1). For each of these pairs of values we find the values (6),
and by substitution in (5), we obtain A = - 9, - 9, - 9, and 3, respectively.
Hence f (x, y) is neither a maximum nor minimum for the first three sets of
values, but when x = 1, y = 1, it follows from fxx = 2 > 0 that the given
function is a minimum.
EXERCISE 94

I.
Verify the following expansions.

cosxcosy= 1 -x 2 y2 +x + 6 412y2 + y4
2 4 -
386 Partial Differentiation
2. 1/(1 + xY) = 1 - xy + x2y2 - x3y3 + .. .
3. ex cos y = 1 + x + 1(x2 - y2) + sx(x2 - 3y2) + .. .
4. In (1 + x) (1 + y) _ (x + y) - z (x2 + Y2) + 3 (x3 + y3)
5.=1+1x+1(Y-1)-$x2-4x(Y-1)-1(Y-1)2+...,

6. Tan-1(Y/x) = 41T-1(x-
1) +1(y- 1)
+4(x- 1)2-4(y- 1)2+...,

7. Expand x2 + xy about (2,3).

Ans. 10+7(x-2)+2(y-3)+(x-2)2+(x-2)(y-3).
8. Expand x3 + 2xy2 about (1,1).
Verify the following approximation formulas for small values of x and y.
9. ex sin y = y + xy.
10. a-zln(1 + y) =Y(1 -x- 1v).
II. 1+y=1 +2 (x- y).
sin (+ + y)
12. =1- 6 (x + y) 2.

Examine the following functions for maximum and minimum values.

13. X2 + xy + y2 - 3x + 2. Ans. (2, -1), min.
ax+by-x2-y2.
14.
15. 4xy - x4 - y4. (1,1), max., (-1, -1), max.
16. y4+6x2y2+x2-4x+4.
17. xy - In (x2 + y2). None.
18. x2+y2-
2(x+Y)
19. X2 + 1 + 2x sin Y. min., (1,2 min.
20. sin x + sin y + sin x cos y.
21. Derive a theorem for a function of two variables that is analogous to
Taylor's theorem, Article 127.
 CHAPTER 20

Multiple Integrals

164. Double Integrals

The limit approached by /sums of the form
f (xl) Ox1 + f (x2) 0x2 + ... + f (xn) Axn,
as every AXk -- 0 and n oo, is defined to be the definite integral
b
f (x) dx (1)

of a function of one variable on the interval from a to b. The general-

ization of this definition to two dimensions is called a double integral
and is defined in the following way. Let R be a closed finite region in
the xy plane that is bounded by one or more curves. Let the function
f (x, y) of two independent variables x and y be single-valued in R.
Now suppose that the region R is divided in any manner into n parts,
each a part of area DA 1, DA 2, , AA, If (xk, yk) is any point
belonging to the subregion DAk, we form the sum
f (xi,y) AA1 + f (x2,y2) AA2 + ... + f (xn,yn) DAn (2)

If this sum has a limit as the maximum diameter of every subregion

DAk approaches zero and it -> oo, we denote the limit by the symbol

JR' (x,y) dA, (3)

J
and call it the double integral of f (x, y) over the region R.
In much the same manner as the definite integral (1) can be inter-
preted as an area in a plane, the double integral (3) can be interpreted
as a volume of a solid. For example, if the function f (x, y) is positive,
the equation z = f (x, y) represents a surface above the region R as
shown in Figure 150. If DAk is small, the term f (xk, yk) DAk represents
a reasonable approximation to the volume of that portion of the solid
which is above DAk and below the surface. The sum (2) then gives an
387
388 Multiple Integrals

approximation to the total volume of the solid, and the exact volume
is defined to be
V JJR' (x, y) dA. (4)

If the function f (x,y) is negative in parts of R, it should be noted

that the formula (4) gives the algebraic sum of the volume, a volume
below the xy plane being treated
as negative.
Another important interpre-
tation of the double integral (3)
can be made by considering the
region R to be a thin sheet of
matter whose variable mass per
unit area at each point (x, y) is
given by the function f (x, y) .
With exactly the same reason-
ing, we obtain in this case the
total mass

1l7 = Jjf(xy) dA. (5)

Figure 150
If, in particular, we take
f (x,y) = 1, we observe that the value obtained from either (4) or (5)
is numerically equal to the area of the region R ; thus

A
fj'R
Although double integrals are helpful in formulating many physical
principles, such as those illustrated, their usefulness would be limited
if it were necessary to evaluate a limit of sums in every instance.
Fortunately, this is not necessary since we can show that a double
integral can be evaluated in a simpler fashion by what is called an
iterated integral.

165. Iterated Integrals

In a manner analogous to partial differentiation, a function of two
independent variables may be integrated with respect to one variable
while holding the other variable constant. For example, if x is regarded
as a constant, we have
i'4x 4x
j0 1xy2 = 8x3.
xy dy = 0
 Iterated Integrals 389

f2x4
This process is called partial integration with respect to y. When
the Iii-nits are functions of x as indicated in the above example, the
integral is a function of x; hence the result may be integrated with
respect to x. For example,

2 = 30.
[ ]1
In general, an expression of the form

Ja
b y2(x)

y1(x)
f (x, y) dy dx, or fa
b y2 (x)

y ,(x)
f (x, y) dy] dx, (1)

where a and b are ccnstants, is called an iterated integral. To find

the value of (1) we first integrate f (x, y) partially with respect to y
and insert the limits for y. This gives a function of x, say F(x). We
b
then evaluate the definite integral F(x) dx.
Ja
In a similar manner, the double integral
d d [f x2(y)
ff
f (x, y) dx dy,
X2 (Y)
or f f (x, y) dxl dy
f x (y) c x (y) .I

has a value which is found by integrating partially with respect to x

between the limits xi(y) and x2(y), and then integrating the result with
respect to y between the limits c and d.
Illustration I. Integrating first with respect to x, we have
a y2/a

f a
0 J' 0y2/a
exly dx dy = f
0
IYex/Y
10
dy

= f0 (yeY/a - y) dy

a
= [ciyeYla - a2ey/a - 2y2 1_a2
0

Note: The integral (1) is often written in the form

f rb Jy2(x)

Ja dx y (x> f (x, y) dY
This symbolism indicates more clearly the required order of integration.
In Article 110 it was shown that the volume of a solid is given by
the integral
b
V = f A (x) dx, (2)
a
390 Multiple Integrals

where A (x) represents the area of a section of the solid made by a plane
that is perpendicular to the x axis. This result can be used in the
following way to determine the value of double integrals such as those
discussed in the preceding article.
Let a plane x = x' be passed through the cylindrical solid that
stands on a region R, as shown in Figure 151. Since the area of the
section that this plane makes with the solid is the same as the area
under the curve of intersection of the plane x = x' with the upper
surface z = f (x,y), the sectional
area can be represented as an
integral of the form

A (x') = fyj f (x',y) dy,

where the limits of integration

are determined by the inter-
section of the plane x = x' with
the curve that bounds the region
R.
If R is a region in the xy
X plane of such a kind that the line
x = x cuts the boundary of R
Figure 151 just twice, and if a and b are the
smallest and largest values that
x can have in R, then by (2) we obtain the volume expressed as an
iterated integral in the form

V JA(x)
a A= b rs: (x, y) dy] dx,

where the unnecessary prime on the letter x has been dropped.

By following a similar procedure, we could cut the volume by a
plane perpendicular to the y axis, and arrive at the result

V = f d dy
c
f
x1
x2
f (x, y) dx,

where the limits xl and x2 are functions of y determined by the

boundary of R, and c and d are the smallest and largest values of y
in R.
When the function f (x,y) is continuous, it can be shown that the
preceding integrals exist. Hence, in eliminating the geometrical
concept of volume, we obtain the following important conclusion.
 Exercise 391

Theorem. The value of the double integral fff(xy) dA of a con-

tinuous function over a region R is given by either of the iterated integrals
o y2 f(x,y) x2 f(x,y)
dx,
fa dx
fY'l
dy, f d dy
c fx

where the limits of integration are appropriately determined by the

boundary of R.

Illustration 2. If the region R is the triangle bounded by the lines

x = 1, y = 0, and y = 2x, the value of the double integral (x, y) dA is
given by either of the iterated integrals ff R

1 12z f(x,
dx y) dy or f 2 dy f 1 f (x, y) dx.
I 0 JO 0 y/2

EXERCISE 9S
Evaluate the following iterated integrals.
1 4 2
fo X3 dy dx. Ans. 1. 2. dy dx.
.
J
fo
J f o Ioy
fox
2 4 1-y
3. f 1
f"
0
x3y dx dy. 42. 4.
fo
foy2dxdy.

5. f 3 f x xydydx. 0. 6. I I (x + y) dx dy.
0 -x 1 0

f sin y x dx dy 3y dx dy
17/2 2
7.
f o Jo
feydx
x2
17T - 1. 8.
ff 0"

1
f2" x-y
f1tan x dy
f1 ay 10. dx
9.
J-1yJi x 2.
o 1 + y2
f g f a cos e
11. fox ex+y dy dx. J(e - 1)2. 12. r sin 0 dr d6.
f10 0 0
a a2-y2 r 2

13. f 0
dy fo x dx. ja3 14. f 0 J0
y sin (x/y) dx dy.
Cos-1 r
I5.
fo
f1

0
3v
1/u + v du dv. 28
15 16.
0
1

0
rcos0dOdr.

f f
1dy
17.
,1 o fx2 N Y
dy dx. 18.
0, y Y
2,,xdx.

19. ffx_ydydx. 1 1
I- 20. f 0 tan 0 do f sin 0 d0.
392 Multiple Integrals
For the functions and regions indicated, give and evaluate the two equi-
valent iterated forms of f fR f (x, y) dA.
21. f (x, y) = 4xy - y2, R the rectangle bounded by x = 1, x = 2, y = 0,
y = 3. Ans. 18.
22. f (x, y) = 8y - x, R the triangle bounded by x = 1, y = 0, y = x.
23. f (x, y) = 2xy, R the triangle with vertices at (0,0), (2,0), and (0,4).
Ans. 16/3.
24. f (x, y) = x, R the first-quadrant region inside the circle x2 + y2 = 4.
25. f (x, y) = x2 + y2, R the region bounded by y = x and y2 = 4x.
Ans. 768/35.
26. Describe the region of integration R used in determining the iterated
integrals of Problems 6, 11, and 18.
27. Show that the double integral of a2 ( y) over the rectangle xo <_ x <_ x1,
y
Yo < y < y1 is J{(xl, yl) - J (xl, y0) - J (x0, yl) + ./ (x0, y0)
1 x, for x >_ y,
28. Evaluate f'j,y) dx dy, when f (x, y) = fy, for x < y.
fo

166. Iterated Integrals in Rectangular Coordinates

Let f (x, y) be a continuous function defined in a region R for which
the variable domains are a 5 x < b and c 5 y :!:-z: d. In conformity
with the definition of a double
integral as a limit of a sum, let
us divide R into subregions by a
rectangular network of lines
parallel to the x and y axes, as
shown in Figure 152. The sub-
regions LA ik of R thus formed
are of two kinds : complete rect-
angles and parts of rectangles cut
off by the boundary of R. The
total area of the boundary sub-
regions can be made as small as
a we desire by increasing the
number of lines in the network
Figure 152 and thereby reducing the size of
all subregions. If M is the
maximum value of if (x, y) I in R, and if the total area of the boundary
regions is made less than -E/M, the contribution made by these sums
in the definition of a double integral will be less than E, since
 Plane Areas by Double Integration 393

if (xz, yk) AA ik 111 DA ik, where (xi, yk) is any point in AA ik. For
this reason it follows that the definition
n nt
f(x,y) dA = lim f (xi,yk) AAik
f fR n,m-- oo i=l k=1
(1)

may be taken such that all DAik are complete rectangles with di-
mensions Oxi, oyk, and it is immaterial whether or not the AAZk include
or exclude those rectangles that contain part of the boundary of R.
If the limit indicated in (1) is to exist, the order of evaluation of
the limits on n and na must necessarily be of no consequence; therefore
it follows that
n m
f (x, y) dA = lim lim f (xi, yk) oyk L xj
S SR n-- ac i=1 M---l' GO k
m n
= lim 2 {lim f (xi, yk) oxi oyk.
m-+00 k=1 n-+oo i1
These limits taken in turn give us the iterated integrals set forth in the
theorem of the preceding article.

167. Plane Areas by Double Integration

A plane area BCDE (Figure 153), which is bounded by the curves
y = yi(x) and y = y2(x) and the vertical lines x = a and x = b, may be
represented by a double in-
tegral in the following manner.
With little loss of generality, Y

we may draw a set of vertical E H Y, (X)

lines at equal intervals Ox and

a set of horizontal lines at I
equal i nt erva l s Dy. We th us ° y
IL ±1 -L-
divide the plane into a network
I [-- B y'
(X)

of elementary rectangles each F

iG
having the area DA = Ay AX. 0 X
b
The sum of the areas of all -0

the small rectangles which lie

within and on the boundary Figure 153
BCDE gives an approximation
to its area. The limit of this sum as Ax and Ay approach zero is
equal to the area. That is,
A = lim Ay Ax. (1)
Dy,Ax-+0

In accordance with the conclusions in the preceding article and

the Fundamental Theorem (Article 29). the limit (1) may be evaluated
394 Multiple Integrals
by first combining the rectangles in one vertical strip as indicated in
Figure 153. Thus
Area FGHJ = lim Dyl Ox = [J'2 dy] Ox.
y (x) 1 J
Then adding the areas of the vertical strips as Ox approches zero, we
obtain the required result
fb 1Y2(X) y2(x)
dy] dx rb dy dx. (2)
A Ja Jy (x> J = Ja Jy (x)
In like manner for the area BCDE (Figure 154), which is bounded
by the horizontal lines y = c and y = d and the curves x = x1(y) and

Y x=2/y x=214--
x=xj (y) x=x (Y)

E D

A I r
2

X I 2
X

Figure 154 Figure 155

x = x2(y), we first find the area of a horizontal strip and then take the
limit of the sum of such strips to obtain the formula
d x2(y)
A=f dx dy. (3)
c xl(y)

Example. Find the area (Figure 155) bounded by the curves xy = 2,

4y = x2, and the line y = 4.
Solution: The point P at which the given curves intersect is found to be
(2,1). Hence, by substitution in (3), the required area is

A f4 2Vy
f2ly
dx dy = fl, (21/y
2
y) dy - 328- 21n 4.
1

Note: Observe that nothing is gained by finding an area by double

integration, since the first integration always reduces the integral to the form
 Centroid and Moment Inertia of a Plane Area 395

f y dx or f x dy. However, in computing other quantities associated with the

area, there is usually an advantage in using double integrals. This will
become evident in subsequent work.
168. Centroid and Moment of Inertia of a Plane Area
In Articles 33 and 36 a single integration was used to find either the
first or second moment of a plane area with respect to an axis. Differ-
ent procedures were necessary, however, depending on whether the
elementary strip was taken parallel or perpendicular to the axis. In
this article we shall see that the
latter complication is avoided Y

when the moments are expressed Y Y2 (x)

as double integrals.
Consider the plane area A _____
(Figure 156) bounded by the T
curves y = yi(x) and y = y2(x) y
y-y' (9
and the lines x = a and x = b.
S el ect ing a rectangu l ar e l emen t o a b
of area AA = Ay Ax with one x
vertex at the point (x, y) , we Figure 156
observe that the increments
y Ay Ax and x Ay Ax are approximate moments of AA with respect to
the x axis and y axis, respectively.
Following the procedure indicated in the preceding article, the
moments for a vertical strip with respect to the x axis and y axis, are
respectively
y2(x) Y2 (Z)
y dy Ax and X dy Ax.
y1 (x) y1 (x)

Hence the moments for the entire area A are

b y2 (x) b y2(x)
Mx = f = fa
My,

ydy dx, y 1(x) x dy dx. (1)

Ja y(x)
1 J

It follows from (1) that the coordinates of the centroid (x,y) of the
area A may be found from
b Y2 (Z) b Y2 (Z)
Ax = x dy dx, Ay = y dy dx. (2)
fa y1(x) fa y1 (x)

Since the moments of inertia Ix and Iy of the element of area AA are

given approximately by y2 Ay Ax and x2 Ay Ax, respectively, we con-
clude by reasoning as above that
Ix f
b yz(x) b ff y2(x)
dx. (3)
Jy1(x) y2 dy
dx,

Iy a y,(x)
x2 dy
396 Multiple Integrals

For an area of the type shown in Figure 154, the first integration is
taken with respect to x and the limits of the integrals in (2) and (3) are
the same as those of the integral (3) in the preceding article.
Example I. Find the centroid of the area (Figure 157) bounded by the
parabola y = x2 and the line y = x + 2.
Solution: Solving the given equations simultaneously, we find the points
of intersection (-1,1) and (2,4).

Figure 157 Figure 158

Using (2), Article 167, the area is

2
A = f 1Jx+2dydx2(x+2-x2)dx2.
2 .1

By (2) we have

9i= Jr2 rx+2xdydx=f2

1E
x(x-{-2-x2)dx= ,
1 Jx2 1

2y = 21 I x +2 y dv dx = z ul [(x + 2) 2 - (x2) 2 dx = s
J JJ° J
Hence the centroid of the area is (2 5) .
Example 2. Find the moment of inertia of the first-quadrant area
(Figure 158) bounded by the curves xy = 2, 4y = x2, and 3y = 2x + 4 with
respect to the x axis.
Solution: Solving the given equations simultaneously in pairs, we find
the points of intersection (1,2), (2,1), and (4,4).
 Exercise 397

Divide the given area into two parts by a horizontal line through A.
Integrating first with respect to x in each part, we obtain in accordance with
(3)

('2 Y
y 2dxd
2"

Ix J4J2Jy 2dxdy
1 2/y y+ 2 (3y-4)/2 y

= f1
2
(2y5/2 - 2y) dy + J24 (2y5/2 - 2y3 + 2y2) dy
(72
V - 7b) + (21 - 72 V ) = 23551
This result could also be obtained by drawing a vertical line through B
and integrating first with respect to y in each of the areas thus formed.

EXERCISE 96
Using double integration in each of the following, find the area bounded
by the given curves.
I. y=3x-x2, y=x. Ans. 3.
2. y=x3, y=2x2.
3. 3x=4-y2, x=y2. 99
4. y2 = x3, x2 = y3.
5. y=xe-x, y = x, x = 2. 1 + 3 e-2.
6. y = sin 2x, y = sin x. (Smallest area.)
7. (x2+4)y=8, 2y=3x+4, 2y=x.
8. y = ex, y = e-x, line from (l,e) to (2,e-2).
Using double integration in each of the following, find the centroid of the
area bounded by the given curves.
9. y = x2, y = 4x - x2. Ans. (1,2).
10. y=V25-x2, xy = 12.
II. 2y x3, y2=8x. (24,12)
12. y2=1+x2, x=2y-2.
13. y=lnx, y= 1, y=0, x=0. e+ 1 1
( 4 e 114.

y = sin x, y = x, x =
15. y=x2, 2x-y=1, 4x+y+4=0. (-i -1)2 b
16. y2=x3, x+y=2, x=4.
Using double integration in each of the following, find Ix and Iy for the
area bounded by the given curves.
17. 4y=x3, y 1xI.
Ans. s,1
18. Y = 2x2, y2 = 32x.
19. xy=4, 2x+y=6. 2, 1.
20. xy=y-x, y=4x.
398 Multiple Integrals

21. y=ex, y=e, x=0. Ans. 9(1 + 2e3), 3(3 - e).

22. y = cos x, y = 0, x = 0. (First quadrant.)
23. x2+y2=a2, x=a, y=a. Ans. Ix=Iy =a4(16-3ir)/48.
24. 4y = x2, x + y = 8, x = 0. (First quadrant.)

169. Iterated Integrals in Polar Coordinates

If a function f (x,y) is expressed in polar coordinates as
f (r cos 0, r sin 0) = F(r,0),
the double integral of f (x, y) over a region R may be written either as

f j'Ry) dA
or

IIRF'() dA. (1)

The limit defining the latter

double integral can be written as
n m
lim F(ri,0k) AA ik, (2)
n,m-aoo i=1 k=1
where (ri,0k) is any point in the
subregion AA ik. In order to
Figure 159 evaluate (1) in polar coordinates,
we first divide the region R into
a network of subregions corresponding to r = constant and 0 = con-
stant ; that is, by a set of concentric circles about the origin, and a
set of radial lines emanating from the origin, as shown in Figure 159.
Since, as in Article 166, the total
area of the boundary subregions can
be made as small as we desire, it is
immaterial whether or not they are
included in the sum (2). The area of
each subregion is the difference in area
between two sectors, as shown in
Figure 160. Hence, in accordance with r;

5, page 1, the area is Figure 160

AA ik = 2 [(ri + Ari)2 - r] AO k
%

= (r{ + 2 Or{) E r{ 00k.

 Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates 399

By selecting yti in (2) to be ri + Ayti, the area of a subregion can be

written as
AA tik = rti Ayi L Ok,

and the limit (2) becomes

n m
lim :E :E F(r ,O )r Ayi AOk, (3)
i=1 k=1
where it is understood that the summations extend over those i and k
that correspond to subregions within and on the boundary of R.
If the limit (3) is to exist, it follows, as in Article 166, that
502(r)
f F(r,O) dA = fa r dy F(r,0) d6
J R i (r)
R r2(B)
= d6 f r F(y,0) dy.
J rl (B)

170. Plane Areas in Polar Coordinates

With little loss in generality, the development of the preceding
article could be as follows for a plane area BCDE (Figure 161) which is

Figure 161 Figure 162

bounded by the polar curves r = ri(O) and r= r2(0) and the radial
lines 0 = a and 0 = P.
Draw radial lines from 0 at equal angular intervals AO from 0 = a
to 0 = /3, and draw arcs of circles with centers at the origin and successive
radii differing by Dr. In this way we divide the plane into a network
of elementary areas AA, where each represents the difference in area
400 Multiple Integrals
between two circular sectors. If r denotes the distance from 0 to the
center of one of these elements of area, then by 5, page 1,

AA = 12 (r + -!Or)
2 2 06 - ? (r - ?
Or) 2 AO = r Ar 09.
Adding the elements of area contained within and on the boundary
of BCDE, we obtain an approximation to the area. Taking the limit
of this sum as Ar and AO approach zero, and reasoning as in Article 167,
we find
fo r2(e)
A= r dr d9. (1)
Jri(O)

In like manner for an area (Figure 162) which is bounded by the

polar curves 0 = 01(r) and 0 = 02(r), and the circles r = a and r = b,
we obtain
b e2(r)
A= rdOdr. (2)
a el(r)

Example I. Find the area inside the circle r = 2a cos 0 and outside the
circle r = a.

Solution: Solving the given equations simultaneously, we find the

points of intersection as indicated in Figure
163.
r=o-, (a,!) 2a cos e Using (1) and taking symmetry into account,
we have
f 7/3 r2a cos 0
A=2 I r dr dB
0 Ja
n/3
= (4a2 COS2 0 - a2) dO = +2 )a2.
J \\3 //

Since in polar coordinates, x = r cos 0,

y = r sin 0, and dA = r dr d9, it follows
from Article 168 that

MX = jj r2 sin 0 dr dO, My = JJ' r2 cos 6 dr d9, (3)

IX ff r3 sin2 0 dr d9, Iy = JJ r3 cos2 0 dr d9, (4)

=
where the order of integration is arbitrary.
 Exercise 401

Thus, to find the centroid of the area shown in Figure 163, we have
= 0 and
/3 2a cos e
My = 2 f f r2 cos 6 dr d6
o a
r/3 (27T
= f0 cos 0 (8a3 cos3 0- a3) dO = + 431x3.
3J
Hence
2Tr
3

X=
My
_
(3 + 4 )a = 1.32a.
A
(3
+ 23 a2
The integral

r2.r dr dO (5)

evaluated on a plane area such as that shown in Figure 161 or 162 is

called the polar moment of inertia of the area with respect to the
origin. Denoting (5) by lo, we see from (4) that
Io=Ix+Iy. (6)
Example 2. Find the polar moment of inertia of a
circle with respect to its center.
Solution: For the circle r = a we have, by (5),
r a r 2n
Io= r3 dO dr = i,7ra4. Figure 164
o Jo
Also, since I,; = Iy by symmetry, it follows from (6) that Ix = Yo =
Iira4 = 4Aa2. That is, the moment of inertia of a circle with respect to a
diameter is one-fourth the area of the circle times the square of the radius.

EXERCISE 97
Use double integration to solve the following problems.
I . Find the area inside the circle r = 2\ sin 0 which is outside the circle
r = 3. Ans.2(3V-7r).
2. Find the area inside the circle r = 1 which is outside the cardioid
r = 1 - cos 0.
3. Find the area inside the circle r = 6 which lies to the right of the para-
bola r = 3 sect 20. Ans. 187r - 24.
4. Find the area common to the circles r = 2 cos 0 and r = sin 0 + cos 0.
402 Multiple Integrals
5. Find the first-quadrant area bounded by the curve r = 2 tan 0 and the
lines r = 1/ sec 0 and 0 = 0. Ans. -217r - 1.
6. Find the smaller area bounded by the cardioid r = 1 - cos 0 and the
tangent line 4r = sec 0.
7. Find the area enclosed by the cardioid r = a(l + cos 0). Ans. 21ra2.
8. Find the area inside the cardioid r = all + cos 0) which lies to the right
of the parabola r(1 + cos 0) = a. Hint: Use the identity 1 + cos 0
2 cost 10.
_ff
,
9. Find the area enclosed by the lemniscate r2 = a2 cos 20. Ans. a2.
10. Find the total area enclosed by the eight-leaved rose r2 = a2 cos 40.
1 I . Find the area inside the limacon r = 3 - 2 cos 0 which lies between the
circles r = 2 and r = 3. Ans.3ir + 21/3 - 12.
12. Find the first-quadrant area bounded by the curves r = sin 0, r = 1,
r = 2, and 0 = 0. Hint: Draw the line 0 and find
separately the areas of the two parts.
13. Find the centroid of the area that is inside the circle r = 2 cos 0 and
outside the circle r = V2_. Ans. = 11r.
14. Find the centroid of the smaller area bounded by the circle r = 2 and
the line r = sec 0.
15. Find the centroid of the area enclosed in the upper loop of the curve
r = sine 0. Ans. y = 512/315ir.
16. Find the centroid of the first-quadrant area which is bounded by the
circle r = cos 0 and the lines r = sec 0 and 0 = 1-7T.
17. Find the centroid of the area enclosed by the cardioid r = a (1 + cos 0).
Ans. x = ea.
18. Find the centroid of the first-quadrant area enclosed by the four-leaved
rose r = a sin 20.
19. Find Io for the area enclosed by the limacon r = 3 - 2 cos 0.
Ans. 119
2 7T.

20. Find Ix for the area enclosed by the circle r = sin 0.

21. Find Io for the area enclosed in the loop of the curve r = tan 0.
Ans.
22. Find Ix for the area common to the circles r = 4 sin 0 and r = 4 cos 0.
Hint: Observe that Ix = Iy = 2Io.

23. Find Io for the area of the four-leaved rose r = a cos 20. Ans. i eira4.
24. Find Io for the area enclosed by the loop of the strophoid r = a(sec 0 -
tan 0). Hint: Show that r = a tan 1(7T - 20).
25. Prove that fo,* e-x2 dx = 21/;r. Hint: Evaluate fo,* e-'2 dx fo,* e-y2 dy
in polar coordinates.
 Volumes by Double Integration 403

171. Volumes by Double Integration

Let R represent the region in the xy plane which is bounded by the
curves y = yl(x) and y = y2(x) and the lines x = a and x = b, and let
S denote the surface defined by the equation z = f (x, y) . The volume
V of the space which lies under S and directly above R may be repre-
sented by a double integral in the following manner.
Divide the region R into a rectangular network of elements of dimen-
sions Ox and Ay, and, ,on each element construct a rectangular
parallelepiped which has one of its upper vertices on the surface S.
The volume of a typical column is z Ay Ox, and the sum of all such
columns taken over R gives an approximation to the required volume.
The limit of this sum as Ox and Ay approach zero is equal to the
volume, that is,

V= lim zAY AX = JJ' zdydx. (1)

R

As in Article 167, the limit (1) may be evaluated by first combining

the vertical columns in one
laminar section such as PQ in
Figure 165. Then adding all
such sections, we obtain
b y2(x)
V= r f (x,y) dy dx. (2)
.l a yl(x)

For a region R of the type

shown in Figure 154, the volume
of the space above R and below
S is
fd fx2(y)
V
= Jc Jx 1 (y) f (x,y) dx dy. (3)

Illustration I. The volume

(Figure 166) above the square x = 0,
x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, and below
the paraboloid z = 4 - x2 - y2 is
by (2) Figure 165
V-Jf (4-x2-y2)dydx
1 1

I
W.
J0 -x2)dx= 3.
404 Multiple Integrals

It is important that the region R be clearly defined since it alone

determines the limits of the integrals (2) and (3).
Illustration 2. To find the volume bounded by the paraboloid z = 4 -
x2 - y2 and the xy plane, we first take z = 0 to determine the xy trace.
(Figure 166.) Thus R in this case is the interior of the circle x2 + y2 = 4.
Taking symmetry into account, we find the volume
2 4-x2
V=4 j f00
(4-x2-y2)dydx=87r.

z
z=4-x2-y2

2
Y

2+y2=4

Figure 166 Figure 167

Example. Find the volume (Figure 167) in the first octant under the
plane x + y + z = 6 and inside the cylinder y = 4- x2.
Solution: Substituting in (2), we have

V=Jof I 4-x2 (6-x-y)dydx

2

o
2
2 4
f [6y - xy zy2Jlo-x dx
Jo
29s2
= 1

Integrating first with respect to x gives the same result

f
4 4y (6-x-y) dxdy= is.
V= to
fo
 Exercise 405

EXERCISE 98
If R denotes the square bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = I in
the xy plane, find the volume of the space above R and below the following
surfaces.
x+2y+4z=8. Ans. 8. 2. z=1 -xy.
1.

3. z=-\/x+3. 4. zx2.
If R denotes the triangle bounded by x + y = 1, x = 0, y = 0 in the
xy plane, find the volume of the space above R and below the following
surfaces.
5. 2 x + y + 3 z = 6 . Ans. 6. z= 1 -y2.
7. z 8. z = ex.

Find the volumes of the following solids by double integration.

9. The solid bounded by the cylinder x2 + y2 = 4 and the planes z +
y = 2 and z = 0. Ans. 87r.
10. The solid in the first octant bounded by the cylinder x2 + z = 1, the
plane x + y = 1, and the coordinate planes.
I I. The tetrahedron bounded by the plane x + 2y + 3z = 6 and the
coordinate planes. Ans. 6.
12. The solid bounded by the paraboloid z = 4 - x2 - 4y2 and the plane
z = 0.
13. The solid in the first octant bounded by the surface z = xy, the cylinder
y2 = 4ax, and the planes y = a and z = 0. Ans. a4/192.
14. The solid in the first octant lying within the cylinders x2 + z2 = a2 and
y2+z2=a2.
15. The solid bounded by the paraboloid z = x2 + y and the planes y = x,
x= 1, y=0, and z=0. Ans. 12-
16. The solid bounded by the cylinder x2 + y2 = 2x and the planes
z=x+2y+1andz=0.
17. The solid in the first octant bounded by the five surfaces z = ex+y,
y=lnx, x=2, y=0, and z=0. Ans. e.
18. The solid in the first octant bounded by the planes 2x + y + z = 2 and
x = 0, and inside the cylinder y2 + z2 = 1. Hint: Evaluate f f x dz dy
over the circle y2 + z2 = 1, x = 0.
19. The solid bounded by the surface x1/2 + y1/2 + z1/2 = al/2 and the
coordinate planes. Ans. a3/90.
20. The solid formed by the closed surface x2/3 + y2/3 + z2/3 = a2/3.
Hint: Use the trigonometric substitution y = (a2/3 - x2/3)3/2 sin3 B to
evaluate the first integral.
1 1
21. Evaluate f dy fy sin x2 dx. Ans. 2 (1 - cos 1).
406 Multiple Integrals
22. The volume V under the hyperboloid z = xy and above a region R in
the xy plane is given by
r r
V=f
o
dy
I
xy dx +f
I
dy f xy dx.

Sketch the region in the xy plane and express V as a double integral

in which the order of integration is reversed.
oo a-ax - e-bx b
23. If b > a > 0, prove that
a.
dx = In Hint: Use
e-ax e-bx
f0 x
fa b e-ZY dy = to form a double integral, and evaluate by
x
changing the order of integration.

172. Volumes in Cylindrical Coordinates

In many problems the computations that are involved may be
simplified by using some coordinate system other than rectangular co-
ordinates. One such system, called cylindrical coordinates, consists
of the usual polar coordinates r and 0 in the xy plane, and the rect-
angular coordinate z. Thus, for the point
P(r,0,z) or P(x,y,z) in Figure 168, we see
that
x=rcos0, y=rsin0, z=z;
Y2 = x2 + y2,0 = tan-1 (y/x)
The equation of a surface expressed in
rectangular coordinates may be changed to
cylindrical coordinates by using the above
relations. For example, the equation of the
Figure 168 plane z = x + y becomes z = r (cos 0 + sin 0).
Cylindrical coordinates are particularly useful
when the surfaces involved are surfaces of revolution. In this case the
equation of the surface contains only two variables. For example, in
cylindrical coordinates the circular cone z2 = x2 + y2 has the equation
z=r.
Let us suppose now that a region R in the xy plane is divided into a
network of elementary polar subregions as shown in Figure 169. By
methods similar to those already discussed, it is clear that the volume
of the space under the surface z = F(r,0) and above R is defined by

V= lim zr AY A0 = JJ zrdr d0.

R
 Volumes in Cylindrical Coordinates 407

Depending on the bounds of

the region R the value of the
above limit is given by
s r2 (B)
V = af f r1(B)
F(r,O) r dr de,
or
b 02(r)
V=
a
f o (r)
F(r,O) r d9 dr. (1)

Illustration. The volume bounded

by the paraboloid z = 4 - x2 - y2
and the xy plane was found in Illus-
tration 2 of the preceding article.
In cylindrical coordinates the equa-
tion of the surface is z = 4 - r2 and
the xy trace is r = 2. Hence by (1)
the volume is
2 2
V= (4- r2)r dr dO
I I

=
J0
2" [2r2 - 4r412 dO = 8Tr.
0

Example. Find the volume of the solid which is bounded by the sphere
x2 + y2 + Z2 = a2 and enclosed in the cylinder x2 + y2 = ay.

Solution: One fourth of the

designated solid is shown in Figure
170 with the equations expressed in
cylindrical coordinates.
Substituting in (1) and taking
symmetry into account, we find
,r/2 a sin B
V=4 J0f 0
Va2-r2rdrdO
n/2 a sin B
de
= 3 JO L - (a2 - r2) 3/2] 0

3 51r/2 (1 - cos3 0) de.

= 4a3
Figure 170

Using the Wallis formula, page 501, we obtain the result V = (37r - 4)a3.
s
408 Multiple Integrals

EXERCISE 99
If R denotes the first-quadrant quarter-circle bounded by r = 1 in the
xy plane, find the volume of the space above R and below the following
surfaces.
I. Z = 1 - r2. Ans. 87r. 2. z = sin 0.
3. Z = r2 sin 20. 1. 4. Z = r2 cos2 0.
If R denotes the first-quadrant semicircle bounded by r = cos 0 in the
xy plane, find the volume of the space above R and below the following
surfaces.
5. z = 2 - 2r2. Ans. 327x. 6. z = sin 20.
7. Z = r2 sin2 0. 7x/128. 8. z = r(sin 0 + cos 0).
Using cylindrical coordinates, find the volumes of the following solids by
double integration.
9. The solid bounded by the sphere r2 + z2 = 4 and enclosed in the
cylinder r = 1. Ans. 37x(8 - 31'3).
10. The solid in the first octant bounded by the cone z = r, the cylinder
r = 2 sin 0, and the plane 0 = Z7r.
11. The solid in the first octant bounded by the paraboloid 4z = r2 and the
planes r = 2 sec 0, 0 = 0, 0 = 47r, and z = 0. Ans. 3.
12. The solid in the first octant enclosed in the cylinder r = sin 20 and
bounded by the planes z = r sin 0 and z = 0.
13. The solid enclosed by the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a2. Ans. 3rra3.
14. The solid bounded by the sphere x2 + y2 + (z + 1) 2 = 4 and above
the plane z = 0.
15. The solid in the first octant bounded by the surface z= r2 sin 20, the
cylinder r = tan 0, and the planes 0 = 1,r and z = 0. Ans. - ' In 2.
16. The solid bounded by the hyperboloid z2 - x2 - y2 =9 and the plane
z=5.
17. The solid enclosed by the torus (x2 + y2 + z2)2 = x2 + y2. Ans. 17r2.
18. The solid enclosed by the surface b4(x2 + y2) + a2z4 = a2b4.

173. Areas of Curved Surfaces

Consider a surface defined by the equation z = f(x,y), and let S
represent the area bounded by a closed curve C on the surface. If the
projection of S on the xy plane is denoted by A (Figure 171), and A is
divided into rectangular elements Ax Ay, a typical element projected
vertically will cut an element of area AS from the surface. This
vertical column also cuts an element of area AS' from a plane which is
tangent to the surface at one vertex P of AS.
 Areas of Curved Surfaces 409

If y is the acute angle between this tangent

,
plane and the xy plane,
then
AA = AS' cosy. (1)
We observe, however, that y is also the acute angle between the z axis
and the normal to the surface at P. Since, by Article 159, the direction

z=f(X, y)

Figure 171

cosines of the normal are proportional to az/ ax, Oz/ay, -1, it follows
from 45, page 6, that
1
cos y = (,Z)2
(aZ 12
1+
and hence (1) becomes
8x + yay

AS, = J1
+ ax 2 + az 2 Ox Ay. (2)
y
When Ax and Ay are sufficiently small, the area AS' on the tangent
plane is approximately equal to the element of area AS on the surface,
that is, OS'/OS approaches 1 as Ax and Ay approach 0. For this
reason, we define the area S of the surface by the limit
2 2
S= 1+
+ (b;) z
dx dy. ( 3)
JJAJ
(A)
ax
410 Multiple Integrals
Similarly, by projecting S on the other coordinate planes, the
required area may be found by use of one of the formulas

S= JJA/1 +
(ax 2
+
a
(bx)2
dy dz, (4)
(A')
y
(Ox)2
+
()2 dz dx,
(5)
(A')
where A' and A" are the projections of
S on the yz plane and zx plane, respec-
tively.
To evaluate the integrals (3), (4), or (5)
we choose appropriate limits which depend
solely on the shape of the projected plane
areas A, A', or A ", respectively.
Illustration. For the first-octant area of
the plane z = 1 - y between the planes x = 0
and x=1, we have z z = 0 and zy = -1.
Figure 172 Hence by (3)

S= f 0 V1 +(0)2+(-1)2dxdy=V.
0

Observe that the area S in Figure 172 and

its projection A satisfy the relation (1) ; that
is, A = S cos y = -/2 cos 45 ° = 1.
Exam pie 1. Find the area in the first octant
cut from the cylindrical surface x2 + y2 = a2
by the plane z = x.
Solution: Projecting the required area S
on the zx plane, we obtain the triangle BOC
(Figure 173) with the boundaries z = 0, z = x,
and x = a. Figure 173

Since for the cylinder y = N/-a2 --x 2 we have aylax = -x/N/a2 - x2

and ay/8z = 0, it rfollows from (5) that
S=JaJI0 1/a2a- x2 dzdx=a Jofa 1/a2xdx- x2 =a2.
0

This result is also given by

rfaf,
S= a dx dz,
0 a2 - x2
 Areas of Curved Surfaces 411

in which the order of integration over BOC is interchanged. Observe,

however, that the latter integral is much more difficult to evaluate. This
illustrates the advantage to be gained in carefully selecting the order of
integration.
Observe also that if the area S is projected on the zy plane, we find by (4)
a
S= fa rf'a2 _y2
0 o a2-y2
dzdy=a
fa

0
dy=a2.

Thus we see that the choice of projection also affects the work involved.
There is no set rule to indicate which integral is going to be the simplest to
solve. Hence in some cases several of the integrals should be considered.

Example 2. By double integration, find the area of the surface of the

sphere
x2+y2+Z2= a2.
Solution: For the given equation, we have
az x az y
ax z' ay z

hence
2 2 2 y2
a2
1 + I -) + ay) + z2 + z2 = T (6)

Since BCD (Figure 174) represents one-

eighth of the total surface, we have by (3)
and (6)

S=8 fa dx dy, (7)

1/a2 - x2 - y2
(A)

where A denotes the quarter circle BOC.

Although the integral (7) may be evaluated
using rectangular coordinates, it is simpler to X
change to polar coordinates. That is, in (7) we Figure 174
substitute r cos 9 for x, r sin 0 for y, and r dr dO
for dx dy. Making this substitution and providing limits, (7) becomes
077/2 ra
S=8 a r dr dO
,J0 Jo \/a2-r2
51712
8a L_ V a2 - r2] dO = 47ra2.
0
412 Multiple Integrals

EXERCISE 100
Find the area of that portion of the following surfaces which is bounded
by the planes x = 0, x= 1, y = 0, and y= 1.
1. x + 2 y + z = 4 . Ans. V - 6 . 2. z= 1 -y2.
3. Z = x3/2 + Oy. s;. 4. 3z = 2x3/2 + 2y3/2.
Find the area of that portion of the following surfaces which is bounded
by the planes x = 1, y = 0, and y = x.
5. 2x+2y+z=4. Ans. 2. 6. z=x2.
7. Z = 3(1 + y2)3/2. 3, 8. Z = x3 + 15y.
9. Find the area of the surface in the first octant cut from the cylinder
x2 + z2 = a2 by the plane y = 2z. Ans. 2a2.
10. Find the area of the surface of the cylinder x2 + z2 = a2 intercepted by
the cylinder x2 + y2 = a2.
I. Find the area of the surface in the first octant cut from the cone z2 =
x2 + y2 by the plane x + y = a. Ans. I V a2.
12. Find the total area of the solid enclosed by the cylinders x2/3 + z2/3 =
a2/3 and y2/3 + z2/3 = a2/3.
13. Find the area of the surface in the first octant cut from the cylinder

14.
x2 = 4y by the plane 2x + 2z = 3. Ans. s6 + 2 2. In
Find the area of the surface z = 3 (1 + x2 + y2) 3/2 intercepted by the
planes x = 0, x= 1, y = 0, and y= 1.
15. Find the area of that part of the upper half of the sphere x2 + y2 +
Z2 = a2 whose projection on the xy plane is bounded by one loop of the
rose r = a cos 20. Ans. 2(7r - 2)a2.
16. Find the surface area of that part of the paraboloid z = 4 - x2 - y2
which lies above the xy plane.
17. Find the area of the surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 4a2 inter-
cepted by the cylinder x2 + y2 = a2. Ans. 8(2 - -)7ra2.
18. Find the area of that part of the paraboloid 2z = x2 + y2 whose pro-
jection on the xy plane is bounded by the lemniscate r2 = cos 20.
19. Find the first-octant area of the surface az = xy intercepted by the
cylinder x2 + y2 = a2. Ans. *(2V' - 1)7ra2.
20. Find the area of the surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 inter-
cepted by the cylinder y2 + z2 = ay. Hint: Project the surface on
the yz plane; let y = r cos 0, z = r sin 0, and substitute r dr dO for dy dz.

174. Triple Integrals

Let V be a closed finite region of three-dimensional space, and let
f (x, y,z) be a function that is single-valued at each point (x,y,z) of V.
Suppose that the region V is divided in some manner into it parts, each
 Exercise 413

part of volume AV,, O V2, , AV, Let (x', yk,z') denote any point
within or on the boundary of the subregion O Vk, and consider the sum
Cn

G f (xk,yk,zk) AVk (1)

k=1

If, as it -- oo and the maximum diameter of every subregion approaches

zero, the sum (1) has a limit that is independent of the type of sub-
division used and the choice of the points (xk,yj,zk), we denote the limit
by the symbol
f (x, y,z) dV,
f f fV
and call it the triple integral of f (x, y,z) over the spatial region V.
As in the case of the double integral, it can be shown that the preceding
limit exists for every function f (x,y,z) that is continuous in V.
In a three-dimensional space, triple integrals can be used to express
many physical quantities such as mass, center of gravity, and moment
of inertia. Thus the mass of a solid that occupies a volume V and has
a continuous density p(x,y,z) is

M JJJV p(x,y,z) dV.

For the center of gravity of the solid, we have

Mx = 111 xp(x,y,z) dV,

J v
with similar expressions for y and The moment of inertia of the
solid is
I= 111 y2p(x,y,z) dV,
JJ
where r is the distance from the point (x,y,z) of the solid to the axis
about which the moment is taken.
Note: The manner in which we have generalized the dimensionality of
an integral makes it apparent that we could in the same way just as easily
define an n-fold integral

5.. . .Jff (xlx2.. , x)

over an n-dimensional region in an n-dimensional space. Integrals of this
more general type are used and have practical significance in many problems
pertaining to statistics, mechanics, and other areas.
414 Multiple Integrals
175. Iterated Integrals
As for double integrals the expression
Jb 1y2(x) JZ2(XY)J(XYZ)
dz dy dx (1)
a y 1 (x) (X, Y)

is called an iterated integral. It indicates that three successive

integrations are to be performed in the following order: first with respect
to z, then with respect to y, and finally with respect to x.
Five other integrals similar to (1) may be obtained by interchanging
the order of integration. In all these it is important to observe that
when an integration is performed with respect to a variable, that
variable is eliminated completely from the remaining integral.

Illustration I. Evaluating f l dy f y dx I xy z dz, we have

0 o Jo
1 y r1
I fo dy f o x2y2 dx = 6 IO y5 dy = a s
n/2 cos B r cos B
Illustration 2. Evaluating fo IO fr2 r dz dr d6, we have
J J
a/2 cos a ,r/2

f
o
(r2 cos 0 - r3) dr d9 = f
o cos4 0 d9 = 47r.

EXERCISE 101
Evaluate the following iterated integrals.
I r l r x f x+y (x +
y + z) dz dy dx. Ans. 8 .
J o Jo 0
2. I z
xyz dx dy dz.
ft f 0Y

fli,y dy f'y dx fonxezdz.

3. 47
24

4. f f /a2-x2 f a-z y dz dy dx.

0
a
0 0
xy
n/2
f f n/2 z

zn/2
5. f cos - dz dy dx.
x o x
5 x V+2 y dz dy dx
J3 J_xJo x2 + 12 +
6.
r

cosy n -y
7. fa/6 f 0
f y
sin (y + z) dz dx dy.
/4 2 sio cos B
8.
f0f 0 f0
rdzdrdO.
 Iterated Triple Integrals in Rectangular Coordinates 415
,/2 ra C1+cos e
9. d0J rdrJ zdz. Ans. a2.
fog 0 1-cos s e
rn/4 f2'2 cos B rr sin e
10. r2 cos B dz dr dB.
I 0 siin 9 J0
1 1. a r2 Sill 0 dr d9 do. 37ra3
0 0 0
n/2 a csc 9
12. f sin 0 do f Sine 6 d6 r r3dr.
n/4 n/4 0

I76. Iterated Triple Integrals in Rectangular Coordinates

The value of a triple integral can be determined by extending the
concept of an iterated integral to three dimensions. The methods used
are analogous to those employed in evaluating double integrals, and
no further justification of the methods will he considered here.
To obtain an iterated triple integral in rectangular coordinates, we
divide the three-dimensional space into small rectangular parallelepipeds
by sets of planes parallel to the coordinate planes. Those paral-
lelepipeds that contain points within and on the boundary of a region
V are denoted by AT/',, AV2, , AVn, the dimensions of AVk being
Axk, Dyk, AZk If (xk,yk,zk) is a point of AT',, we have

,lim 1 f (xk,yk,zk) AXk Dyk Ozk = JJJ' .f (x,y,z) dV, (1)

,

the limit being taken as the dimensions of all parallelepipeds approach

zero.
If R (Figure 175) denotes the region in the xy plane that is deter-
mined by the projection of the points of V on that plane, we observe
that a rectangular column erected on an element AA k of R will contain
those parallelepipeds that lie between a lower surface z = z1(x, y) and
an upper surface z = z2(x,y) that bounds V. This observation indi-
cates that the value of the triple integral can be represented as a
double integral having the form
z2(x,y)
ff [fZJ(X,Y) f(x,y,z) dz dA. (2)
R

Evaluation of the double integral (2) gives the result

b y2(x) z2(x,y)
f (x, y, z) d V = dx dy f (x, y,z) dz, (3)
If fV a yl(x) zl(x,y)

where the limits y1, y2, a, and b are determined by the boundary of R.
416 Multiple Integrals

Figure 175

It is apparent that five other formulas like (3) could be obtained, one
for each of the possible orders of integration of x, y, and z.

177. Volumes by Triple Integration

A volume V (Figure 176), which is bounded by the surfaces
z = zi(x,y) and z = z2(x,y), the cylinders y = yi(x) and y = y2(x), and
the planes x = a and x = b, may,
with little loss of generality, be
z=z2 represented by an iterated in-
tegral in the following manner.
Construct three sets of planes
parallel to the coordinate planes
z and spaced at intervals Ox, Ay,
z=z] (x, Y)
and Oz, respectively. The space
is thus divided into cells consist-
ing of rectangular parallelepipeds,
each having the volume A V =
Oz Ay Ox. The sum of the
volumes of all the elements that
AY lie within and on the boundary
Y=Y, (x) Y= y2 (x) of V gives an approximation to
its volume. The limit of this
Figure 176 sum, as Ox, Ay, and Oz approach
 Volumes by Triple Integration 417

zero, gives the required volume, that is,

V= lim oz oy ox = 5ff dz dy dx. (1)

oz,oy,ox- O V

The limit (1) may be evaluated by first combining the elements of

volume in one vertical column as Oz approaches zero ; thus
I z2(x,y)
Volume of column = r dz oy ox.
LJz1(x,y)

Then continuing as in Article 171, we obtain the required result

b fy2(z) z2(x,y)
V=r r dz dy dx, (2)
Ja y (x) J z (x, y)

which corresponds to (3) in the preceding

article for f (x, y,z) = 1.
Again it is clear that the order of in-
tegration in (2) is immaterial provided the
limits are chosen to include all the given
volume.
Illustration. The volume of the first-octant
solid (Figure 177), which is bounded by the
cylinder x2 + z2 = 1, and the planes y = x,
y = 0, and z = 0, is given by any one of the
following six iterated integrals. Figure 177

1 V1-x2 rV1-x2
fo f0 dz dy dx, dz dx dy,
f0Z fo Jy I0

foJ fof V1-z2 x

dy dz dx, ffov1-z2 f0Z dy dx dz,
1

for
o

-y 2 r ,/1-Z 2
dx dz dy,
J
1rr dx dy dz.
o o y 0 J0 y

Note: Remember that the work involved in evaluating a multiple

integral is often made easier by changing the order of integration. Thus, for
example,

f l y In (1 +
1 1-y2 y dx dy
dy,
J'oJo 1/x2 -+y2 Jo ` Y

whereas
1 y dy dx 1
fo (1 - x)dx.
Jo So 1/x2+y2-
418 Multiple Integrals

178. Center of Gravity and Moment of Inertia of a Solid

If the density p of a solid is constant or a function of the coordinates
x, y, z, it follows by the reasoning of the preceding articles that the mass
of the solid is given by
M= fffdzdYdx, (1)

where the integral is computed throughout the volume occupied by the

solid.
By similar reasoning it is clear that the coordinates of the
center of gravity of the solid may be found by use of the formulas

Mx = f f fv px dz dy dx, (2)

My = f f fv py dz dy dx, (3)

Mz = 555 pz dz dy dx, (4)

where M denotes the mass (1).

Illustration. If the density in a unit cube 0 < x, y, z <1 varies as the
square of the distance from one vertex, say (0,0,0), we have from (1)

M = f i f l f l k(x2 + y2 + z2) dz dy dx = k.
0 0 0

By symmetry we thus obtain from (2)

r
x(x2+y2+z2)dzdydx=i2
o J0 fo

When a mass is concentrated at a point, its moment of inertia with

respect to an axis is defined to be the magnitude of the mass multiplied
by the square of its distance from the axis. Thus if a differential
element of mass dM = p dz dy dx is considered to be concentrated at
the point (x, y,z) , the moments of inertia of the solid, with respect to the
coordinate axes are
Iz fff p(y2 + z2) dz dy dx, (5)

Iy p(z2 + x2) dz dy dx, (6)

fff
IZ ff f p(x2 + y2) dz dy dx. (7)
=
 Exercise 419

Example. A solid (Figure 178) of constant

density p is bounded by the four planes x + z = 1,
y = x, y = 0, and z = 0. Find its moment of
inertia with respect to the z axis.
Solution: In accordance with (7), we have

Iz = fo dx f dy fo -z p(x2 + y2) dz

=p f o (1
0
- x) dx f
o
z
(x2 + y2) dy

f'&P (1 - x)x3 dx = lb p Figure 178

0

EXERCISE 102
By triple integration in each of the following, find the volume of the solid
bounded by the given surfaces.
I. x+y+2z=2, x=0, y=0, z=0. Ans. 3.
2. z2 = 4y, x2 = 4y, y = 4. (First octant.)
3. z=x2-+2, x=y, x=2, y=0, z=0. 3
4. x+y+z=4, y=3z, x=0, y=0.
5. x2 + 4y2 = z, x2 + 4y2 = 12 - 2z. 67r.
6. z=8/(x2+4), y=x, x=0, y=2, z=0.

If the density varies as indicated, find the mass of the solid bounded by
the given surfaces.
7. x=0, x=1, y=0, y=1, z=0, z=1; p=kx. Ans. 2k.

8. X2 + z2 = 4, y = x, y = 0, z = 0, (First octant.) ; p = kz.

9. zy=4, x=0, x=2, y=1, y=4, z=0; p=ky2.
Ans. 60k.
10. x+y+z= 1, x=0, y=0, z=0, p=kxy.
II. z=xy, x=1, y=1, z=0; p=k-/x2+y2.
Ans. -A-k(2-0 - 1).
12.
z=e_x-y,
x+y= 1, x=0, y=0, z=0; p=k(x+y).
If the density varies as indicated, find the center of gravity of the solid
bounded by the given surfaces.
13. x+y=1, x=0, y=0, z=0, z=1; p=kxy.
Ans. (2 ?
s, s, 2)
14. x+y+z=4, x=0, y=0, z=0; p=k.
15. z=x2+y2, x=0, x=1, y=0, y=1; p=k. 5 5 7_
Ans. (s, s, 15
16. z2=4x, y=2x, x=4, y=0, z=0, (Firstoctant.); p=k.
420 Multiple Integrals
17. x+z=1, y=x, y=0, z=0; p=ky. Ans. (5,5,5).
18. Z = xy, x2 + y2 = 1, z = 0, (First octant.) ; p = k.
If the density varies as indicated, find the designated moment of inertia
for the solid bounded by the given surfaces.
19. Iz: x=0, x=1, y=0, y=1, z=0, z=1; p=kz.
Ans. iZk.
20. Iz: x+z=1, y+z=1, x=0, y=0, z=0; p=k.
21. Iy: x2 + z2 = 1, y = x, y = 0, z = 0, (First octant.); p = kz.
Ans. iZk.
22. Iz : z2 = xy, x2 + y2 = 1, z = 0, (First octant.) ; p = kz.
23. Iz: x+y+2z=4, x=0, y=0, z=0; p=k. Ans.bk.
24. IZ: x2 + z2 = a2, y2 + z2 = a2; p = k.
25. By changing the order of integration, show that
fox du fou f (t) dt = fox (x - t) f (t) dt

and
JXo
dv du fo f (t) dt fo (x - t) 2 f (t) dt.
Jo 21

Generalize by mathematical induction.

179. Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

The volume of a solid or a quantity associated with the volume of a
solid may often be found more readily by dividing the space as a
whole into elements of volume differing in
shape from the parallelepipeds used in con-
nection with the rectangular coordinates x, y,
and z.
Thus for cylindrical coordinates the space
is divided into elements of volume by (a)
planes through the z axis at angular in-
tervals dB, (b) circular cylinders with axes on
the z axis and at radial intervals dr, and (c)
planes perpendicular to the z axis at intervals
dz. Since for each element of volume (Figure
Figure 179 179), the cross-sectional area is r dr dO and
the height is dz, it follows that the differential
of volume is,
dV = r dz dr A. (1)

Example I. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the paraboloid

z = 1 - (x2 + y2) and the plane z = 0.
 Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates 421

Solution: In accordance with (1), the volume is given by

V = 551The

limits for the above integral are found as follows. The first integra-
tion keeps r and 0 fixed (Figure 180) and adds the elements of volume along
a vertical column from the plane z = 0 to the paraboloid z = 1 - r2. The
next integration keeps 0 fixed and adds the columns from the z axis to the
circle r = 1. This gives the volume of a wedge. Then the wedges are
added from 0 = 0 to 0 = 2ir. Hence
f1 1-r2
V= f21r
rdzdrd0=2ir.
Jo

Example 2. Find the mass of a right circular cone of altitude a and

Figure 180 Figure 181

radius of base a if the density at any point is proportional to the distance from
the base.
Solution: Placing the cone as shown in Figure 181, we have

llll = 555 k (a - z) r dz dr dO

= kJ 27' a f a (ar - zr) dz dr dO

0 J0 ., r

= 1'i k7ra4.

180. Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates

In addition to rectangular and cylindrical coordinates, the position
of a point P in space can be determined by three numbers (r,0,0) which
are called its spherical coordinates. In this case r denotes the
422 Multiple Integrals
distance OP (Figure 182), 0 the angle POZ, and #-the angle between
the planes POZ and XOZ. Without loss of generality, the coordinates
q and are restricted to the ranges 0 <_ P < it and 0 5 i -5 2'r. If
P is regarded as a point on the surface of a sphere, the angle Q is the
colatitude of P, and--is its longi-
tude.
If the rectangular coordinates
of P are (x, y,z) , it follows from
P F figure 182tat
h
x = r sin cos-¢r,
y = r sin sin-o;
z = r cos/, (1)

whence
,,{{

x2 + y2 = r2 sln2 f0,
Figure 182 x2 + y2 + z2 = r2. (2)

Illustration. The equation of the paraboloid z = x2 + y2 expressed in

spherical coordinates is by (1) and (2)
r cos 0 = r2 sin2 f, or r = cotp csc
Let dr, d$, and 4-be increments of the coordinates r, 11 and-0,
respectively. As indicated in
Figure 183, these increments deter-
mine an element of volume, three
of whose edges are of lengths dr,
r 4, and r sin When the in- I
r dp
crements are sufficiently small, it
can be shown that the volume of
this element does not differ ap-
preciably from that of a rectangular
parallelepiped having these three
lengths for edges. We assume this
fact here and conclude that in
spherical coordinates the differential x
of volume is Figure 183

d Y = r2 sin 0 dr dt do, (3)

Example. Find the mass of a sphere of radius a when the density at any
point is proportional to the distance from the center.
Solution : If the center of the sphere is placed at the origin, its equation
 Exercise 423

in spherical coordinates is r = a. Since the density at any point is p = kr,

we have in accordance with (3)

M= kr r2 sin 0 A dO do.
J J Jv
The limits for the above integral are deter-
mined as follows. For the first integration with
and -4--constant, we add elements along a
lradius vector (Figure 184) from r = 0 to r = a.
This gives the mass of a tapering column.
Then, with 0 constant, we add all such columns
from 0 = 0 to 0 = 7r. This gives the mass of a
slice similar in form to a section of an orange. Figure 184
Finally, all slices are added from c = 0 to
0 = 27r. Thus
M=k 12 a r3 sin 0 dr dO dq = kIra4.
0 I 0 J0

EXERCISE 103
Solve each of the following using cylindrical coordinates.
I. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the cylinder x2 + y2 = 1
and the plane z = y. Ans. 3.
2. Find the mass of the solid bounded by the paraboloid z = 4 - x2 - y2
and the plane z = 0, if the density at any point is proportional to the
distance from the xy plane.
3. Find the center of gravity of a right circular cone of altitude a and radius
of base a, if the density at any point is proportional to the distance from
the base. Ans. a from base.
4. Find the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder of altitude h and
radius a with respect to its axis, if the density at any point is propor-
tional to the distance from the axis.
5. If the density at any point is proportional to the distance from the xy
plane, find the mass in the first octant which is bounded by the cone
z = r, the cylinder r = 4 sin 0, and the plane 0 = 27r. Ans. 6k7r.
6. Find the centroid of the homogeneous solid which is bounded by the
hyperboloid z2 = x2 + y2 + 9 and the plane z = 5.
Solve each of the following using spherical coordinates.
7. Find the volume in the first octant bounded by the sphere x2 + y2 +
z2 = a2, and inside the cone z2 = x2 + y2 (0 = 47r).
Ans. 2-7ra3(2
8. Find the centroid of the volume in the first octant bounded by the
sphere r = a.
424 Multiple Integrals
9. Find the mass of a sphere of radius a if the density at any point is pro-
portional to the distance from a fixed diameter. Ans. 4kir2a4.
10. Find the moment of inertia with respect to a diameter of a solid sphere
if the density at any point is proportional to the square of the distance
from the center.
1 I . Find the center of gravity of a hemisphere of radius a if the density at
any point is proportional to the distance from the base.
Ans. 15a from base.
12. Find the volume bounded by the closed surface (x2 + y2 + Z2)2 = az3.
Determine the region of integration for each of the following integrals
and evaluate the integral by changing to cylindrical coordinates.
3 V9 -x2 2 dz dy dx
13. f f f Ans. 3ir.
0 0 0 1/x2 + y2
11-x2 1V1-x2-y2 z dz dy dx
14 .
Jo x2+.y2
Jo

Determine the region of integration for each of the following integrals and
evaluate the integral by changing to spherical coordinates.
ra 'a2-x2 Va2-x2-y2
dz dy dx
15. Ans. lira.
i0 J0 Jo x2+y2+z2
2 JV4_x2 f4_x2_y2 dz dy dx
16. f \/x2 + y2
o o o
 CHAPTER 21

Differential Equations

181. Definitions
An equation which contains derivatives or differentials is called a
differential equation. Thus
d2y
dx + m2y = 0, (1)

d 2
( X4,
x dx y (2)
(x+y)dx+x2y3dy=0, (3)

Ry" = [1 + y'2]3/2 (4)

are examples of differential equations.

The order of a differential equation is defined as the same as the
order of the highest derivative involved in the equation. Thus
equations (2) and (3) are of first order, whereas (1) and (4) are of
second order.
The degree of a differential equation is defined as the same as the
degree or power of the highest ordered derivative, after the equation has
been rationalized and cleared of fractions with respect to all the
derivatives. Thus equations (1) and (3) are of first degree, whereas (2)
and (4) are of second degree.

182. Solutions of Differential Equations

A relation among the variables which reduces a differential equation
to an algebraic identity is called a solution of the equation.
Illustration. The equation
d2y
0
dx2y =
has
y = Ciex + C2e-x
425
426 Differential Equations
as a solution, since
y' = clex - c2e-z, y" = clez + c2e-z,
and by substitution
y"-y=0.
The arbitrary constants cl and C2 appearing in the above illustration
are called constants of integration. A solution which contains a number
of independent* arbitrary constants equal to the order of the equation is
called the complete or general solution. A solution which can be
obtained from the general solution by giving specific values to one or
more of the constants is called a particular solution.
Example I. Show that
y = C1x5 + c2x-1 - In x (1)

is a solution of the differential equation

x2dz2-3xd -5y=4+51nx, (2)

and obtain the particular solution for which y = 5 and y' = 0, when x = 1.
Solution: Differentiating (1), we obtain
y' = 5C1x4 - C2x-2 - x-1, (3)
y" = 20cix3 + 2c2x-3 + x-2. (4)
Substituting (1), (3), and (4) in (2), we obtain an identity. This proves
that (1) is a solution of (2) for all values of cl and c2.
Now substituting x = 1, y = 5 in (1), and x = 1, y' = 0 in (3), we obtain
5=c1+c2 and 1=5c1-c2.
Solving, we find cl = 1 and c2 = 4. Hence the required particular solution
is

y=x5+4x-1- In x.
The general solution for a differential equation of the form
d-ny
dxn f (x)

may be found by repeated integrations; thus

-ly n
dx dx =
dx n -1 = J f .f (x) dx + c1.
s The relation y = x + cl + c2 involves only one constant since (Cl + c2) is no
more general than a single constant. Similarly, cle=+c2 = clecsez is no more general than
clez.
 Exercise 427

It is evident that each successive integration will introduce another

constant of integration.
2
Example 2. Solve axe = x sin x.

Solution: Integrating with respect to x, we find

dy = J x sin x dx = sin x - x cos x + c1.

dx
Integrating again, we obtain the general solution

y = $sin xd x - J xcosxdx + J cldx

=-2cosx -xsinx+c1x+c2.
EXERCISE 104
State the order and degree of each of the following differential equations
and verify the corresponding solutions.
I.
dx2
+ A - 2y = 0, y = Ilex + C2e-2x. Ans. 2, 1.

2.
d2Y- 1dy-3x=0 y=x3+clx2+c2.
dx2 x dx
2
3. (dx) + 8x3 dx = 16x2y, y = 2cx2 + C2. 1, 2.
2
4. axe + 9y = 0, y = cl sin (3x + c2).

5. y = 2x dx + y2 (d x)3, y2 = cx + $c3. 1, 3.

(dy2
6. y dx2 + d+ 1 0, (x - Cl) 2 + y2 = C2.

7. x2y dX2
-
yd 2
+ (x
A-
2
y) 2 = 0, y2 = clx2 + c2x. 2, 1.

8. (d) y
dx2 = x2 - In Y, In y = clex + c2e-x + x2 + 2.

9.
(dx2)2+(dx)2 1, y=c1-cos(x+c2). 2,2.

10. 4x2 d3 + 8x dX2

+ dx
0, y = (Cl + c2 In x) 1/x + c3.
(dY)2 d
Y
2 - dxy2 A
d
0,
C1Y = (Y + C2)ec2x'
L)2
2, 1.

12. dx2 + 2 cot x dx + 2 tan y (A = 0, tan y = c1 cot x + C2

428 Differential Equations
For the problem indicated find a particular solution that satisfies the
given conditions.
13. Problem 1. y = y' = l when x = 0. Ans. Y = ex.
14. Problem 2. y = 1 when x = 1, and y = 5 when x = 2.
15. Problem 3. y = -1 when x = 1. Ans. Y = 1 - 2x2.
16. Problem 4. y = 1 when x = 0, and y = 0 when x = ir.
17. Problem 5. y'=1when x=0. Ans. y2 = 2x + 1.
18. Problem 6. y=3, y'= -3When x=5.
19. Problem 7. y=2, y'=lwhenx=l. y2=4x.
20. Problem 9. y = 1 when x = 4Tr, and y = 0 when x = - 17r.
Find the general solution for each of the following differential equations.
d2y_ 1
21. Ans. y=xFnx+C1x+C2-
dx2 x
d3y
22. X2.
dx3

d2y
23. 4 cos 2x. y = - cos 2x + Cix + C2.
dx2

d2y
24. xex.
dx2
d3y
25. e-x. y = - e-x + cix2 + c2x + C3-
dx3

d4y
26. x + sin x.
dx4

d2y
27. 2 sect x tan x. y = tanx+C1x+C2.
dx2

28.
d2y_ax+b
dx2 cx + d

183. Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree

A differential equation of first order and first degree may be written
in the differential form
M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0, (1)

where Al and N are functions of x and y. We shall now consider two

methods for solving certain equations of the form (1).
A. Variables separable. If by algebraic processes (1) may be
written in the form
Mi(x) dx + Ni(y) dy = 0, (2)

where M1 and Ni are functions of one variable as indicated, we say that

 Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 429

the variables have been separated. In this case, by integration, we

obtain the general solution

f M1(x)dx+J N1 (y)dy=C,

where C is an arbitrary constant.

Example I. Solve the equation (1 + x2) dz + xy = 0.

Solution: Writing the given equation in differential form, we have

xy dx + (1 + x2) dy = 0.
To separate the variables we divide by y(1 + X2); thus
x dx
1 +x2+ dyy =0.
By integration, we obtain
In (1 + x2) + In y = C, or In y N/-1 + x2 = C.
Hence
y1/l +x2=c,
where c = eC.
B. Homogeneous equations.The differential equation (1) is said to
be homogeneous when M and N are homogeneous functions of the same
degree in x and y. In this case we can write (1) in the form
dy= M_ ll
dx N f (3)

This follows from the fact that M/N is a homogeneous function of

degree zero in x and y.
Changing the dependent variable by the substitution y = vx, (3)
may be written as
dv
hence
dv = A
xTx+vf(v); f (v) - v x
(4)

in which the variables are separated. Integrating in (4) and replacing

v by y/x gives the required solution.
Example 2. Solve the equation (y2 - xy) dx + x2 dy = 0.
* F(x,y) is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y provided F(kx,ky)
k-F(x,y). For example, x2 + y2 and x2 sin (yx) are homogeneous functions of degree 2
in x and y.
430 Differential Equations

Solution: Setting y = vx, and dy = v dx + x dv, we have

(v2x2 - vx2) dx + x2(v dx + x dv) = 0,
x2v2 dx + x3 dv = 0.
Dividing by x3v2, we obtain

xx + A = 0; hence Inx - v = c.
Putting v = ylx and simplifying gives
x
In x=x+C, or y Inx - C
y

EXERCISE 105
Find the general solution of the following differential equations.
1. (y+2)dx+(x-2)dy=0. Ans. xy + 2x-2y=c.
2. xy2 dx + (x2 + 11 dy = 0.
3. (x+y)dx-xdy=0. y=xInx - cx.
4. (y2 - xy) dx + x2 dy = 0.
5. tanydx+(x+1)dy=0. (x + 1) sin y = C.
6. dx+3x2y2dy=0.
7. y2dx-(1-x)dy=0. y In c(x - 1) = 1.
8. (x + 2y) dx - (2x + y) dy = 0.
9. (1 +y2)dx- (1 +x2)dy=0. y(1 -Cx) =x+C.
10. y(1 -x)dx+x2dy=0.
11. (x2 + y2) dx - xy dy = 0. y2 = 2X2 In cx.
12. (y2 - xy) dx + (x2 - xy) dy = 0.
13. tanydx+tanxdy=0. sin x sin y = C.
14. V1+y2dx+xdy=0.
15. - = x + tan x sin x = cx.
16. xy' = y + xeyl x.
17. y3 dx - x3 dy = 0. X2 - y2 = Cx2y2.
18. (1 -x)dy-y2dx=0.
19. (x+y)dx+(x-y)dy=0. x2+2xy-y2=c.
20. 2x2y + y3 - x3y' = 0.
21. sin x cost y dx + cost x dy = 0. sec x + tan y = c.
22. dx-dy=y2dx+x2dy.
23. x dx + (y dx - xdy) cosy = 0. Inx - sin yx = c.
x
24. 2x2y + 3y3 - (x3 + 2xy2) y' = 0.
 Exact Differential Equations 431

1
25. X2 dy + y2 dx = xy(x dy - y dx). Ans. + 1 + in *:Y- = C.
x y x
26. ye2x dx = (1 + e2x) dy.
27. (3y-2x)dx- (2y - x) dy = 0. x/2(y-x) - ln(y - x) = c.
28. (3x2 - 2xy + y2) - (x - y) 2y' = 0.
29. sec x dy - 4 sin x sec y dx = 0. sin y + cos 2x = c.
30. ex+y dx + ex-y dy = 0.

For the following differential equations find the particular solution which
satisfies the given condition.
31. xdx-4ydy=0; y=2whenx=5. Ans. x2-4y2=9.
32. (y-2)dx+cotxdy=0; y=6whenx=0.
33. (y+3x)dx+xdy=0; y=3when x= 1. 3x2+2xy=9.
34. (3x + y) dx - (x + 3y) dy = 0; y = 2 when x = 4.
35. 41/1 -y2dx-x-3dy=0; y=0when x=0.
Ans. Y = sin x4, x4
36. x(y+ 1)dx+y(x+ 1)dy=0; y= lwhenx=0.
37. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
y/(y - x) and which passes through the point (- 1,2).
Ans. y2 - 2xy = 8.
38. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
- (y + 1)1(x + 1) and which passes through the point (0,0).
Changing variables as indicated, find the general solution of the following
differential equations.
39. (2x + 3y3) dx + 9xy2 dy = 0. Let y3 = Z. Ans. X2 + 3xy3 = c.
40.
dy-2x+y- 1 Lety=z-2x.
TX 2x+y+1
41 . x2 dy - 2xy dx - y3 dx = 0. Let y = x2/z. 3x4 + 2x3y2 = cy2.
42. (4x + 5y + 5)dx+(5x-6y+8)dy=0. Let 4x+5y+5 =wand
5x-6y+8=v.
184. Exact Differential Equations
Even though the variables are not separable in a given differential
equation, certain integrable combinations may occur that make it
possible to solve the equation readily.

Illustration I. The equation (2x + y) dx + x dy = 0 can be written in

the form 2x dx + (y dx + x dy) = 0, whence d(x2) + d(xy) = 0. Thus, by
integration, we obtain the solution x2 + xy = C.
432 Differential Equations

A few of the simpler integrable combinations are as follows:

I. x dy +ydx = d(xy),
II. (x dy - y dx)/x2 = d(y/x),
III. (x dy - ydx) /y2 = d(- xly),
IV. (x dy - y dx)/(x2 + y2) = d(Tan-1 y/x),
V. (x dy -ydx)/(x2 - y2) = d[! In (x + y)/(x - y)].
Illustration 2. The equation (2xy2 + y) dx - x dy = 0 contains the
combination y dx - x dy. Because y2 is available in the remaining term,
we write the equation in the form 2x A + ydx -2 x d y = whence 0;
Y

x2+x= c,ory =x/(c -x2).

Y

When a differential equation,

M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0, (1)

is such that the left side is the exact differential of some function
u(x,y), that is, Al dx + N dy - duu, we say that (1) is an exact differ-
ential equation, and its solution is u(x,y) = c. Recalling that the
total differential of a function u(x,y) is defined by
alt
du =
dx + au dy, (2)
y a Al
we observe for an exact equation that

xM a y = N. (3)

Since, however, aa2ax it follows from (3) that

y ax2ay ,
aM ON
(4)
ay ax

is a necessary requirement in order that (1) be an exact differential

equation.
We can also show that the condition (4) is sufficient in order to
ensure the existence of a function u(x,y) that satisfies (2) and (3).
For example, let G denote the integral f Al dx, where y is held constant
during the integration. Thus aG/ax = M, and by the condition (4)
we have
a2G aM ON
ay ax = ay = ax
 Exact Differential Equations 433

Hence
aN a2G a2G a aG
ax = ay ax = ax ay = ax ay )'

and by integration with respect to x, we obtain

N=aGf(y)
y
where the constant involved in the integration may depend on the
variable y. Thus it follows that

Mdx+Ndy= aGdx+ aGdy+f(y)dy=d[G+F(y)],

y
where F (y) is such that F' (y) = f (y).
Theorem. A necessary and sufficient condition that (1) be an exact
a1
differential equation is that , and the solution of (1) is
y ax
u(x,y) = c, where icx = Al and icy = N.
Example. Solve (2x + y - 3) dx -f (x - 4y + 1) dy = 0.
Solution: Since
(2x + y - 3) = 1 = ax (x - 4y + 1),
we see that the given equation is exact; hence
au=2x+y-3.
ax
By integration, we find
u=x2+xy-3x+f(Y), (5)
and since uy = x - 4y + 1, we must have
x + f '(Y) = x - 4y + 1.
Again by integration, we obtain f (y) 2y2 + y, and the substitution of
this value in (5) gives the solution
x2+xy-3x-2y2+y=c.
Occasionally an equation which is not exact can be made exact by
multiplying the equation by some function of the variables. Any
multiplicative factor that has this property is called an integrating
factor. Thus an integrating factor for the equation given in Illustration
2 is 1/y2. Observe also that integrating factors are not unique. For,
if I(x,y) is an integrating factor that reduces (1) to du(x,y) = 0, then
F(u) I(x,y) is also an integrating factor, the function F(u) being
arbitrary.
434 Differential Equations

EXERCISE 106
Use the integrable combinations listed in the preceding article to find the
general solution of the following differential equations.
1. (3x2-4.-2y)dx+2xdy=0. Ans. x3+2xy=c.
2. (x+y+1)dx+(x-y- 1)dy=0.
3. (2xy2+y)dx+(y-x)dy=0. x2+y+lny=c.
4. ydx+ (x2+y2-x)dy=0.
CC-x2
5. 2x2y dx + ydx + x dy = 0. xy =
6. ydx-(x2-y2+x)dy=0.
7. (3x - 2y2) dx - 2xy d y = 0. X3 - x2y2 = c.
8. y(xdy-ydx)+(x2-y2)dy=0.
Determine which of the following differential equations are exact, and
solve each equation that is exact.
9. (2x + 3y) dx + (3x - 4y) dy = 0. Ans. X2 + 3xy - 2y2 = c.
10. (2xy2 + 1) dx + 2x2y dy = 0.
I. (3x2y2 + 2y3) dx + (2x3y + 6xy2) dy = 0. x3y2 + 2xy3 = c.
12. 2x 1 + 1A
-x 2
dy=0.
yl
13. yex dx + ex dy = 0. y = ce-x.
14. (x3 + y3) dx + (3xy2 + ay3) dy = 0.
15. sin x sin y dx - cos x cos y dy = 0. cos x sin y = c.
16. (x2 - 4xy + 4y2) dx + (2y2 + 8xy + 2x2) dy = 0.
17. Prove that an equation is exact if its variables have been separated.
18. Find an integrating factor for (2x + y) dx - (x - 2y) dy = 0, and
solve.
19. Find an integrating factor for (xy - y) dx + (x2 - 2x + 3y) dy = 0,
and solve. Ans. x2y2 - 2xy2 + 2y3 = c.
20. Find an integrating factor for (xy2 - y) dx + (x2y - 3x) dy = 0, and
solve.
21. If M = y f (xy) and N - x g(xy), show that 1/(xM - yN) is an inte-
grating factor provided xM - yN 0. If xM - yN = 0, show that
the equation M dx + N dy = 0 is exact.
22. If M and N are homogeneous functions of the nth degree, show that
1/(xM + yN) is an integrating factor provided xM + yN 0 0. Hint:
Use the fact that xFx + yF3, = nF for a homogeneous function of
degree it.
23. If
Of IN = f (x), show that eff(x) ax is an integrating factor.
ay ax)
24. If ( ax - asy ) / M = g(y), show that ej9(y)dy is an integrating factor.
 Linear Equations of the First Order 435

185. Linear Equations of the First Order

A differential equation (of any order) which is of the first degree in
the dependent variable and in each of its derivatives is called a linear
differential equation. Thus
dx + P(x) Y = Q(x) (1)

is a linear differential equation of the first order.

An equation of the form (1) may be solved in the following manner.
Multiplying both sides of (1) by the expression eIP(x)dx, we have

d efP(x)dx + y P(x) efP(x)dx = Q(x) eJP(x)dx,

which can be written in the form

x (y e1P(x)dx) = Q(x) efP(x)dx.

Hence, by integration, we obtain the general solution

y eIP(x)dx = f Q(x) efP(x)dx dx + C.

Note: The preceding integrating factor is determined as follows. In

order that I (x) be an integrating factor of (1), it is necessary that
(1y).
_I(x) ax + I (x)P(x)y fx
This means that I(x)P(x) y = I'(x)y; hence I'(x)/I(x) = P(x). By integra-
tion, we obtain In I(x) = f P(x) dx, which gives I(x) = eSP(x)dx.

Example. Solve the equation dy + y cot x = 1.

Solution: For the integrating factor, we have

eJP dx = eJ cot x dx = ein sin x = sin x.

Multiplying both sides of the given equation by sin x, we obtain

sin x + y cos x = sin x.

By integration, dx

y sin x = sin x dx = -cos x + C.

J
Hence
y = - cot x + c csc X.
436 Differential Equations
186. Equations Reducible to Linear Equations
Any non-linear equation that can be written in the form

TX {f(y)} + P(x) f (y) = Q(x)

is said to be linear in f (y), and may be solved as a linear equation.
The equation, named for the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli
(1654-1705),

(n
dx + P(x) Y = Q(x) yn, 1)

can be solved in this manner. Thus, dividing by y n, we have

ddx
y-n + P(x) y-n+1 = Q(x),

and the substitution y-n+1 = z reduces the equation above to the

linear form
= Q(x).
1 1 n dx + P(x) z
Example I. Solve y+
dx
y-
x
2
xy2 (1)

Solution: This is a Bernoulli equation with n = 2. Hence we set

y-1 = z, and (1) reduces to
dz z 1
(2)
dx x x2

For this equation P(x) = -1/x; hence the integrating factor is

1.
efP ax = e-f(1/x)ax = e-1n x = eln (1fX) =
x
Multiplying both sides of (2) by 11x, we find

X dx x2 x ; hence x = 2x2 + C.
Putting 1/y for z, the general solution of (1) may be expressed in the form
_ 2x
Y j_+ _CX 2'

where c = 2C.
Note: Two general solutions of a differential equation are equivalent
when one constant of integration can be expressed in terms of the other.
Thus y = x + c(x - 1) and y = 1 + c'(x - 1) are equivalent since c' =
 Exercise 437

c + 1. The constant is usually chosen so as to give the final result its

simplest form.
Example 2. Find the solution of y' + xe-y = -2x that satisfies the
condition y = 0 when x = 0.
Solution : Placing ey = z, the given equation reduces to the linear
equation
z' + 2xz = -x.
Multiplying by ex2 and integrating gives
zex2 = _I ex2 + C, or ey = Ce-X2 - 4. (3)
Applying the condition y = 0 when x = 0 in (3), we find C = 2. Hence
the required solution is
y = In (Ze-x2 _ 1) _

EXERCISE 107
Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations.

1. 3x. Ans. y = x2 + x. 2. dx+y=e-x.

dx +x=
3.
xdY-2y= -x. y=x+cx2. 4. xdx+y=2x-1.
ax

5. - - y = e2x.
dx
y = e2x + cex. 6. dx-ytanx+1=0.
7. (x + 1) dx 2y = 2 (x + 1). Ans. y=c(x+ 1)2-2x-2.
8. (x+x3)dx+4x2y=2.
dy y _ 1
9.
dx+2x Ans. y2=x+x.c
-y .
10. xdx+2y=xy2.
xdx+y+x2y2=0. x2y - cxy = 1. 12.
xdY-y+2 =0.
Y
d_
13. dx+y=2cosx. Ans. y = sin x + cos x + ce-x.
dy
14. dx - y cot x = 2x - x2 cot X.

15. dx- y+ (x2+2x)y2=0. x2y + cye-x = 1.

d_
16.
dx + y tan x = sec x.
17. sin 2x dx - 2y = - 2 cos x. y = sec x + c tan x.
438 Differential Equations

dy 1
18. ydx+2y2=ex.

19. nx dY
- 2y = -kxyl-n.
Ans. yn = kx + cx2.

20. xdx-ny=xn+1.
For the following differential equations find the particular solution that
satisfies the given condition.

21. dx-3y=2; y=6whenx=2. Ans. y=x3-x.

22. xdx+2y=xy2; y=3whenx=3.
23. dx-ycotx=tan2x; y=2when x=fir.
Ans. y = tan x + V sin x.
24. dxlnx - x=lnx - 1; y=e+ lwhenx=e.
25. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
x+ 1 + y and which passes through the point (2,9).
x x
Ans. y = x2+3x-1.
26. Find the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
y Y- 2) and which passes through the point (32,

6)

Find the general solution of the following differential equations using the
indicated substitutions.

27. x - 1 = - 2 e-y. Let ey = z. Ans. y = In (x + cxl

28. x(1
\
dx
- y1)dy-2-Y
dx 2-x Lety2-2y=z.
ddz
29. sin y + sin x cos y = sin x. Let cosy = z. (cosy - 1)ecos z = c.

30. dx+2(y+11)=2 1. Let \/y-+-l z.

31. x dx + (In x - 1) y = y In y. Let In y = z. y = xecx.

32. X2 dx - y2 = 0. Let y-1 = z.

 Second Order Equations Reducible to First Order 439

187. Second Order Equations Reducible to First Order

Certain types of differential equations of higher order can be solved
by reducing them to equivalent equations of lower order. We shall
discuss two such reductions.
A. Dependent variable absent. If the dependent variable y is miss-
ing, a second order equation can be reduced to a first order equation by
the substitution
dy = d2y=dp
dx P' dx2 dx

If this first order equation can be solved for p in terms of x, then an

additional integration will give the required solution.
Example I. Solve y'y" = 1.
Solution: Placing y' _ P and y" = dx' we obtain
dp
dx=1; hence p2 = 2x + cl.

Solving for b and integrating, we find

P=dz= +%/2x-+cl; therefore y= ±3(2x+ C1)3/2 + C2.

B. Independent variable absent. If the independent variable x is

missing, a second order equation can be reduced to a first order
equation by the substitution

Example 2.
d'
dy

Solve y" = yy'.

d2ydpdy_
dx2 dydx
dp'
p dy

Solution: Placing y' _ P and y" = pap, we obtain

Y
d
p dy = yp; hence p = 2y2 + C.
Separating variables, we have
dy
dx= 2yz + C
Therefore, on integrating, we find
x = 2c1 Tan-1 cly + C2,
where Cl = (2C)-1/2 and C > 0.
440 Differential Equations
Note: If the constant C is negative, the solution of the above differential
equation has the form
x
l Y+Cl+c2,

where cl = - 2C.

EXERCISE 108
Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations.
xy"-y'=0.
y,y = X.
Ans. y = Clx2 + C2-

y"-a2y=0. y = Cleax + C2e-ax.

y"=y'2-y'.
(1+x2)y"=1 + y'2. ciy = C1x - (Ci + 1) In (1 + C1x) + C2.
x2y" = 1 + x2.
x2y" = y'2. y=C1X-C2In(x+cl) + C2.
y"-y'=ex.
xy" + y' = 4x. y= x2+ClInx+C2.
y"-3y'+2y=0.
y"+y'2=1. y = In (clex + e-x) + C2.
y" + 2yy' = 2y'.
For the following differential equations find the particular solution which
satisfies the given conditions.
13. y'y"=x; y=0 and y' =0, whenx=0. Ans. y=Jx2.
14. x2y" + xy' = 1; y = 0 and y' = 2, when x = 1.
15. y" + y = 0; y = 1 when x = 0 or f 7r. Ans. y = sin x + cos x.
16. y" sin x + y' cos x = 0; y = 0 and y' = 1, when x = Z7r.
17. yy"+y'2=1; y=2 when x=0or1. Ans. y2=x2-x+4.
I8. (1 + x2)y" + l + y'2 = 0; y= 1 and y' = 1, when x = 1.
19. Find the equation of the circle whose differential equation is y" _
(1 + y'2)3/2 and which passes through the points (0,0) and (1,1).
Ans. (x - 1)2+y2= 1.
20. Find the equation of the parabola whose differential equation is yy" +
y'2 = 0 and which passes through the points (- 1,0) and (3,4).
dx
21. Solve the equations = y, dy = xVx + y, subject to the
conditions that x = 1 and y = 0 when t = 0.
Ans. x=2(2-t)-2+ 8(2-t)2,y=2(2-t)-2-
s(2-t)2.

188. Applications of First Order Differential Equations

The restrictive conditions associated with many geometrical and
physical problems often necessitate the solving of differential equations.
 Applications of First Order Differential Equations 441

We shall now consider a few typical examples that involve first order
differential equations.
Orthogonal trajectories. A curve that intersects every member of
a family of curves according to some law is called a trajectory of
the family. If, in particular, the curve intersects every member of the
family at right angles, it is called an orthogonal trajectory of the
family.
To find the orthogonal trajectories of a family whose equation is
F(x, y, c) = 0, (1)

we first find the differential equation

f (x, y,dy/dx) = 0 (2)

that corresponds to (1). We observe that this equation determines the

slope of the family at each point (x,y) where a curve exists. Thus it
follows that the equation
f(x,y, - dx/dy) = 0, (3)

will at the point (x,y) have an integral curve that is perpendicular to

the corresponding curve of the family (1).
Example I. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of parabolas
y2 = ax.
Solution: By differentiating the equation of the family, we obtain
2yy' = a. In eliminating the constant a, we find the differential equation of
the family to be y' = y/2x. Hence by (3) the differential equation of the
orthogonal trajectories is y' = -2x/y. Writing this equation in the form
2x dx + y dy = 0, we find, by integration, 2x2 + y2 = c, a family of ellipses.
Rectilinear motion. Newton's second law of motion states that the
rate of change of momentum of a particle is proportional to the
resultant force acting on it and assumes the same direction as the force.
Symbolically, this law may be written as

£(mv) = W kF, (4)

g dt =
where k = 1, when W and F are measured in pounds, and g = 32 and
dv/dt are given in feet per second per second.
Example 2. A body falls from rest against a resistance that is propor-
tional to the speed at any instant. If the terminal speed of the body is
128 feet per second, find its speed after 2 seconds.
442 Differential Equations

Solution: There are two forces which act on the body, namely, the
weight W directed downward and the resistance kv directed upward. Hence,
in accordance with (4), we have
Wdv _
g dt = W - kv. (5)

Since the acceleration, dv/dt, is zero when the terminal speed is reached,
it follows from (5) that W - 128k = 0, or k = W/128. Thus the relation
(5) may be written
dv gv dv dt
-g
dt 128' or 128 - v 4
By integration, we obtain
In (128 - v) = --it + In c, or 128 - v = ce-t14.
Since v = 0 when t = 0, we find c = 128; thus from
v = 128(1 - e-t14)
we obtain 50.4 feet per second as the speed of the body at the end of 2 seconds.
Chemical solutions. Solutions in which some substance is varying
because of certain physical or chemical actions are usually analyzed in
accordance with the following relation.
Rate of change of _ Rate of Rate o (6)
substance in a volume entrance exit

Example 3. Consider a tank that initially contains 100 gallons of a

solution in which 50 pounds of salt are dissolved. Suppose that 3 gallons of
brine, each gallon containing 2 pounds of salt, run into the tank each
minute, and that the mixture, kept uniform by stirring, runs out at the rate
of 2 gallons per minute. Find the amount of salt in the tank at time t.
Solution: Let Q denote the number of pounds of salt in the tank at time
t in minutes. Since the salt concentration at time t is Q/(100 + t), in
accordance with (6) we have

dQ
3(2) -2(100+t) (7)

Since this relation is a linear first order equation, we have the integrating
factor
eS[2/(100+t)ldt = e2 In (100+t) _ (100 + t)2.
Hence (7) can be written in the form
(100 + t)2 dQ + 2(100 + t)Q = 6(100 + t)2,
 Exercise 443

and has the general solution

(100 + t)2Q = 2(100 + t)3 + C. (8)

Since Q = 50 when t = 0, we find c = -1,500,000; thus (8) can finally be

expressed in the form
Q = 2(100 + t) - 1,500,000(100 + t) -2.
Electric circuits. We shall consider here a circuit containing a
resistance and an inductance in series with a source of electromotive
force (e.m.f.). Resistance is a circuit parameter that opposes the
current and causes a drop in potential given by Ohm's law, ER = IR,
where E, I, and R are measured in volts, amperes, and ohms, respec-
tively. Inductance is a circuit parameter that opposes a change in
current, and is analogous to inertia in mechanics. The drop in potential
caused by a change in the current is given by EL = L dtI , where t is
expressed in seconds and L, called the inductance, is measured in henrys.
For a circuit of the preceding type a differential equation for
determining the current I at time t is

L
dt + RI = E, (9)

where E denotes the impressed e.m.f. in volts.

Example 4. If for equation (9) the current is initially zero, find the
current at the end of t seconds.
Solution: Since (9) is a linear differential equation, an integrating factor
is (1 Thus, by integration, we obtain
/L)CRt/L.

eRt/LI = R eRt/L + C. (10)

Since I = 0 when t = 0, we find c = -E/R, and (10) may be written

I_ R R e-Rt/L (11)

The term (E/R)e-Rt/L is called the transient term in formula (11) because
it becomes negligibly small after a sufficient lapse of time. The steady-state
term E/R agrees with the current expected by applying Ohm's law alone.

EXERCISE 109
1. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of hyperbolas x2 - y2 =
ay. Ans. X3 + 3xy2 = C.
2. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of ellipses 4x2 + y2 = ax.
444 Differential Equations

3. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves y = ax5.

Ans. x2 + 5y2 = c.
4. If f (O,r,drldO) = 0 is the differential equation of a family of curves in
polar coordinates, show that f(O,r, -r2 d9/dr) = 0 is the differential
equation of a family of orthogonal trajectories.
5. Prove that the differential equation of the family of trajectories which
cut the integral curves of f (x, y, y') = 0 at an angle = Tan-1 m is
f (x,Y,[Y' - m]/[1 + my']) = 0.
6. A 16-pound weight moves in a horizontal straight line under the joint
action of a constant force of 8 pounds in the direction of motion, and a
resisting force whose magnitude in pounds is equal to twice the velocity
in feet per second. If the body starts from rest, find its velocity and
the distance traveled after I second.
7. A body falls from rest. If the resistance of the air is proportional to
the speed, and if the limiting speed is 160 feet per second, find the speed
at the end of 5 seconds. Ans. 101 ft./sec.
8. A body falls from rest against a resistance that is proportional to the
square root of the speed at any instant. If the terminal speed is 64 feet
per second, how long will it take to attain a speed of 49 feet per second?
9. A body falls from rest against resistance proportional to the speed at
any instant. If the body attains speeds of v1 and v2 feet per second,
after 1 and 2 seconds in motion, respectively, find an expression for the
limiting velocity. Ans. v2/(2v, - v2).
10. A body falls against resistance proportional to the speed at any instant.
If the limiting speed is 60 feet per second and the body attains half that
speed in 1 second, find the initial speed.
1. A tank contains 50 gallons of water. Brine, containing 2 pounds per
gallon of salt, flows into the tank at a rate of 2 gallons per minute, and
the mixture, kept uniform by stirring, runs out at the same rate. How
long will it take before the quantity of salt in the tank is 50 pounds?
Ans. 17.33 min.
12. A tank contains 50 gallons of water. Brine, containing 2 pounds per
gallon of salt, flows into the tank at a rate of 2 gallons per minute, and
the mixture, kept uniform by stirring, runs out at the rate of 1 gallon
per minute. Find (a) how long before the quantity of salt in the tank
is 100 pounds; and (b) the amount of salt present when the tank contains
100 gallons of brine.
13. Tank A initially holds 100 gallons of brine that contains 100 pounds of
salt, and tank B holds 100 gallons of water. Two gallons of water enter
A each minute, and the mixture, assumed uniform, flows from A into
tank B at the same rate. If the resulting mixture, also kept uniform,
runs out of B at the rate of 2 gallons per minute, how much salt is in
tank B at the end of 1 hour? Ans. 36.1 lb.
 Exercise 445

14. A tank contains 100 gallons of brine. Three gallons of brine, each con-
taining 2 pounds of dissolved salt, enter the tank each minute, and the
mixture, assumed uniform, leaves at the rate of 2 gallons per minute.
If the salt concentration in the tank is 1.6 pounds per gallon at the end
of 1 hour, what was the initial concentration?
15. Air containing 20 per cent oxygen by volume passes slowly into a
5-gallon flask initially filled with pure oxygen, and the mixture of air
and oxygen, assumed uniform, passes out at the same rate. How many
gallons of oxygen will the flask contain after 5 gallons of air have passed
into it? Ans. 1 + 4/e gal.
16. An inductance of 1 henry and a resistance of 10 ohms are connected in
series with an e.m.f. of E volts. If the current is initially zero, find the
current at the end of 0.1 second when (a) E = 120 volts, and (b) E
120 sin 601 volts.
17. An inductance of L henrys and a resistance of 10 ohms are connected
in series with an e.m.f. of 100 volts. If the current is initially zero and
is equal to 9 amperes after 1 second, find L. Ans. L = 4.34.
18. An inductance of 1 henry and a resistance of 2 ohms are connected in
series with a constant e.m.f. of E volts. If the current is initially zero
and is equal to 10 amperes after 0.5 seconds, find E.
19. An inductance of 1 henry and a resistance of 2 ohms are connected in
series with an e.m.f. of 100e-t volts. If the current is initially zero,
what is the maximum current attained? Ans. 25 amp.
20. A constant inductance of I henry and a variable resistance R are con-
nected in series with a constant e.m.f. of E volts. If R = 1/(1 + t)
ohms at time t seconds and if the current is initially zero, what value of
E will make the current 24 amperes after 4 seconds?
21. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount present. If
the half-life is 1600 years, that is, if half of any given amount is decom-
posed in 1600 years, find the percentage remaining at the end of
200 years. Ans. 91.7%.
22. The rate at which a body cools is proportional to the difference in
temperature between the body and the surrounding atmosphere. If a
body in air at 0° will cool from 200° to 100° in 40 minutes, how many
more minutes will it take the body to cool from 100° to 50°?
23. When an amount of money invested increases at a rate proportional to
its size, it is said to be compounded continuously. If an amount of
money invested at continuously compounded interest doubles itself in
10 years, find the amount of money at the end of t years. How long
will it take to triple itself? Ans. 15.85 yrs.
24. Liquid is discharged from a vessel through an orifice of area B square
feet at a rate given by 0.6B 1/2gh, where h in feet is the head or height
446 Differential Equations

of the surface above the center of the orifice, and g = 32 feet per
second per second. If the head changes from 10 feet to 9 feet in the
first 15 minutes, in what time will it be empty, assuming that the vessel
is a vertical cylinder?

189. Linear Differential Equations of Order n

An equation of the form
dny do-ly dy
ao a1 ax-n_1 + ... + an-1 + any = f (x), (1)
dxn + dx
where ao, a1, , an are functions of x, and ao 0 0, is called a linear
differential equation of order n. The equation (1) is said to be
homogeneous if f (x) - 0 and non-homogeneous if f (x) 0.
Although the coefficients of (1) are in general functions of the
variable x, in the following discussion we shall consider only those
equations in which the coefficients are constants. Furthermore, we
shall restrict the discussion to equations of second order, even though
the methods used can be extended to include equations of higher order.

190. Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients

Let us assume that the equation
a

x +ALx+By=0, (1)

where A and B are constants, has a particular solution of the form

y = emz. Substituting this value in (1), we obtain
m2emx + Amemx + Bemx = emz(7n2 + Am + B) = 0.
Thus, in order that emx be a solution of (1), it is necessary and
sufficient that in have a value such that
m2+Am+B=O. (2)

Equation (2) is called the characteristic or auxiliary equation of

(1). The roots of the characteristic equation determine the general
solution of (1) in the following manner.
1. Roots real and distinct. If the characteristic equation has
distinct roots m1 and 7112, it follows that (1) has the particular solutions
emlx and em2z; hence the general solution is

y = clemlz + C2em2X.
 Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients 447

Illustration I. The equation y" - y' - 2y = 0 has the characteristic

equation m2 - m - 2 = 0, whose roots are ml = 2 and m2 = -1. Hence
the general solution is y = cle2x + c2e-x.
II. Roots imaginary. If the characteristic equation has imaginary
roots a + ib and a - ib where i the general solution, as in I,
is
y = Cle(a+ib)x + C2e(a-ib)x = eax(Cleibx + C2e-ibx). (3)

However, by Euler's formula, we have

eibx = cos bx + i sin bx, e-zbx = cos bx - i sin bx.
Hence (3) may be written in the form
y = eax[C1(cos bx + i sin bx) + C2(cos bx - i sin bx)]
= eax[(C1 + C2) cos bx + i(C1 - C2) sin bx].
Replacing the constants C1 + C2 and i(C1 - C2) by cl and c2, we
obtain the general solution of (1) in the form
y = eax(C1 cos bx + c2 sin bx). (4)

Illustration 2. The equation y" - 4y' + 13y = 0 has the characteristic

equation m2 - 4m + 13 = 0, whose roots are m = 2 ± 3i. Since a = 2
and b = 3, by substituting in (4), we obtain the general solution y =
e2x(cl cos 3x + c2 sin 3x).

III. Roots real and equal. When the roots of the characteristic
equation (2) are each equal to m, the above method of substitution gives
only one solution emx where m = - In this case, however, it can
2'A.

be shown that xemx is a second solution. Thus, by differentiation, we

have
y = x emx, y' = emx(1 + mnx), y" = emx(2m + m2x).
Substituting these values in (1) and dividing by emx gives
(m2+Am+B)x+(2m+A).
This expression vanishes since m satisfies (2) and is equal to - 2A .
Hence the general solution of (1) in this case is
y = clemx + C2xemx.

Illustration 3. The equation y" + 4y' + 4y = 0 has the characteristic

equation m2 + 4m + 4 = 0, whose roots are - 2 and - 2. Hence the
general solution is y = cle-2x + c2xe-2x.
448 Differential Equations

EXERCISE I10
Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations.
1. y" - 3y' + 2y = 0. Ans. Y = clex + c2e2x.
2. y"+3y'-4y=0.
3. y" + 4y = 0. y = cl cos 2x + c2 sin 2x.
4. y 2y,+2y=0.
5. y 2y'+y=0. y=(cl+c2x)ex.
6. 4y" - 4y'+y=0.
y = crest + c2e-2t,
7.
dt2 - dt - 6y = 0.
2
8 - s = 0.
dt 2
2dt2

9. - 4 dt + 5x = 0. x = e2t(cl cos t + c2 sin t).

10. d22de
d2r
+6+9r=o.
6y" + 5y' - 6y = 0. Ans. y = cle2x/3 + c2e-3X/2. d2
I. 12. dt2 = 0.

13.
5y"-2y'=0. y= C1+c2eO.4x. 14.
2
2+k2y=0.
dt
15. y'-2y'-y=0. Ans. Y = Cle(1-'l2)x
+ C2e(1+'%1 )x

16. y"-4y'+7y=0.
For the following differential equations find the particular solution which
satisfies the given conditions.
17. y"+3y'+2y=0; y=0, y'=1, when x=0.
Ans. y = e-x - e-2x.
18. y"-2y'-8y=0; y=0, y'=6, when x=0.
19. y"+9y=0; y=1, y'= -6, when x=0.
Ans. y = cos 3x - 2 sin 3x.
20. y"-4y'+4y=0; y=2, y'=5, whenx=0.
21. y"-2y'=0; y = 1 + e2, y' = 2e2, when x=1.
Ans. y = 1 + e2Z.
2
22. d2 + r = 0; r = 1/2, t = 0, when t = IT.
a

23. dt2+4dt+13y=0; y=0, dt=12, when t = 0.

Ans. y = 4e-2t sin 3t.
dt22
24. +2d +s=0; s= -lwhen t=0, and s = 0 when t = 1.
d2r dr
25. TO-2 - r = 0; r = 0, d e = 1 , when 0 = 0. Ans. r = sinh 6.
 Non-homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients 449

191. Non-homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients

A general solution of a differential equation of the form

dx +Ad +By=f(x), (1)

where A and B are constants and f (x) is a function of the independent

variable, can be obtained in the following manner.
1. Find the general solution, y = it, for the homogeneous equation

z +Adx+By=0. (2)

The solution u is called the complementary function for (1).

2. By trial, find a particular solution, y = v, of (1).
3. The general solution of (1) is then y = u + v, since u contains two
independent arbitrary constants and (u + v) satisfies (1).
Illustration I. For the equation y" - y = x, the complementary func-
tion is u = ilex + c2e-x and a particular solution is v = -x. Hence the
general solution is y = ilex + c2e-x - x.
In general, the determination of a particular solution of (1) is quite
involved and beyond the scope of the present discussion. However, for
certain elementary forms of the function f (x) a particular solution can be
obtained by assuming an arbitrary form for v and then determining the
coefficients to make it an actual solution. The following rule sum-
marizes these trial methods.
1. If y = f (x) is not a solution of (2), then
when we assume
f(x) = a + bx v = A + Bx
f(x) =a+bx+cx2 v = A + Bx + Cx 2
..................
f (x) = aebx v = A ebx
f (x) = a sin cx + b cos cx v = A sin cx + B cos cx
Illustration 2. If y" - y = x + e2x, in accordance with I we assume
v = A + Bx + Ce2x.
II. If y = f (x) is a solution of (2), we assume for v the above form
multiplied by x, and all terms arising from this product by differentiation.
Illustration 3. If y" + y = sin x, in accordance with II we assume
v = Ax sin x + Bx cos x.
450 Differential Equations

Note 1: The terms C sin x and D cos x are also obtained from x sin x by
differentiation, but these terms are not included in v since they are solutions
of the homogeneous equation.

III. If f (x) is xn times a Particular solution of (2), we assume v =

Ax f (x) plus all terms arising from it by differentiation.

Illustration 4 If y" - y = x2ez, in accordance with III we assume

v = Ax3ex + Bx2ex + Cxez.

Note 2: If the characteristic equation of (2) has a repeated root, it is

necessary in II and III to assume v in the form Ax2f (x) plus all terms obtain-
able from it by differentiation.

Illustration 5. If y" - 2y' + y = x2ez, we assume v = Ax4ez + Bx3ez +

Cx2ex.

Example I. Solve y" - y = 5 + ex. (3)

Solution: 1. The general solution of the homogeneous equation,

y" - y= 0, is u=clex+C2e-z

2. Since ex is a solution of the homogeneous equation and 5 is not, for a

trial solution, by I and II we assume v = A + Bxex. Differentiating,
v' = Bex + Bxez, v" = 2Bex + Bxez,
and substituting in (3), we have
(2Bex + Bxez) - (A + Bxez) = 5 + ex,
2Bex - A = 5 + ex.
Equating coefficients, we find A = - 5 and B = - ; therefore v = - 5 +
Zxex.

3. Thus the general solution of (3) is

y=u+v=ciez+c2e-x-5+ 2xex.
Example 2. Find the particular solution of
d2s
dt2 + dt = 4t + 2 cos t (4)

such that s = 0 and ds/dt = 0 when t = 0.

Solution : 1. The general solution of the homogeneous equation, s" +
S' = 0, is s = c1 + c2e-t.
 Exercise 451

2. Since 4 is a solution of the homogeneous equation and cost is not, for

a trial solution, by I and III we assume s = Ate + Bt + C sin t + D cos t.
Thus
ds=2At+B+Ccost-Dsint,
dt
d2s
Y2 = 2A - C sin t - D cos t.

Substituting in (4) we obtain

2At + (2A + B) - (C + D) sin t + (C - D) cos t = 41 + 2 cos t.
Equating coefficients gives A = 2, B = -4, C = 1, D = -1.
3. Therefore the general solution of (4) is
s=cl+c2e-t+212-41+ sint - cost. (5)

To find the required particular solution we set s = 0 and t = 0 in (5), and

s' = 0 and t = 0 in the derived equation
s' = - c2e-t + 41 - 4 + cos t + sin t.
This substitution gives
0=c1+c2- 1, hence fci=4,
0 = -c2-4+1; c2= -3.
Therefore the required particular solution is
s=212-41+4-3e-t+sint-cost.
EXERCISE I I I

Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations.

I .
y" - y' - 2y = 4x. Ans. y = cle2x + c2e-x - 2x + 1.
2. y"-4y'+3y=e2X.
3. y"-4y=x3+x. y=cle2x+c2e-2x-x3-$x.

4. y"-3y'=9.
5. y" + 2y' + y = cos x. Y = (Cl + c2x)e-x + 2 sin x.
6. y" + y' - 6y = 6x2 + 4ex.
7. y" + 4y = sin 2x. y = cl sin 2x + c2 cos 2x - Ix cos 2x.
8. y" - 2y' + 2y = ex.
d2

9. Y0-2 + 4 d0 + 4r = cos 0. r = (Cl + c20)e-20 + 2 5 (4 sin 0 + 3 cos 0).

dt22
10. +dt -2s=t+1.
II. 3y"-y'=2x. y=clex/3+c2-x2-6x.
12. y"-2y'+y=ex.
13. y" + y = 1 + sin x. y = ci sin x + (c2 - Zx) cos x + 1.
452 Differential Equations

14. y"+3y'+2y=4+e-x.
15. y" - 4y' + 5y = e2x sin x. y = e2x(cl sin x + c2 cos x - 2x cos x).
16. y" + 3y' - 4y = 50xex.
d2
17. dt2 - 2 = 8t. X = Cle2t + C2 - 2t - W.

dt
2
18 . + 4y = 8t cos 2t .
dt2
d2
19. dx2-zx3ex. z=cle-x+ 8 (c2- 3x+3x2-2x3+x4)ex.
20 . y" + y = sine X .
For the following differential equations find the particular solution which
satisfies the given conditions.
21. y"+2y'-3y=6; y=0,y'=2,whenx=0. Ans. y=2ex-2.
22. y"-4y'+4y=4x; y= 1,y'=2,whenx=0.
23. y" + y = - 2 sin x ; y = 0 when x = 0 and x = ir. Y = x cos X.
24. y"-2y'+ (1 +Ir2)y= 1 +Tr2; y = 1, y' = 7r, when x = 0.
25. y"-4y'=8; y=0,y'=0,when x=0. Ans. y= 2e4x-2x- 2.
2
26. dt2 -r=t2-6; r=5when t=0,r=e2whent=2.
27. y"+4y=2; y=0when x=0,y= Zwhen x=17r.
Ans. Y = sine X.
2
28. C O S t; x = 0, d = 0, when t = 0.
29. y" - 2y' + y = 2ex; y=0when x= for-1.
Ans. y = (x2 - 1)ex.
30. y"-y=4xex; y=0,y'=0,when x=8.
192. Applications of Linear Differential Equations
Linear differential equations occur frequently in scientific work and
are of basic importance in engineering. A few applications that lead
to equations of second order are discussed in this article.
Simple harmonic motion. Consider a particle that moves along the
x axis subject to a force whose magnitude is proportional to its distance
from the origin and whose direction is toward the origin. In accord-
ance with Newton's second law of motion, we have

gW dt2
d2x
= - kx, (1)

which may be written

2 g
at2 + b2x = 0, where b = W (2)
 Applications of Linear Differential Equations 453

By Article 190, the general solution of (2) is

x = A sin bt + B cos bt, (3)

where A and B are constants of integration. By trigonometry (3) can

be written in the form
x = A' sin (bt + B'), (4)

where A' = V'A2 + B2 and B' = cos-1(A/A') = sin-1(B/A').

Motion defined by a relation of the form (4) is called simple
harmonic motion, and (2) accordingly is the differential equation of
simple harmonic motion. The constant A' is called the amplitude of
the motion and the time that is required for one oscillation, T = 2ir/b,
is called the period of the motion.
Note: If the force that acts on the particle were directed away from the
origin, (2) would become d2xldt2 - b2x =0, and the solution, x = Aebt +
Be-bt, would not be periodic.
Damped vibrations. Because of frictional forces most vibratory
motion is not simple harmonic. In fact, if the frictional forces are
sufficiently large, the motion may not oscillate at all, but simply move
toward the equilibrium position. For small frictional forces, however,
the vibrations will merely decrease in size as time goes on. In this
ease we describe the motion as that of damped vibrations.
Suppose that the particle that we considered in deriving (1) is also
subject to a frictional force, - K(dx/dt), which is proportional to and
opposes the velocity. Equation (1) then becomes

- d 2t = - kx - K
W2
g
dt,
(5)

and can be written in the form

d2t2
+ 2a dt + b2x = 0, where 2a = and b = AW (6)

When a < b the general solution of (6) isW

x = e-at [A sin 1/b2 - a2 t + B cos Vb2 - a2 t], (7)

where A and B are constants of integration. The factor e-at is called

the damping factor and the time interval T = 27r/Vb2 - a2 is called
the period.
Illustration. The equation, x = e-0.2t cos irt, represents a damped vibra-
tion of period 2, as shown in Figure 185.
454 Differential Equations

When a > b the general solution of (6) is

x = A e (-a+ a2-b2) t + B e(-a- a2-b2) t
(8)

Since the signs of both exponents in (8) are negative, it is apparent

that the motion approaches the limiting position x = 0. A vibratory
system that has frictional forces of this magnitude is said to be over-
damped. If a = b, the general solution of (6) is
x = (A + Bt) e-at,
and the motion is said to be critically damped.

Figure 185

Forced vibrations. In addition to central restoring forces and

frictional forces the motion of a particle may also be influenced by
external forces which are usually periodic. In such cases we say that
the particle executes forced vibrations. The following example
illustrates the nature of a forced vibration.
Example I. A one-pound weight is hanging at rest on a spring which is
stretched 6 inches by the weight. Suppose that frictional losses in pounds
are opposed to and equal 0.3 the speed of the weight in feet per second.
If the upper end of the spring is given the motion y = 2 sin 8t feet, find the
equation of motion of the weight.
Solution: At time t suppose that the weight and the upper end of the
spring have the positions shown in Figure 186.
Since one pound stretches the spring 2 foot, the spring constant is 2
pounds per foot. The additional stretch in the spring at time t is x - y feet.
Hence, by Hooke's law, the spring pulls upward on the weight with a force
 Applications of Linear Differential Equations 455

of 2(x - y) pounds. Thus, in accordance with Newton's second law of

motion, we have
2dt2
= -2(x - y) - 0.3 dt (9)
g
Taking g = 32 feet per second per second and substituting I sin 8t for y, the
relation (9) may be written
d2X
9.6 dt + 64x = 32 sin 81. (10)
dt2 +
The general solution of (10) is
x = e-4.8t(A sin 6.4t + B cos 6.4t) - cos 8t,
2
and by applying the boundary conditions that x = 0 and dxldt = 0 when
t = 0, we obtain
x= 48 e-4.8t(3 sin 6.4t + 4 cos 6.4t) - 12 cos 8t.

This result indicates that, after a short lapse of time, the motion of the
weight is periodic with a slightly smaller
amplitude than the impressed vibration. .Y

If the period of the impressed

force is the same as that of the
vibrating system, we say that
the force is in resonance with the t=o -T
system. The phenomenon of reson-
ance is of great importance in t=t
applied work. A resonant con- Figure 186
dition can cause undue stress in a
mechanical system and is usually avoided for this reason. On the
other hand, many acoustical and electrical problems require that a
resonant condition exist.
Electric circuits. In Article 188 we considered a circuit that
contained an inductance L in henrys and a resistance R in ohms in
series with an e.m.f. E in volts. We shall now discuss the affect of
adding a condenser to the circuit.
The charge on a condenser varies directly as the potential difference
across it, so that Q = CEc. If the charge Q is given in coulombs and
the potential Ec in volts, the capacitance C is measured in farads.
Since the current I in amperes is the rate of flow of electric charge, we
also have
LQ, or Q = JIdt(11)
456 Differential Equations

where time t is measured in seconds. Thus Ec = (11C) f I dt, and the

charge and current for the circuit are determined at any time t by (11)
and the differential equation

LdtQ+RdQ+CQ=E. (12)

Example 2. An inductance of 0.1 henry, a resistance of 7 ohms, and a

capacitance of 6.4 x 10-4 farads are connected in series with an e.m.f.
of 100 volts. Find equations for Q and I when the charge and current are
initially zero.
Solution : Substituting the given parameters in (12), multiplying by 10,
and simplifying gives

dt + 70 dQ + 15,625 Q = 1000,

and we easily find

Q = 0.064 + e-35t(A sin 1201 + B cos 1201),
I = dQ/dt = e-35t[(120A - 35B) cos 1201 - (35A + 120B) sin 1201].
By use of the initial conditions, Q = 0 and I = 0 when t = 0, we get
0 = 0.064 + B, 0 = 120A - 35B;
hence the required equations are
Q = 0.064 - e-35t(56 sin 1201 + 192 cos 1201)/3000,
I = (25/3) e-35t sin 1201.
These equations indicate that the current quickly dies out and that the
charge just as quickly approaches a steady-state value of 0.064 coulombs,
which is the value given by the formula Q = CE.

EXERCISE 112
1. A particle moves in simple harmonic motion in accordance with the
equation s = 3 sin 87rt + 4 cos 8Trt, where s and t are expressed in feet
and seconds, respectively. What is the amplitude and period of its
motion? Ans. 5 ft., 0.25 sec.
2. A damped oscillatory motion is represented by y = 25e-0.lt sin (101 + 5).
At what time t is the amplitude of the motion one-half the value that it
has when t = 0?
3. A particle moves with simple harmonic motion in a straight line.
When t = 0, the acceleration is 4 feet per second per second, the
velocity is - 2 feet per second, and the displacement is s = - 1 foot.
Find the amplitude and period of the motion. Ans. 1/2 ft., 7r sec.
 Exercise 457

4. A particle moves with simple harmonic motion on the x axis under the
action of a force located at the origin. If x = - 2 feet and dxldt = 6 feet
per second when t = 0, and if it reaches an extreme position at x =
2\/2 feet, at what speed does it pass through the origin?
5. A particle moves along the x axis in accordance with the equation
z + 2z + x = 0. If it starts at x = 2 feet with a velocity of -4 feet
per second, find the time and location of the particle when its velocity
is zero. Ans. 2 sec., -0.27 ft.
6. A one-pound weight suspended from a spring causes an elongation of
6 inches. If the weight is released from a point 3 inches above its
equilibrium position P, at what speed does it pass P?
7. A ten-pound weight is suspended by a spring which is stretched
1.5 inches by the weight. Neglecting resistance, if the weight is drawn
down 1 inch below its equilibrium position and released, find the period
of its motion. Ans. 7r/8 sec.
8. If a hole were bored through the center of the earth, the pull of gravity
upon an object in the hole would vary directly as the distance of the
object from the earth's center. Show that the motion would be simple
harmonic and find the time required for an object starting from rest at
one end of the hole to reach the other end. Assume that the radius of
the earth is 4000 miles.
9. A weight of g pounds is suspended from a spring whose constant is
5 pounds per foot. There is a resistance in pounds equal to four times
the velocity in feet per second at any instant. The weight is drawn
down 4 inches below its equilibrium position and then released. Find
the equation of motion. Ans. x = e-2t (cos t + 2 sin t)/3.
10. A body is subject to damped vibrations in accordance with the equation
i + 2az + b2x = 0. If the period is 2 seconds and the damping factor
decreases by 10% in 2 seconds, find a and b.
I. A four-pound weight suspended from a spring vibrates in accordance
with the equation x + 2z + 6x = 0 (FPS units). What is the magni-
tude of the spring constant in pounds per inch? Ans. s lb./in.
12. A six-pound weight of specific gravity 3 stretches a spring 4 inches when
immersed in water. If the weight is set in motion, and the resistance
of the water is assumed to have a magnitude in pounds equal to 12/V
times the velocity in feet per second, find the period of its motion.
13. A body falls from rest in a liquid whose density is one-half that of the
body. If the liquid offers resistance proportional to the velocity, and
the velocity approaches a limiting value of 32 feet per second, find the
distance fallen in the first second. Ans. 6.82 ft.
14. A one-pound weight is hanging at rest on a spring which is stretched
6 inches by the weight. If the upper end of the spring is given the
458 Differential Equations
motion y = 0.3 sin 16t feet and if resistance is neglected, find the
equation of motion of the weight and its maximum displacement from
its equilibrium position.
15. Find the equation of motion of the weight in the preceding problem if
the upper end of the spring is given the motion y = 0.3 sin 8t feet and
g is taken as 32 feet per second per second. Is the motion periodic?
Ans. x = 0.15 sin 8t - 1.2t cos 8t, No.
16. An inductance of 1 henry, a resistance of 120 ohms, and a capacitance
of 10-4 farad are connected in series with an e.m.f. of 120 sin 100t
volts. If the charge and current are both zero when t = 0, compare
the magnitudes of the transient and the steady-state currents when
t = 0.01 second.
17. A coil of inductance 1 henry and negligible resistance is connected in
series with a capacitance of 10-6 farad and an e.m.f. of 100 volts. If
the charge and current are initially zero, what is the maximum current
attained by the circuit? Ans. 0.1 amp.
18. An inductance of 0.2 henrys, a resistance of 100 ohms, and a capacitance
of 5 x 10-5 farads are connected in series with an e.m.f. of 100 sin 400t
volts. Find the steady-state current.
19. A cylindrical spar buoy 18 inches in diameter stands in fresh water with
its axis vertical. When depressed slightly and released, the period of
vibration is found to be 1.5 seconds. Find the weight of the buoy.
Ans. 201 lb.
20. A simple pendulum consists of a weight W in pounds suspended by a
string of negligible weight and length L in feet. If 0 in radians is the
angular displacement of the string from the vertical at time tin seconds,
and if resistance is neglected, show that
L d20
g = - sin 0.
dt2

If the complete angle of swing 20 is so small that sin 0 may be replaced

by 0 without much error, find the equation of motion when the initial
conditions are 0 = Bo and dO/dt = 0 when t = 0.
 CHAPTER 22

Vector Analysis

193. Introduction
Elementary physical measurements fall into one of two classifica-
A scalar quantity is one that is completely
tions, scalars and vectors.
determined when its magnitude is known. Examples of scalars are
mass, length, work, temperature, and electric charge. A vector
quantity is one whose determination involves a direction as well as a
magnitude. Examples of vectors are displacement, velocity, force,
temperature gradient, and electric current.
A study of vector problems is a necessity in almost all scientific and
engineering investigations. The development of this study has resulted
in a theory, called vector analysis, which contains notations and concepts
unique to that particular subject. It has become, in fact, a language in
itself. Because of the importance of vectors, it is essential that every
student of science have some familiarity with the subject.
In our discussion a scalar quantity will be represented by a number
or a letter in italic type, such as x. A vector quantity will be repre-
sented by a letter in boldface type,* such as V ; and the scalar magnitude
of a vector V will be denoted by IV I or by the same letter in italics, as V.
A vector is represented geometrically by a directed line segment
which starts from an arbitrary initial point and is provided with an
arrowhead at its terminal point to indicate its sense of direction. The
length of the representative line segment is made proportional to the
magnitude of the vector. Two parallel line segments of the same
length and direction are said to be equal vectors, no matter where their
initial points are located. If two parallel line segments have the same
length but opposite directions, each is said to be the negative of the
other. Thus, if one vector is denoted by V, the other is denoted by
- V. A vector parallel to a second vector V, but m times as long, is
denoted by mV.
* In writing vectors, many symbolisms are used to denote a vector whose magnitude
is A, the most common being A and A.
459
460 Vector Analysis

A unit vector is one whose magnitude is unity. The unit vectors of

most importance are the three unit vectors, i, j, and k whose directions
are the same as the directions of the positive x, y, and z axes, re-
spectively. Rectangular axes in vector analysis must always be taken
to form a right-handed system. That is, if the index finger of the right
hand points in the direction of positive x and the middle finger toward
positive y, the thumb points toward positive z.

194. Addition of Vectors

If A and B are any two vectors, and we place the initial point of B
on the terminal point of A, as shown in Figure 187, the vector R drawn
from the initial point of A to the terminal point of B is defined as the
sum or resultant of A and B. Reversing the order of addition gives
the same result, as is evident in Figure 187. Hence
A + B = B + Al

and we note that vector addition is commutative.

A
Figure 187 Figure 188

Similarly, the sum of three or more vectors is obtained by con-

structing a polygon (Figure 188) that has the given vectors as
consecutive sides, the sum being the vector drawn from the initial
point of the first vector to the terminal point of the last. It is evident
in Figure 188 that vector addition is associative, that is,
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
Observe also that A, B, and C need not lie in a common plane, and
their sum in general is represented by the diagonal of the parallelepiped
formed by the three vectors.
The difference of two vectors A - B denotes a vector which when
added to B gives A, as is shown geometrically in Figure 189.
Example. Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
 Scalar Multiplication of Vectors 461

Solution: Let A = PQ and B = PS be the adjacent sides of a parallelo-

gram as shown in Figure 190. If T is the point of intersection of the diagonals,
it is apparent that QT and PT are some fractions of the vectors QS and PR,
->
respectively. Hence let QT = m(B - A) and PT = n(A + B). Then in
triangle PQT we have
A+m(B-A)=n(A+B),
or
(1 - m - n)A + (m - n)B =0.
But since A and B have different directions, the pre- e
ceding equation can hold only if Figure 189
1 -m-n=0 and m-n=0.
Hence m = z and n = 2, which proves that T is the mid-point of the
diagonals.
The components of a vector V can be any vectors whose sum is V.
The components most frequently used, however, are those that are
parallel to the x, y, and z axes, and that are called the rectangular
components of the vector. If V1, V2, and V3 are the projections of
V on the x, y, and z axes, respectively,
the rectangular components are V1i,
V 2i, and V3k. It is customary, how-
ever, to refer to the scalar quantities
V 1, V2, and V3 as the components of V,
since the subscripts are sufficient to
a Indlcate tho d lrectlon o f t h e component.
Figure 190 Thus, if the vectors A = A ii + A 2j +
A 3k and B = Bli + B2j + B3k are ex-
pressed in this form, we observe that their sum is
A + B = (A1+B1)i+(A2+B2)j+(A3+B3)k.
195. Scalar Multiplication of Vectors
Because both scalar and vector quantities are available, we define
two types of products in multiplication. The product that gives a
scalar is called the scalar or dot product of two vectors, and the
product that gives a vector is called the vector or cross product of
two vectors.
The scalar or dot product of A and B is defined as
AB cos (A,B), (1)
where (A,B) denotes the angle between the directions of A and B.
462 Vector Analysis

Since B cos (A,B) is the component of B along A, we see that a dot

product represents the product obtained by multiplying the magnitude
of A by the projection of B upon A, or vice versa. Since

we see that scalar multiplication is commutative. Furthermore, in

Figure 191, it is apparent that A A. B = A b, A A. C = Ac, and A A. (B + C)
= A (b + c) ; hence
(2)
which establishes the distributive law
for scalar multiplication.
If A and B are perpendicular,
cos (A,B) is zero, and A A. B = 0. Con-
A versely, if a scalar product is zero, then
Figure 191 either one of the vectors is zero or the two
vectors are perpendicular. Thus from
A A. B = A C we cannot conclude that B = C, but merely that
A A. (B - C) = 0. This means that B - C is zero or perpendicular to
A.
For the unit vectors i, j, k, we have the scalar products
1,

j.k = 0. (3)

If A = A 1i + A 2i + A 3k and B = B li + B2j + B3k, then by (2) and

(3), we find
A. B = (A li + Ad + A 3k) (Bli + B2j + B3k)
= A1B1 + A2B2 + A3B3. (4)

Illustration I. If A = 2ai - j + 6k and B = 3i - ak, then

(2a)(3) + (-1)(0) + (6)(-a) = 0.
Therefore the vectors A and B are perpendicular.
Comparing (1) and (4), we observe that the angle between two
vectors A and B is determined by
A1B1 + A2B2 + A3B3
cos (A,B) =
A B (5)

This is the same formula as that obtained in Article 140. If B = A,

it is also apparent that
A2=AA=A2+A2+A2.
 Vector Multiplication of Vectors 463

'Illustration 2. A = i cos a + j sin a and B = i cos P + j sin P are unit

vectors in the xy plane that make angles a and with the positive x axis.
By substitution in (5), we obtain the trigonometric formula
cos (a - P) = cos a cos P + sin a sin P.
The simplest applied illustration of the scalar
product is furnished by mechanical work. When
the point of application of a force F undergoes a
displacement represented in magnitude and direc-
z
T ; S 4
tion by the vector S (Figure 192), the work done Figure 192
by the force is defined as the product of the dis-
placement and the component of the force in the direction of the displacement,
that is,
Work = SF cos 0 = S . F.

196. Vector Multiplication of Vectors

The vector or cross product of A and B is a vector V = A x B
(Figure 193) that is perpendicular to both A and B, has a magnitude
V = AB sin (A,B), (1)
and is directed so that A, B, V form a right-handed system. Geo-
metrically, we observe by this definition
that the magnitude of A x B is equal
to the area of the parallelogram that
has the vectors A and B as sides.
The product B x A has the same
magnitude as A x B, but the rotation
that carries B into A is opposite to
that which carries A into B. Thus
BxA= -AxB,
Figure 193 and we find that vector multiplication is
not commutative; hence it is important
to maintain the order of vectors in a vector product.
The product A x B can be considered as the vector obtained by
(a) projecting B on a plane perpendicular to A, (b) rotating the pro-
jection 90° in the positive direction about A, and (c) multiplying the
resulting vector by A. Each of these operations changes a closed
polygon into a closed polygon. Hence, if they are applied to the sides,
B, C, B + C of a triangle, as shown in Figure 194, the resulting vectors
form the sides of a second triangle, and so we have
Ax(B+C)=AxB+AxC. (2)
464 Vector Analysis

This verifies the validity of the distributive law for vector multiplica-
tion.
If A and B are parallel vectors, it follows from (1) that
A x B = 0.
Conversely, if a vector product is zero, then either one of the vectors is
zero or the two vectors are parallel. Thus A x B = A x C or
A x (B - C) = 0 implies that B = C or B - C is parallel to A.

Figure 194

For the unit vectors i, j, k, the definition of a vector product gives

ixi=j x j = k x k = 0,
ixj= -j x i=k,
jxk=-kxj=i, (3)

kxi=-ixk=j.
Hence, if A = A li + A 2j + A3k and B = Bli + B2j + B3k, by (2)
and (3) we obtain
A x B = ("42B3 - A 3B2) i + (A 3B1 - A 1B3)j + (A 1B2 - A 2B1) k,
 Scalar Triple Product 465

a result that is more easily remembered in the determinant form

i j k
AxB= Al A2 A3 . (4)
B1 B2 B3
Illustration. The vector product of 2i - j and j - 3k is
i j k
2 -1 0 =3i+6j+2k.
0 1 -3
As an applied illustration for the use of
a vector product, consider the moment M of
a vector force F about the point 0. This r
moment is defined as the product of the
magnitude F of the force and the perpen-
R
dicular distance of the line of action of F
from 0. If R is the vector from 0 to the /
p oint of app lication of F, as shown in Figure -----------'
195, we obtain M = FR sin 0. Thus, if we Figure 195
adopt the convention that a positive
moment produces a counterclockwise rotation, we may define a moment
vector as
M = R x F.
I97. Scalar Triple Product
The scalar product of A and B x C is denoted by
A (B x C) or A B x C, (1)
and is called the scalar triple
BxC Product of A, B, and C.
- - - -- - - --- - _ Consider the parallelepiped
in Figure 196 which has the
vectors A, B, and C as edges.
A h
IC The area of the base gives the
'--------- magnitude of B x C and the
; altitude h is the projection of
B
A on B x C. Hence the scalar
magnitude (1) gives the volume
Figure 196 of the parallelepiped formed by
the vectors A, B, and C. If we
consider the face formed by A and B to be the base, the volume will be
given by C C. (A x B) = (A x B) C. Since this is the same volume, it
466 Vector Analysis

is apparent that the dot and cross in a scalar triple- product can be
interchanged provided the order of the vectors is not altered, that is,
x C=A x B.C. (2)

For this reason, a scalar triple product is often written as [ABC] and
called a box product.
From the relation (4) in the preceding article, we find
B3 B1 B3 B1 B2
BxC=i B2 - j +k
C2 C3 Cl C3 Cl C2

hence the analytical form of a box product is

[ABC] = A 1 B2 B3
B1 B3 B1 B2
A2 + A3
C2 C3 Cl C3 Cl C2
Al A2 A3
= B1 B2 B3 (3)
Cl C2 C3

Note: A necessary and sufficient condition that the vectors A, B, and

C be coplanar is that the determinant in (3) be zero. Observe that this also
implies that C = mA + nB, where m and n are scalar numbers.

198. Vector Triple Product

The product A x (B x C) is called a vector triple product of A, B,
and C. It is a vector that is perpendicular to B x C and therefore
coplanar with B and C; hence
A x (B x C) = mB + nC.
However, since A x (B x C) is also perpendicular to A, we find
0.

All numbers m and n that satisfy this relation must have the form
m = h(A C), n = - h(A B), where h is arbitrary; hence
A x (B x C) = (1)

In order to determine h, we introduce a system of axes oriented in

such a way that i is collinear with B, and j is coplanar with B and C.
For these axes, we then have
A =Ali +A2j +A3k, B=B1i, C=C1i+C2j.
 Exercise 467

On substituting these values in (1), we find h = 1. This gives us the

important expansion formulas
A x (B x C) = (A C) B - (A B) C,
(A x B) x C = (A C) B - (B C) A. (2)
In comparing the relations in (2), it is evident that the operation of
vector multiplication is not associative.

EXERCISE 113
I . Let M be the mid-point of side BC of the parallelogram ABCD. Prove
that AM trisects the diagonal BD.
2. In triangle ABC, let M be the mid-point of AB and N the mid-point of
CM. Prove that AN extended trisects BC.
3. Prove that the medians of a triangle meet at a point of trisection.
4. Let A, B, C, D denote vectors from an origin to the points A, B, C, D.
If B - A = C - D, show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
5. If A and B are vectors from point P to A and B, respectively, find the
vector from P to the mid-point of AB. Ans. 2(A + B).
6. Show that the vectors 2i + 4j + 5k and i + 2j - 2k are perpendicular.
7. Show that the vectors 2i - j + k, i - 3j - 2k, and 3i + 2j + 5k are
coplanar.
8. Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors i + 2j - 2k and
2i - j - 2k.
9. Prove or disprove the following statements.
(a) If A. B = 0 and B C = 0, then A. C = 0.
(b) If A x B= 0 and B x C = 0, then A x C = 0.
10. The vectors from the origin to the points A, B, and C are i + j, 3i + k,
and 4i - 3j - 4k, respectively. Show that ABC is a right triangle,
and find its area.
I I. Find the component of 3i - 5j along 3j + 4k. Ans. -3.
12. Find the area of the parallelogram formed by the vectors 3i + 2j and
3j - 4k.
13. Find the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the vectors i + j + k,
2i - j - 3k, and 3j - k. Ans. 18.
14. By computing the vector product of i cos a + j sin a and i cos +
j sin P, find a formula for sin (a - fl).
15. Under what circumstances is the following statement true? If
A x B=CandB x C=A,thenC x A=B.
Ans. ±A=B= ±C= 1, or±AB= +C=-1.
16. Express the sides of a triangle in the form a = b - c, and derive the
law of cosines by considering the scalar product
aa=(b-c)(b-c).
468 Vector Analysis

17. If A, B, C are vectors from an origin to the points A, B, C, and

C = mA + nB, show that A, B, and C are collinear when in + n = 1.
18. If A, B, C are vectors from an origin 0 to the points A, B, C, find the
volume of the tetrahedron OABC.
19. By means of products express the condition that the plane through A
and B be perpendicular to the plane through C and D.
Ans. A x B- C x D = 0.
20. By means of products express the condition that A, B, C, D all be
parallel to a plane.
21. If A, B, C are vectors from an origin to the points A, B, C, show that

'11A x B+B x C+C x A1

is the area of the triangle ABC.
22. If A, B, C, D are vectors from an origin 0 to the points A, B, C, D,
find the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD.
23. If A is a constant vector and R is the radius vector from the origin to
the variable point (x, y,z), show that (R - A) A = 0 is the equation
of a plane and describe its location.
Ans. Perpendicular to A at its terminus.
24. If A is a constant vector and R is the radius vector from the origin to
the variable point (x, y,z), show that (R - A) R = 0 is the equation
of a sphere and describe its location.
A. C B. C
25. Show that (A x B) (C x D) = Hint: Use (2),
Articles 197 and 198.
26. Show that (A x B) x (C x D) = [ABD]C - [ABC]D.
27. If (A x B) x C = A x (B x C), prove that (A x C) x B = 0.
28. Show that A x (B x C) + B x (C x A) + C x (A x B) = 0.
29. Show that (A x B) (B x C) x (C x A) = [ABC]2.
30. If a force F acts at a distance R from the origin, show that the torque T
about any axis through the origin is T = R x F F. L, where L is a unit
vector in the direction of the axis.
3I . Prove Schwarz's Inequality:
(A1B1 + A2B2 + A3B3)2 < (A1 + A2 + As)(B1 + B2 + B3).
When does the equality hold?
Ans. Al/B1 = A2/B2 = A3/B3.
32. If A, B, C, and in are constants with A A. B 0, solve the equations
F A = in and F x B = C for F. Hint : Cross the second equation
with A.
 Derivative of a Vector 469

199. Derivative of a Vector

If, for each value of a scalar variable t in a given domain, there
corresponds a vector F, then F is called a vector function of t and is
denoted as F(t).
When t approaches a fixed value to, the vector function F(t) is said
to approach the constant vector L as a limit provided the magnitude of
the difference F(t) - L approaches zero. When L is not zero, this
means that the direction and magnitude of F(t) are both nearly that of
L when t is close to to. When L is zero, the direction of F(t) may vary
as JF(t) I - 0. As for scalar functions, a vector function F(t) is said
to be continuous at t = to when
lim F(t) = F(to).
t-+to

The derivative of a vector function F(t) is defined as

dF = lim F(t + At) - F(t)
dt ot,o At
and is also represented by F'(t). Derivatives of higher order are
defined in like manner:
d2 F
-WF = F"(t) _ it , and so on.
If F(t) and G(t) are differentiable vector functions, and f(t) a
differentiable scalar function, the following differentiation rules are
easily obtained by using the same procedures that were used in
Article 41.

I. dt = 0, C a constant vector,

d
III. d (f F) = f
d + tF,
dt (F G) = F. dG + T G,

V.t
IV.

d
(FxG)=Fx dG+ FxG.
Since vector multiplication is not commutative, it is important to note
that the order of the factors in V must be preserved.
470 Vector Analysis

The preceding formulas may be used to establish the following

theorems.
Theorem I. A necessary and sufficient condition that a variable
vector F have a constant magnitude is that

F F, by use of 1V we find

2F d
Hence, F = constant implies F dF = 0, and conversely.

Theorem 2. A necessary and sufficient condition that a variable

vector F always remain parallel to a fixed line is that

F x d = 0. (1)

Proof: If F = F(t)u, where u is a unit vector, we have, by use of

III,
Fx dF=Fu x(dF u+Fdtl
du
=F2u x dt. (2)
I
If u is constant, du/dt = 0, and the condition (1) follows. Conversely,
since F 0 0, we see in (2) that the condition (1) implies that
u x (du/dt) = 0. However, by Theorem 1
and the fact that u is a unit vector, we
have u (du/dt) = 0. These two relations
are contradictory unless du/dt = 0. Hence
u is constant, and this means that the
direction of F is fixed.
In Figure 197 let R be the vector from a
fixed point 0 to a variable point P that
Figure 197 moves along a curve, and let s be the dis-
tance measured along the.curve from a fixed
point Po. When P moves to Q the increment AR is the vector from
P to Q, and the ratio AR/Os is a vector along the chord PQ of length
AR _ chord PQ
(3)
Os arc PQ
As Q approaches P, the ratio (3) approaches 1, and the line PQ
approaches the tangent line at P. Hence the limit dR/ds represents a
unit vector directed along the tangent at P.
 The Gradient 471

If R(t) denotes the path of a particle P expressed as a function of

time t, the vectors

V
_dR A
_dV_d2R
dt' di dt2

are called the velocity and acceleration of the particle, respectively.

By the chain rule, we have
_ dR ds
Vds dt = vT, (4)

where Ivi is the speed of the particle and T denotes a unit vector
tangent to the direction of motion.
On differentiating (4) with respect to time, we obtain

A dtT +v dT (5)

Since T is a unit vector an increment As will change T, not in magni-

tude, but in direction by an amount AT. If As is small, the
magnitude of AT is approximately equal to the arc of a unit circle with
central angle Aa, this angle being the angle through which the tangent
turns. Thus, in accordance with Article 58, we find
dT AT Da
lim lim = K,
ds AS-+0 As As

where K denotes the curvature at P. Since dT /dt is perpendicular to

T by Theorem 1, it follows that (5) may be written
dT ds_d2sT+Kv2N,
dt ds dt d12

where N denotes a unit vector normal to the direction of motion.

These are the same relations as those obtained in Article 65 by non-
vectorial methods.

200. The Gradient

In many applied problems we have occasion to deal with a scalar
function of position defined at each point in a certain region of space.
For example, the temperature distribution within a body represents
such a function. The region throughout which this scalar property is
defined is known as a scalar field.
Let O(x,y,z) be a scalar function whose first derivatives are con-
tinuous in a certain region and let R = ix + jy + kz be the radius
472 Vector Analysis

vector from an origin to a variable point P(x, y,z) . For a small

variation in x, y, and z, we find
dR=idx+jdy+kdz, (1)
and
dO = a dx + a dy + a dz. (2)

If the variation is taken in an arbitrary direction and ds = IdRI

denotes the distance moved, the expression
do 00 dx 00 dy 00 adz (3)
ds - ax ds + ay Ts + -Oz Ts
is called the directional derivative of 0 in the direction selected. It
is clear that a scalar function has a directional derivative at P extending
in every direction.
We observe that (2) may be written in the form

do= ia0+ja +kLO).(idx+jdy+kdz)

a
+j y
+ k LO)1 dR. (4)

The first vector in (4), as we shall see, is of basic importance in field

problems. This vector is called the gradient of 0, and it is represented
by the notations grad 0 or Vq ; thus

grado- VO=i O+j O+k o. (5)

y
The symbol V, called "del," can be considered to represent a symbolic
vector differential operator
V-iax+-j y+ka. (6)

Illustration I. If =R= x2 yy2 + z2, then

ix+jy+kz _R
x2+y2+z2 R
To determine the significance of a gradient, we write (3) in the form
do dR (7)
VO
ds ds
Since dR/ds is a vector of unit length, regardless of its direction, we
see that the right side of (7) represents the component of the gradient
 The Divergence 473

in the direction dR. Thus the gradient is a vector whose component in

any direction is the directional derivative in that direction. It is also
apparent in (7) that when the gradient extends in the direction of dR
the directional derivative is maximum and has the same magnitude as
the gradient.
Illustration 2. For a direction determined by dx = dy = dz, we have
dx/ds = dy/ds = dz/ds = Hence the directional derivative of _
xyz at the point Po(1,2,3) in the given direction is

\/3 - 6.35,
ds 13 + 1/3 + \/3J o
whereas the directional derivative of maximum magnitude is
IVOI _ jiyz + jxz + kxylo = 16i + 3j + 2kj = 7.
If we set the scalar point function q(x, y,z) equal to a constant c,
we get the equation of a surface on which at every point 0 has the same
value. We call this surface
O(x,y,z) = c, (8)

a level or equivalue surface for the function q. In a variation dR along

this surface, we have
do = V - dR = 0.
This means at a point P of the surface that Vq is perpendicular to every
vector dR in the surface at P. Hence the gradient is a vector whose
direction is normal to the surface (8) in the direction of increasing 0
and whose magnitude represents the greatest rate of increase of 0.

201. The Divergence

When a physical property determines a scalar at each point of a
certain region in space, we have said that the region forms a scalar fi ld.
In like manner, if a vector is specified at each point in space, we say
that the region forms a vector field. The velocity at each point of a
fluid mass is an example of a vector field.
If F(x,y,z) is a vector function with components whose first
derivatives are continuous in the domain of F, the scalar

V.F (i +jay l
_ aFi aF2 aF3
ax + ay + az (1)

is called the divergence of F, and is also denoted by div F.

474 Vector Analysis

Illustration. div R = V. (ix + jy + kz) = ax (x) + ay (y) + az- (z) = 3.

The divergence has the following important application in hydro-

dynamics. Consider the flow of a fluid in a three-dimensional region.
Let the magnitude of V denote the mass at a point P of the fluid,
flowing in unit time through .a unit cross-sectional area perpendicular
to the direction of flow, which we take as the direction of V. Let V1,
V2, V3 be the components of V
A B along the coordinate axes. If
we consider an elementary
volume Ax Ay Az of the region,
as shown in Figure 198, then the
mass flowing into the face PA BC
is, approximately,
V 1 0y 0z,
Y
while that flowing out of the
parallel face DEFG is, approxi-
Figure 198 mately,
(V1 + AV1) AY 0z.
Hence the approximate net increase of fluid in the parallelepiped due
to these two faces is
V1 Ay Oz - (V1 + AV1) AY Oz = -AV1 Ay Oz.
Similarly, the approximate net increases of fluid through the other
two sets of faces is
- AV 2 AX AZ and - AV 3 AX Ay.
If we add these three expressions and divide by the volume Ax Ay Az
of the parallelepiped, the total increase in mass per unit volume per
unit time due to the excess of flow inward over the flow outward is
found to be
AV1 AV2 AV3
Ox ryJ Oz
In the limit as Ax, Ay, and Az all approach zero, we get
ay, aV2 aV3
C7. V.
ax ay az

But this is just the time rate of increase of mass density; hence
ap
v . V.
at
 The Curl or Rotation 475

This equation is known as the equation of continuity. If the fluid

is incompressible aplat = 0; hence
v.v = 0.
Since - V V represents the excess of inward flow over outward
flow, it is understandable that V V represents the excess of outward
flow over inward flow, or the divergence of the fluid.

202. The Curl or Rotation

If F(x,y,z) is a vector function with components whose first
derivatives are continuous in the domain of F, the vector
i j k
a a a
VxF= ax ay az
F1 F2 F3
aF3 _ aF2 aF1 - aF3
j+ aF2
- aF1
ay az I
li + (
az ax)\ ax ay
k (1)

is called the curl or rotation of F, and is also denoted by curl F or

rot F.
Example. If A is a constant vector and R = ix + jy + kz, find
V x (A x R).
Solution: From the definition of a vector product, we have
A X R = (A 2z - A 3Y) i + (A 3x - Aiz)j + (A iY - A 2x) k.
Hence, by (1), we obtain
i j k
a a a
V x (A x R) =
ax ay az
A2z - A3y A3x - Aiz Aiy - A2x
=2A1i+2A2j+2A3k=2A.
The curl of a vector has a simple application in connection with
rotary motion. Consider a rigid body which has an angular velocity
co about an axis that passes through an origin 0 fixed in the body, as
shown in Figure 199. If the angular velocity is denoted by a vector
w directed along the axis of rotation, and r is perpendicular to w,
476 Vector Analysis

it is apparent that w x r will denote the linear velocity V of

the point P about the axis. Furthermore, the linear velocity
may be written
V=w x r=w x (R-h) =w x R.
Since w is a constant as far as the co-
ordinates x, y, and z are concerned, it follows
from the preceding example that
V x V = V x (w x R) = 2w.
Thus the angular velocity of a body in rotation is
equal to one-half the curl of its linear velocity.
This relation between linear and angular
Figure 199 velocities is responsible for the use of the
term curl.

203. Summary of Vector Differentiation

Since VO is a vector, we can compute its divergence and get the
scalar

V
ixa -} j
y
+kaz (laO+j
a20+a2O+a2Oax2

ay2 az2.

The operator
a2 a2 a2
V2= V. V = ax2+ ay2+ 8z2

is called the Laplacian, since V20 = 0 gives Laplace's equation.

The vector V x VO, the curl of the gradient of the scalar function
0, is identically zero, as is suggested by the fact that we are taking the
vector product of V by itself. To prove this, we expand as follows:
i j k
a a a
VxVO= ax ay az

ao ao ao
ax ay az

a20 a20 a20 a20 a20

(_!_O
i (37-iz az ay) + J (az ax ax az 1 + k (ax ay ay ax 0
 Exercise 477

If the curl of a vector function U vanishes everywhere in a region

D in space, U is said to be irrotational in this region. From the above
expansion it is seen that if U is the gradient of a scalar function
then U is irrotational.
The scalar V V. V x F, the divergence of the curl of the vector
function F, is also identically zero. For, by computing the divergence
of (1) in the preceding article, we obtain
a (8F3 8F2 a 8F 1 _ 8F 3 a 8F 2 8F1 _
V-V x F= 8x 8z) +8y ( 8z 8x) +T (8x 8y ) 0'
8y

If the divergence of a vector function U vanishes everywhere in a

region D in space, U is said to be solenoidal in this region. It follows
that if U is the curl of a vector function F, then U is solenoidal.
Other useful differentiation formulas are listed below, where
denotes a scalar function of x, y, and z, and F and G are vector
functions. These identities may be established by direct expansion.
V.cF =
V x OF=cV x F + Vc x F,

Vx x G) = G- VF - F- VG + F(V.G) - G(V.F),
F G x (V x F),

EXERCISE 114
In all of the following problems R = ix + jy + kz.
dF x d2F
I . If F is a function of t, find the derivative of F F.
dt dt2
Ans. F F' x F'.
2. What is the greatest rate of increase of the function = xyz2 at the
point (1,8,3)?
3. If A is a constant vector, show that 0(A R) = A.
4. If A is a constant vector, show that V (A x F) = -A (V x F).
5. Find the divergence and curl of U = i(x2 + yz) + j(y2 + zx) +
k(z2 + xy). Ans. 2(x + y + z), 0.
6. Find the divergence and curl of U = (ix + jy)/(x2 + y2).
7. For a direction determined by dx = 2dy = - 2dz, find the directional
derivative of 0 = x2 + y2 + z2 at the point (1,2,1). Ans. 2.
8. Find the divergence and curl of the vector function
U = (bz - cy) i + (cx - az) j + (ay - bx) k.
478 Vector Analysis

9. If A is an arbitrary constant vector and F(t) is a variable vector, show

that A F = 0 implies that [FF'F"] = 0.
10. If f and g are scalar point functions, show that div (Vf x Vg) = 0.
1. If the components of F are homogeneous functions of x, y, z of order n,
show that R VF = nF.
12. At time t the vector from the origin to a moving point is
R = A cos wt + B sin wt,
where A, B, and co are constants. (a) Find the velocity V, show that
R x V is constant, and find its value. (b) Show that the acceleration
is directed toward the origin and is proportional to R.
13. If the vector F(t) is not parallel to a fixed line, prove that it will remain
parallel to a fixed plane when [FF'F"] = 0.
14. If R x dR = 0, show that dR = mR.
15. Show that Vf (x + y) x Vg(x + y) = 0 and Vf (x + y) . Vg(x - y) = 0.
16. Show that Vf (x2 - y2) Vg(xy) = 0.
17. If R = 1/x2 + y2 + z2, prove that V2f(R) =f"(R) + f'(R).
18. Find a vector normal to the surface x2 - xy + yz =R 3 at the point
(1,2,2).
19. Show that (a) (A x V) R = 0, and (b) (A x V) x R = - 2A.
20. Given the curve defined by R = 3i sin t + 3j cos t + 4kt, where t is a
parameter, (a) find ds along the curve, and (b) find the unit tangent
vector.
21. If a vector has a constant direction, prove that its curl is perpendicular
to that direction.
22. A vector field is defined by Rf (R), where R = 1/x2 + y2 + z2. Deter-
mine f (R) so that the field may be solenoidal.
23. Find a vector F = Rf (R) such that div F = Rm (m > - 3).
Ans. RRm/(m + 3).
24. If A is a constant unit vector, prove that
div (A R) A = 1, curl (A R) A = 0,
div (A x R) x A = 2, curl (A x R) x A = 0.
25. Show that V In R = R/R2.
26. Show that V (Rn) = nRn-2R.
27. Show that V (RnR) = (n + 3)Rn.
28. Show that V x (RnR) = 0.
29. Show that V2Rn = n(n + 1)Rn-2.

30. Prove that curl curl F = V(V F) - (V V) F.

31. If F = V and div F = 0, show that div F2.
32. Let R be the radius vector from the origin to a particle P moving along
a curve, and let (r,9) be the polar coordinates of P. If N is a unit vector
 Line Integrals 479

in the direction of r increasing and T is a unit vector perpendicular to R

and in the direction of 0 increasing, show that
dR _ dr N + dB
r
dt dt dt T,

dt22
[_r()]N+ [r
ace
d821 2
dy do
d12 + 2 dt dt ] T
.

Show that the vector

F=
R, R<a,
-a3V(1/R), R > a,
is continuous and irrotational throughout space.

204. Line Integrals

A curve whose equations are
x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t) (1)

is said to be a regular arc for a domain to < t 5 t1 when the functions

in (1) and their first derivatives are
continuous functions of t. A curve
consisting of a finite number of
regular arcs joined end to end, and
not crossing one another, is called a
regular curve. Since most appli-
cations involve only regular curves,
we shall assume in the following dis- '` IXAR2
cussion that all curves are regular.
Let the curve A B, shown in
Figure 200, be divided into n seg- Figure 200
ments by the points A = Po, P1,
P2, , P. = B, and let the chords AP1, P1P2,
. , Pn_1B be denoted . .

by the vector elements AR1, AR2, , ARn. Then, in accordance

with the methods of Article 107, we know that the sum of the magni-
tudes of these vector elements will approximate the length of AB.
Now let F(x,y,z) be a vector function which is defined at each point
of the curve, and has the values F1, F2, . . , Fn at A, P1, , Pn-1,
respectively. If the limit of the sum of the scalar products
F2.AR2 + ... + Fn.ARn
exists, as n -- oo and each I ARk J -> 0, it is denoted by
a
r
JA
480 Vector Analysis

and called the line integral of F along the curve AB. Clearly, the
line integral from B to A is the negative of that from A to B, and
furthermore, since dR = i dx + j dy + k dz, we have

f fA (Fldx + F2dy + F3dz), (2)

A

where the subscripts now denote the directions of the coordinate axes.
To illustrate the applied value of a line integral, we observe that
if F represents a force acting on a moving particle, then the line
integral of F over the path described by the particle gives the work
done by the force.
Illustration. The line integral of F = iy - jx along the curve x = t,
y = t2, z = t3 from (0,0,0) to (1,1,1) is

[(y) dt + (-x)2t dt + (0)3t2 dt]

f A
Jo

101 (t2 - 2t2) dt

whereas the integral along the line joining the points is

fo [(t) dt + (-t) dt + (0) dt] = 0.

If F is the gradient of a scalar point function O(x,y,z), we have

F1= a, F2
ay
F3
= ao
and
B a0 a0 ao
F dR = B dx + dy + dz
JfA JfA (ax ay az
('B
d¢ = ¢B - ¢A-
A
JA

In this case we see that the line integral depends solely on the end
points and not at all on the path joining the points. If the curve is
closed, the points A and B coincide, and OA - OA is zero. Hence,
when F is the gradient of a scalar function, the line integral of F around a
closed curve is zero. The line integral around a closed curve is usually
represented by an integral sign with a circle on it; thus

6n¢- dR=O. (3)

 Line Integrals 481

Conversely, if F(x,y,z) is continuous and

0
f
for every closed path in a three-dimensional region, there is a function
O(x, y,z) such that F = V o.
To show this, let
P
(x, Y, Z) = f F dR, (4)
Po

where Po is a fixed point and P(x,y,z) is a variable point in the region.

Since the integral around a closed path is zero, 0 does not depend on
the path from Po to P and hence is a function of x, y, and z. If the
curve that joins PO and P is one for which the unit tangent dR/ds is
continuous, we see from
P
0- fP F dsds'
0

that 0 is a function of s and has the derivative

do _ dR
hence do = F dR.
Ts F ds '

We showed in Article 200, however, that do = Vo dR ; thus

Vo-dR or (F - VO) - dR = 0.
Since the last equation is true for all directions of dR, the vector
F - Vo must vanish, and we have F = V o.
If F(x,y,z) denotes a force field, we observe that the law of con-
servation of energy would require

f (5)

Hence, if a force field F is such that (5) holds for every closed path,
we say that the field is conservative. In such a case the work done
is independent of the path, and the quantity
Po
p(x, y,z) = F dR
P
is called the potential of the vector field F relative to Po. It is
evident from the preceding discussion that
F = - Vp,
that is, in a conservative field the force is equal to the negative gradient
of the potential.
482 Vector Analysis
205. Surface Integrals
A portion of a surface, whose equation is
z = f (x, y) (1)

and whose projection on the xy plane is the interior of a regular closed

curve, is called a regular surface element provided that f (x, y) and
its first derivatives with respect to x and y are continuous functions.
Since most solids in applied problems are bounded by regular surface
elements, we shall assume in the following discussion that all surface
elements are regular.
Let the surface S, shown in Figure 201,
be divided in any manner into n parts
oSk
with vector representations AS1 AS2
OS n, suc h th at eac h vector OS k has
a magnitude equal to the area of the kth
element and a direction normal to the
surface, the positive direction of a normal
being arbitrary. Now let F(x,y,z) be a
Figure 201 vector function which is defined at each
point of the surface, and has the values
F1, F2, F. at some point of each corresponding element. If the
,

limit of the sum of the scalar products

F1-OS, + F2.AS2 + ... + Fn.ASn
exists, as n -- oo and the maximum dimension of each subregion IASk)
approaches zero, it is denoted by

fs F . dS, (2)
J

and called the surface integral of F over the surface S.

Note: In order to remove any ambiguity concerning the positive direc-
tion of a normal, the following conventions are adopted: (a) if the surface
element is part of a closed surface the outward drawn normal is taken as
positive; (b) if the surface element is not part of a closed surface the positive
sense of describing the periphery is connected with the positive direction of
the normal by a right-hand rule which states that when the fingers point in
the positive direction of describing the periphery the thumb points in the
positive direction of the normal.
Example. Find the surface integral of F = kx over that part of the
surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a2 which lies in the first octant.
 Surface Integrals 483

Solution: In Article 173 we found that the area of an element of surface

for the sphere is

dS = bit + ('z)'
x +
ay
l 2 dx dy = z A dy. (3)

If the positive direction on the periphery is taken as indicated in Figure 202,

a unit vector N normal to the sphere is R/a; hence
iadxdyl = Rdxdy.
dS = R
Therefore, by (2), we have

I F dS dx dy
JS JJ A z

Iaf.Y = 2 1 (a2 - y2) dy = 3a3.

Figure 202

Observe that this result is more readily obtained by taking

dS = i dSl + j dS2 + k dS3
= i dy dz + j dz dx + k dx dy.
Thus, without dependence on the formula (3), we obtain

F dS = kx. (i dy dz + j dz dx + k dx dy)
fS SSA

= flAx
484 Vector Analysis

The preceding remark illustrates the advantage gained in evaluating a

surface integral by using the formula

fS F dS = fS (F1 dSi + F2 dS2 + F3 dS3)

If the vector field F represents the product of the density and the
velocity of a fluid, F dS denotes the product of the density and the
volume of a prism of cross section dS and altitude equal to the com-
ponent of velocity normal to the surface. Therefore F dS represents
the mass of fluid flowing through the element of surface dS in unit time,
and the integral of F dS gives the total mass flowing through the
surface in unit time. This quantity is called the flux of F through the
surface. A study of electric flux and magnetic flux is very important
in the theory of electricity.

206. Divergence Theorem

Consider a closed region of three-dimensional space that has volume
V and is bounded by regular surfaces of total area S. If the vector
function F(x,y,z) and its first derivatives with respect to x, y, and z
are continuous at all points in the interior and on the boundary of this
region, it can be shown that

r V.FdV = ` (1)
Jv Js
This result is usually known as the divergence theorem, although it
is sometimes called Gauss's theorem in recognition of the renowned
German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855).
This theorem is remarkable in the sense that it shows that if the
integrand of a volume integral can be expressed as the divergence of a
vector field, then the value of the integral depends only on the vectors
on the surface enclosing the volume, and not at all on the vectors at
interior points.
To prove the divergence theorem, we observe that
aFl aF2 aF3
FdV= dx dy dz
517
v
555 dx + ay + az
f f fv a xl dx dy dz + ff fv a 2 dy dz dx + III----dzdxdy.
JJ.I .l.lJ
We evaluate the first integral on the right by integrating partially
 Divergence Theorem 485

with respect to x along a column of cross section dy dz extending from

P1 to P2 as shown in Figure 203,
aF,
J
JJ_dxdYdz = IL, {F1(x2,y,z) - F1(xl,y,z)} dy dz,
where (xi,y,z) and (x2,y,z) are the coordinates of P1 and P2, respectively.
Now at P1, dy dz = - dSl, and at P2, dy dz = dSl ; hence

l1 f V
a xl dx dy dz = f F1(x2,y,z) dS1 +
J J
F1(xl,y,z) dS1,

Figure 203

where the first integral is taken over the right section of the
S and the second over the left section. Therefore

ff JV s 1 A dy dz = Jfs F
a 1 dS 1, (2)

where the surface integral is evaluated over the entire surface.

Similarly, we find
sy
f II!-dvdzdx=
V IF2dS2
s , (3)
.1 J J

('
f f--dzdxdy=
Y az f F3dS3.
S
(4)
486 Vector Analysis
By adding (2), (3), and (4), we obtain

f (F1dSl + F2dS2 + F3dS3) = fS

Jv
and the theorem is proved.
Illustration. If V denotes a sphere of radius a and with center at the
origin 0, and F = ix + jy + kz, then, by Article 201, div F = 3, and

div F dV = 3 dV = 3(3Tra3) = 4rra3.

JV fV

On the other hand, since F and dS are both directed along the radius of the
sphere, we have F dS = a dS and

F dS = a dS = a(4rra2) = 47ra3,
fS fS

which verifies the formula (1) in this instance.

The significance of the divergence theorem from a physical point of
view can be more fully appreciated by stating the theorem in the
following manner.
Divergence Theorem. In a vector field the summation of the normal
component of flux over a closed surface S is equal to the summation of
the divergence over the volume enclosed by S, each being a measure of the
excess of outward flux over the inward flux.

207. Stokes's Theorem

Consider an area S which is composed of a finite number of regular
two-sided surfaces, and let C denote the curve or curves that form the
boundary of S. Select one side of S to be positive and let the positive
direction along C be that direction in which an observer on the
positive side of S must travel in order to have the area on his left. If
the vector function F(x,y,z) and its first derivatives with respect to
x, y, and z are continuous at all points of S and C, it can be shown that

f Vx (1)
1. S

This result is attributed to the Irish mathematical physicist Sir

George G. Stokes (1819-1903) and is called Stokes's theorem.
This theorem is remarkable in the sense that it shows that if the
integrand of a surface integral can be expressed as the curl of a vector
field, then the value of the integral depends only on the vectors at
 Stokes's Theorem 487

points on the periphery, and therefore has the same value over all
surfaces which have the same periphery.
To prove Stokes's theorem, we write

fS V x fS (V x iFl + V x jF2 + V x kF3) dS,

and consider the first term, which may be written as

aFl
5.5
Vx
fS (
NJ az
ay
- 1
dS, (2)

where N is a unit vector normal to the surface. To evaluate this

integral, let dS be the surface element that has dx dy for its projection
on the xy plane, as shown in
Figure 20 4 ; t h a t i s, 'Z

k dS = (N k) dS = dx dy. (3)

At points on the surface, za is

a function of x and y; hence F1
depends only on x and y and
may be written I

F1(x,y,z) = f (x,y)
The partial derivative of J with
respect to y is
af aF l W l az Figure 204
(4)
ay ay + az ay
Likewise at points of the surface the vector R = ix + jy + kz is a
function of x and y only and its partial derivative with respect toy is
aR = j + k ay
ay az

This last vector is tangent to the curve that is cut from the surface
by the plane x = constant, and therefore perpendicular to the normal
N of the surface; thus
(5)

By use of the relations (3), (4), and (5), the expression (2) becomes

V x iF1 dS = - JJ.Ldxdy,
f S y
488 Vector Analysis

the integral on the right being taken over the projection of S on the
xy plane. This latter integral, in iterated form, becomes

- jb 5Y2 of dy dx J
[f (x,y2) - f (x, yl)] dx

f
= f baf (x,y2) dx + a f (x,yl) dx, (6)

where yl and y2 are the lower and upper boundaries, respectively, as

shown in Figure 205. Inasmuch as (6)
the definition for a line integral

iii
Y is
y2
1

r-1 around the boundary C', we have

V x iF1 dS = Ic f (x, y) dx.

f S
Since the function f at the point
(x,y) has the same value as the function
x F1 at the point (x, y,z) , and since the
change in x between two points on Cis
the same as the change in x between
Figure 205 the corresponding points on C, it follows
that

fc f dx = JF1dx.
Finally, we obtain

I v x iFl dS = I F1 dx.

In a similar manner, we can show that

fS V x jF2 dS = fF2dy,

f
S
v x kF3 dS = f . F3 dz.
Jc
Hence, by addition, we have

fS V x fc (F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz) = fc

and the theorem is proved.

 Summary of Integration 489

Illustration. For the vector F = kz - iy taken over the hemisphere

z = V'a2-x2-y2,wefind V x F = k; hence
Vx dxdy=ira2.
fs fs,

On the other hand, for the circular boundary in the plane z = 0, we find

fc F-dR = 5(zdz - ydx) = - Jydx.

By use of the substitution x = a cos 0, y = a sin 0, we obtain
2v
dR = a2 f 0 dO = 7ra2,
f cc o

which verifies Stokes's theorem in this instance.

208. Summary of Integration

Many integration formulas can be derived which are analogous to
those already obtained; basically, however, these new formulas are
merely different variations of the two formulas given in Stokes's
theorem and the divergence theorem. Thus, when f (x, y,z) is a scalar
function and F(x,y,z) is a vector function, four such formulas are as
follows.

fc f dR = fs dS x Vf, (1)

dR x F= f(ds x V) x F,
fC (2)

JfdS = rvVfdV, (3)

fs dS x F = I V x FdV. (4)
J J
In order to illustrate the connection between these formulas and
the basic formulas, let us consider the relation (1). If A is a constant
arbitrary vector, by using fA for the vector field in Stokes's theorem,
we obtain

J!A . dR = fs (V x fA) - dS = fs (Vf x A) dS

= I x Vf.
Js
490 Vector Analysis

Since a constant factor can be taken outside the sign of integration, we

have
A. JofdR - I x
VIJ =
This relation is true for all values of A; hence the expression in the
brackets must be zero, which proves (1).
To prove (4), we apply the divergence theorem to the vector F x A,
which gives
f F x A.dS = fv x A) dV.
s
By Article 203 this relation can be written in the form

f A- V x FdV,
v
whence

A.f f dS x F - f V x FdVI = 0.
s .1v -1

Since this is true for all values of the constant vector A, we conclude
as before that the expression in brackets is zero.
The formulas (2) and (3) can be proved in a similar manner by
using the vectors F x A and f A, respectively, in Stokes's theorem and
the divergence theorem.
Another theorem of considerable importance in applied problems
was established by the English mathematician George Green (1783-
1841). His result can be obtained by taking two scalar functions
f (x,y,z) and g(x, y,z) , and applying the divergence theorem to the vector
field f Vg. Thus we find

IPg.dS=
s Jv V (fVg) dV

= fv (fV2g + dV. (5)

By interchanging f and g in (5) and then subtracting the expression

obtained from (5), we have the following result.
Green's Theorem. If f (x, y,z) and g(x, y,z) denote two scalar potentials
which, together with their first derivatives, are continuous over a volume V
enclosed by a surface S, then

fV (f V2g - gV2f) dV = Js (f Vg - gVf)dS.

 Exercise 491

EXERCISE I IS

1. Show that the integral

/'(1,2)
J [(3x2 + 6xy) dx + (3x2 - 4y3) dy]
(0,0)

is independent of the path, and find its value. Ans. - 9.

2. Find the value of

[(x + y) dx + 2xy dy]

f (1,2)
(o,o)

along the paths (a) y = 2x, (b) y2 = 4x, (c) y = 0, x = 1.

3. Given F = (x2 -- y2)i + 2xyj, find the value of f F dR taken in a
counterclockwise direction around the square bounded by the lines
x = 0, x = a, y = 0, and y = a in the xy plane. Ans. 2a3.
4. Given F = jx - iy, find the value of f F dR from (0,0) to (4,4) along
(a) the line y = x, (b) the parabola y2 = 4x.
5. Find the value off T dR around a circle of radius a where T is a unit
tangent vector at each point of the circle. Ans. 2ira.
6. Show that f dR = 0.
7. Show that f R x dR taken around a curve in the xy plane has a
numerical value equal to twice the area enclosed by the curve.
P
8. Show that the function O(P) = RnR dR is independent of the path
J Po
from PO to P, and find its value.
Find the vector F(x,y,z) such that xyz = (((o)
)
9. 0,0,0) F dR.
J
Ans. iyz + jzx + kxy.
10. If F = ix2 + j2xy + k(x2 - xy), find the value of f F dS over the
surface of the cube 0r < x, y,z < 1.
I. Show directly that R x dS = 0, where S is a sphere with center at
Js
the origin. Hint: N = R/R.
12. Find f F F. dS for the vector F = ix - jy + k2z taken over the sphere
x2+y2+(z-1)2=1.
13. Verify Stokes's theorem for F = (2y + z)i + (x - z)j + (y - x)k
taken over the triangle cut from the plane x + y + z = 1 by the co-
ordinate planes.
14. Compute f (axe + by2 + cz2) dS over the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1.
Hint: Use N = R, find F, and apply the divergence theorem.
15. Verify the divergence theorem for the vector F = ix2 + jy2 + kz2
taken over the cube 0 < x,y,z < 1.
492 Vector Analysis

16. If F = iy - ix + kz2, find the value of F dS taken over the

closed surface bounded by the planes z = 0, z = 1, and the cylinder
x2+y2=y2.
17. For any closed surface S in a solenoidal vector field F, show that

18. For any closed curve C in an irrotational vector field F, show that
f 0.
19. Show that 8G/8x = 8F/8y is a necessary and sufficient condition that
f (F dx + G dy) = 0 for every closed path in the xy plane.
20. A particle is attracted toward the origin with a force that is inversely
proportional to the square of its distance from the origin. Find a
potential at P(x, y,z).
21. Prove formula (2), Article 208.
22. Prove formula (3), Article 208.
23. If f and g are scalar point functions that satisfy Laplace's equation and
S is a closed surface, show that fS (f Vg - gVf) dS = 0.
24. If F is a vector function normal to the closed surface S at each point,
and if V is the volume bounded by S, show that curl F dV = 0.
jV

25. Express fV R dV as an integral over the surface S enclosing V.

Ans. 2 f R2 dS.
26. Write out Green's theorem in rectangular coordinates.
27. If f is a scalar function and F a vector function, use Stokes's theorem to
show that
f (Vf x F + fV x ffF.dR.
28. Use the formula (2), Article 208, to prove that
f dS = 2 R x dR.
s fe
29. If f is a scalar function and F a vector function, use the divergence
theorem to show that
fV (f V - F + dV = 5f(F.dS).
30. tinuous gradients, show that
If u and v are scalar functions with continuous
fS Vu x dv,
fc
where S is a portion of a surface bounded by a closed curve C.
 Exercise 493

3I. The vector F = kV(1/R), where R is the distance from a point 0, repre-
sents an attraction that varies as I /R2, the inverse square law. If S is
a closed surface about 0, prove that
-4,rk.
S
Hint: Insert a sphere of radius r around 0 and find the limit as r -+ 0.
32. Apply the divergence theorem to F x curl G to prove that
- J V F curl curl G dV = fS F x curl G dS.
 Table of Integrals

FORMS CONTAINING a + bu

J(a + bit) n du = (ab(n

+ bu) n+1
+ 1)
' n 0 -1.

r du _
2. Ja+bu - 1
bin (a + bit).

3.
f if
[(a + bu) - a In (a + bu)].
a bit = b2
u2du _ 1
[(a + bit) 2 - 2a(a + bu) + a2 In (a + bu)
4.
f a + bit b3 2
.

du 1 In a + bit
5.
f u(a + bit) a it

6.
du 1 b
au+a21n
a+bu
ju2(a+bu) it
it
J__udu _ ( )
b2[a+bu+in a+bu J .
+bu)2
f u2du _ 1
(a + bit) - a2
2a In (a + bu)) l
a + bit
8. .
(a + bit) 2 b3
du 1 1 a+bu
u
9.
f u(a + bit) 2 a(a + bu)
a21n

du a + 2bu 2b a + bu
10. a3 1n
J. u2(a + bit) 2 a2u(a + bu) + it

FORMS CONTAINING Va+bu

2(2a - 3bu) (a + bu) 3/2
I . Ju/a + bu du = - 15b2

12. fun -/a + bit d2c = 2un(a + bu) 3/2

b(2n + 3)
- b(2n2an+ 3) fun-11/a + bu du.

13. f u du _ 2(2a - bu)1/a + bu

3b2
J 1/a + bit
un dii _ 2un1/a + bit 2an un-1 du
14.
f -Va + bit b (2n + 1)
495
b (2n + 1) a u
496 Table of Integrals

du 1 In( a+bit - Va-,

15. f bit 1/a `1/a + bu + 1/a/
when a > 0;
J

2 Tan-1
a + bits when a < 0.
du 1/a + bit b(2n - 3) dit
16.
un1/a + bit a(n - 1)?cn-1
2a(n - 1) J ?Ln-11/a + bit
a+bit du
17.
f it du =21/a+bit +a f?L1/a -+ bit
1/a + bu du - - (a + bit) 3/2 - b(2n - 5) 1/a + bit
f In a(n - 1)un-1 2a(n - 1) f
18. du. ?In-1

FORMS CONTAINING V/u2+a2

19.
d?c _1 Tan-1it-
u2 + a2 a a
du _ 1 Inita+a
-a
20.
f?L2-a2 2a

21. f-/ du
V ?62 ± a2
= In (?t + it2 ± a2).

?L2daL
It ,\/,?12 ± a2 _ -/
22. /
'V ?62 - a2
- + a21n (?L + V 262 + a2). -
dii Z62 + a2
23.
f ?c1/u2 + a2 = - 1a In ( a + it
f dii = 1 Sec 1 --
24.
a

25. f u2
du
?t2 ± a2
=+
1t2± a2
a-u

26. f "V ?L2 ± a2 dii = 22t ?L2 ± a2 ± 2a2 In (16 + 162 a2).

27. Ju2\/u2 ± a2 du =111(112 + a2)3/2 + -1021N/U2 ± a2

ga4 I-n/(u + Vu2 ± a2).
J\/U2 +a`'du=
"V162+a2-aIn (a+ V?62+a2
28.
u u )
29. f ?L2 - a2
it
du = \/u2 - a2 - a Sec-1
U
a
 Table of Integrals 497

30. 1/212 ± a2 1/ZL2 ± a2

du = + In (2L + V112
f 212 u
a2).

31. (112 a2) 3/2 du = iu(u2 + a2)3/2 ± 3a22L v 212 + a2

J
+ 8a4 In (u + 1/u2 ± a2).
32.
f (lL2 + a2)3/2 du = (212 + a2) 3/2
2L 3
1/u2+a2
+ a2 212 +a2-a3in (a + u
f (212 - a2) 3/2 / u
33. du = 3(ZL2 - a2)3/2 - a2"v l12
- a2 + a3 Sec-1 -.
a
du it
34. f
J (212 ± a2)3/2 =
+ "/
a2\\ ZL2 ± a2
+a)3/2
d22 221
35.
f (212 2 1/21 ± a2
+ In (u + -v 212 ± a2).

a + 1/212 + a2
f
d2L 1 1
36. 21(212 + a2)3/2 - a21/u2 + a2 In
3 ( It )
37.
f
du
u(u2 - a2) 3/2 = a21/u2 - a2
1
- a3 Sec-1-ua
1

FORMS CONTAINING Va2- u2

du _ 1 In a + it
38.
fa2-u2 2a a-u
du
f Sin-1-a 2L
39.
"V a2 - 212
112 u _/ u
40. = - ?2L1/a2 - 212 + 2a2 Sin-1
/a2 - ZL2 a
a+1/a2-u22
41. du = 1In 1.
u1/a2 - u2 a ( it J
du 1/a2 - 212
42.
f u21/a2 - 212 a 221

J'\/a2 u
43. - 212 d2L = 2211/a2 - u2 + 2a2 Sin-i
a

44. 5u2\/a2 - u2 du = - 421(x2 -212) 3/2 + ga2LL1/a2 - u2

u
+ $a4 Sin-1 -.
a
498 Table of Integrals

a2-ZC2d2c= a+1/a2-u2
45. f 1/a2-u2-aIn l
,l is U 1
a2 - u2 1/a2 - 1c2 It
46.
J
f
jc2
du = - It
- Sin-1
a
duc it
47.
f (a2 - 26213/2 a2\/a2 - 262
_
48. f (a2 -
ice d26
)3/ 2
26
- Sin-' Ita
J \/a2 - 262
dic _ 1 1 In (a + a2 - u2
49.
f u(a2 - u2) 3/2 a2 a2 - 262 a3 u
du _ 1/a2-ice It
50.
f u2(a2 - 212) 3/2 a426
+
a4,\ /a2 - 262

51. f (a2 - u2) 3/2 du = 4u(a2 _u2)3!2 + ga2uV a2 - u2

It
+ $a4 Sin-1 -.
a
(a2 - U2)3/2
52. f du = (a2 - 262) 3/2
26 3
a + 1/a2
+ a2v'a2 -u2-a3ln
TRIGONOMETRIC FORMS
53. fsin 26 du = - cos u.
54. fsine u du = 2u - 2 sin u cos u.
55. f sin3 it d26 = -cos It + a cos3 it.

56. fsine it du = - 1n sine-1 26 cos 26 + n -n 1 f sine-2 26 du.

57. f cos 26 du = sin u.
58. f cost it d26 = ?2c + 2 sin it cos U.
59. fcos3 it dic = sin 26 - 3 sin3 It.

60. f cosh it du = n- 1
c0sn-1 It sin 26 +
n - 1
n I cosn-2 It du.
 Table of Integrals 499

61. Jtan it du = In sec u.

tann-1 It
62. J tann it du = tann-2 it du.
n-1 J
63. f cot it du = In sin it.

64. Jcotn it du = - n n-1

- ` - fcotn_2 it du.
65. Jsec it du = In (sec it + tan it).

66. f sect it dzc = tan it.

67. Jsecn zc dzc =

secn-2 U tan it
+
n-2 secn-2 it du.
n-1 n-1J
68. f csc it du = In (csc u - cot it).

69. fcsc2udu = - cot u.

70. Jcscn It du =
cscnn2 it lot u + n - 2 fcsc2 U du.
71. Jsec it tan it du = sec u.

72. f csc it cot it dzc = - csc it.

73. f sin au sin bit du =
- sin (a + b) u
sin (a - b) u
2(a - b) 2(a + b)
cos (a - b) u - cos (a + b) u
74.
ff sin au cos bit dzc = _ 2(a-b) 2(a+b)
sin (a - b) it + sin (a + b) u
75. fcos au cos bit du =
2( ) 2( )
slum+l 26 cosn-1 it
76. sinm it cosn u du =
nt + n

+
n-1 Slnm it COSn-2 it dzc.
m+n
77. Jsinm u cosn u du = - sinm-l u cosn+l it
m+n
m-1 f5iflm-2 It COSn it du.
+ +
m n
500 Table of Integrals

MISCELLANEOUS FORMS

78. feu du = eu

79. au du =
J In a

80. J ueau du = eau(au - 1)/a2.

81. Ju2et2U du = eau (a2tu2 - 2au + 2)10.

In u 1
82. j'uninudu (n+ 1)2
= In + 1
83. fu sin it du = sin it - it cos it.

84. Jii2 sin u du = 2u sin it - (it2 - 2) cos it.

85. J'u cos it du = cos it + it sin it.

86. J'u2 cos it du = (zit - 2) sin it + 2u cos it.

r eau (a sin bit - b cos bit)
87. eau sin bit du = a2 + b2
J
eau(a cos bit + b sin bu)
88. eau cos bit du =
a2+b2
89. Jsin_i u du = it sin-' u + 1/1 - u2.

90. Jtan_1 it du = it tan-1 it - In (1 + it2).

2

91. Jsinh it du = cosh it.

92. fcosh it du = sinh it.

93. ftanh it du = In cosh it.

94. Jcoth it du = In sinh it.

95. fsech u du = 2 Tan-' eu.

 Table of Integrals 501

96. f Jcsch it dii = In tanh zu.

WALLIS' FORMULAS
97.
o
sine x dx = f cos1t x dx
Jo

{ 135 n-17r if n is an even integer.

246 n
246 n-1 if n is an odd integer > 1.
357 n
,,/2

98. x cosT, x dx
f0o

2.4.6 .(n - 1)
(m + 1) (m + 3) (ni + 5) ... (m + if n is an
n),
odd integer > 1.
2.4.6. . .(m - 1)
(n + 1) (n + 3) (n + 5) if m is an
(n + m) odd integer > 1.
1.3 - 1) . 1.3 . . . (n - 1) 'T
2.4.6 if m and n are both even
. (m + n) 2 integers.
 Numerical Tables

I. Powers, Roots, Reciprocals 504

II. Natural Logarithms 506
III. Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions 508
IV. Trigonometric Functions 509
V. Common Logarithms 510
504 Powers, Roots, Reciprocals Table I

n n2 N/n -VfOn n3 -l/n- Y10n -,/100n 1/n

1.0 1.00 1.00000 3.16228 1.000 1.00000 2.15443 4.64159 1.00000
1.1 1.21 1.04881 3.31662 1.331 1.03228 2.22398 4.79142 .90909
1.2 1.44 1.09545 3.46410 1.728 1.06266 2.28943 4.93242 .83333
1.3 1.69 1.14018 3.60555 2.197 1.09139 2.35133 5.06580 .76923
1.4 1.96 1.18322 3.74166 2.744 1.11869 2.41014 5.19249 .71429

1.5 2.25 1.22474 3.87298 3.375 1.14471 2.46621 5.31329 .66667

1.6 2.56 1.26491 4.00000 4.096 1.16961 2.51984 5.42884 .62500
1.7 2.89 1.30384 4.12311 4.913 1.19348 2.57128 5.53966 .58824
1.8 3.24 1.34164 4.24264 5.832 1.21644 2.62074 5.64622 .55556
1.9 3.61 1.37840 4.35890 6.859 1.23856 2.66840 5.74890 .52632

2.0 4.00 1.41421 4.47214 8.000 1.25992 2.71442 5.84804 .50000

2.1 4.41 1.44914 4.58258 9.261 1.28058 2.75892 5.94392 .47619
2.2 4.84 1.48324 4.69042 10.648 1.30059 2.80204 6.03681 .45455
2.3 5.29 1.51658 4.79583 12.167 1.32001 2.84387 6.12693 .43478
2.4 5.76 1.54919 4.89898 13.824 1.33887 2.88450 6.21447 .41667

2.5 6.25 1.58114 5.00000 15.625 1.35721 2.92402 6.29961 .40000

2.6 6.76 1.61245 5.09902 17.576 1.37507 2.96250 6.38250 .38462
2.7 7.29 1.64317 5.19615 19.683 1.39248 3.00000 6.46330 .37037
2.8 7.84 1.67332 5.29150 21.952 1.40946 3.03659 6.54213 .35714
2.9 8.41 1.70294 5.38516 24.389 1.42604 3.07232 6.61911 .34483

3.0 9.00 1.73205 5.47723 27.000 1.44225 3.10723 6.69433 .33333

3.1 9.61 1.76068 5.56776 29.791 1.45810 3.14138 6.76790 .32258
3.2 10.24 1.78885 5.65685 32.768 1.47361 3.17480 6.83990 .31250
3.3 10.89 1.81659 5.74456 35.937 1.48881 3.20753 6.91042 .30303
3.4 11.56 1.84391 5.83095 39.304 1.50369 3.23961 6.97953 .29412

3.5 12.25 1.87083 5.91608 42.875 1.51829 3.27107 7.04730 .28571

3.6 12.96 1.89737 6.00000 46.656 1.53262 3.30193 7.11379 .27778
3.7 13.69 1.92354 6.08276 50.653 1.54668 3.33222 7.17905 .27027
3.8 14.44 1.94936 6.16441 54.872 1.56049 3.36198 7.24316 .26316
3.9 15.21 1.97484 6.24500 59.319 1.57406 3.39121 7.30614 .25641

4.0 16.00 2.00000 6.32456 64.000 1.58740 3.41995 7.36806 .25000

4.1 16.81 2.02485 6.40312 68.921 1.60052 3.44822 7.42896 .24390
4.2 17.64 2.04939 6.48074 74.088 1.61343 3.47603 7.48887 .23810
4.3 18.49 2.07364 6.55744 79.507 1.62613 3.50340 7.54784 .23256
4.4 19.36 2.09762 6.63325 85.184 1.63864 3.53035 7.60590 .22727

4.5 20.25 2.12132 6.70820 91.125 1.65096 3.55689 7.66309 .22222

4.6 21.16 2.14476 6.78233 97.336 1.66310 3.58305 7.71944 .21739
4.7 22.09 2.16795 6.85565 103.823 1.67507 3.60883 7.77498 .21277
4.8 23.04 2.19089 6.92820 110.592 1.68687 3.63424 7.82974 .20833
4.9 24.01 2.21359 7.00000 117.649 1.69850 3.65931 7.88374 .20408

5.0 25.00 2.23607 7.07107 125.000 1.70998 3.68403 7.93701 .20000

5.1 26.01 2.25832 7.14143 132.651 1.72130 3.70843 7.98957 .19608
5.2 27.04 2.28035 7.21110 140.608 1.73248 3.73251 8.04145 .19231
5.3 28.09 2.30217 7.28011 148.877 1.74351 3.75629 8.09267 .18868
5.4 29.16 2.32379 7.34847 157.464 1.75441 3.77976 8.14325 .18519
Table I Powers, Roots, Reciprocals 505

n n2 rOn n3 'n 'V 5n ' 100n 1/n

5.5 30.25 2.34521 7.41620 166.375 1.76517 3.80295 8.19321 .18182
5.6 31.36 2.36643 7.48331 175.616 1.77581 3.82586 8.24257 .17857
5.7 32.49 2.38747 7.54983 185.193 1.78632 3.84850 8.29134 .17544
5.8 33.64 2.40832 7.61577 195.112 1.79670 3.87088 8.33955 .17241
5.9 34.81 2.42899 7.68115 205.379 1.80697 3.89300 8.38721 .16949

6.0 36.00 2.44949 7.74597 216.000 1.81712 3.91487 8.43433 .16667

6.1 37.21 2.46982 7.81025 226.981 1.82716 3.93650 8.48093 .16393
6.2 38.44 2.48998 7.87401 238.328 1.83709 3.95789 8.52702 .16129
6.3 39.69 2.50998 7.93725 250.047 1.84691 3.97906 8.57262 .15873
6.4 40.96 2.52982 8.00000 262.144 1.85664 4.00000 8.61774 .15625

6.5 42.25 2.54951 8.06226 274.625 1.86626 4.02073 8.66239 .15385

6.6 43.56 2.56905 8.12404 287.496 1.87578 4.04124 8.70659 .15152
6.7 44.89 2.58844 8.18535 300.763 1.88520 4.06155 8.75034 .14925
6.8 46.24 2.60768 8.24621 314.432 1.89454 4.08166 8.79366 .14706
6.9 47.61 2.62679 8.30662 328.509 1.90378 4.10157 8.83656 .14493

7.0 49.00 2.64575 8.36660 343.000 1.91293 4.12129 8.87904 .14286

7.1 50.41 2.66458 8.42615 357.911 1.92200 4.14082 8.92112 .14085
7.2 51.84 2.68328 8.48528 373.248 1.93098 4.16017 8.96281 .13889
7.3 53.29 2.70185 8.54400 389.017 1.93988 4.17934 9.00411 .13699
7.4 54.76 2.72029 8.60233 405.224 1.94870 4.19834 9.04504 .13514

7.5 56.25 2.73861 8.66025 421.875 1.95743 4.21716 9.08560 .13333

7.6 57.76 2.75681 8.71780 438.976 1.96610 4.23582 9.12581 .13158
7.7 59.29 2.77489 8.77496 456.533 1.97468 4.25432 9.16566 .12987
7.8 60.84 2.79285 8.83176 474.552 1.98319 4.27266 9.20516 .12821
7.9 62.41 2.81069 8.88819 493.039 1.99163 4.29084 9.24434 .12658

8.0 64.00 2.82843 8.94427 512.000 2.00000 4.30887 9.28318 .12500

8.1 65.61 2.84605 9.00000 531.441 2.00830 4.32675 9.32170 .12346
8.2 67.24 2.86356 9.05539 551.368 2.01653 4.34448 9.35990 .12195
8.3 68.89 2.88097 9.11043 571.787 2.02469 4.36207 9.39780 .12048
8.4 70.56 2.89828 9.16515 592.704 2.03279 4.37952 9.43539 .11905

8.5 72.25 2.91548 9.21954 614.125 2.04083 4.39683 9.47268 .11765

8.6 73.96 2.93258 9.27362 636.056 2.04880 4.41400 9.50969 .11628
8:7 75.69 2.94958 9.32738 658.503 2.05671 4.43105 9.54640 .11494
8.8 77.44 2.96648 9.38083 681.472 2.06456 4.44796 9.58284 .11364
8.9 79.21 2.98329 9.43398 704.969 2.07235 4.46475 9.61900 .11236

9.0 81.00 3.00000 9.48683 729.000 2.08008 4.48140 9.65489 .11111

9.1 82.81 3.01662 9.53939 753.571 2.08776 4.49794 9.69052 .10989
9.2 84.64 3.03315 9.59166 778.688 2.09538 4.51436 9.72589 .10870
9.3 86.49 3.04959 9.64365 804.357 2.10294 4.53065 9.76100 .10753
9.4 88.36 3.06594 9.69536 830.584 2.11045 4.54684 9.79586 .10638

9.5 90.25 3.08221 9.74679 857.375 2.11791 4.56290 9.83048 .10526

9.6 92.16 3.09839 9.79796 884.736 2.12532 4.57886 9.86485 .10417
9.7 94.09 3.11448 9.84886 912.673 2.13267 4.59470 9.89898 .10309
9.8 96.04 3.13050 9.89949 941.192 2.13997 4.61044 9.93288 .10204
9.9 98.01 .3.14643 9.94987 970.299 2.14723 4.62607 9.96655 .10101
506 Natural Logarithms Table II
Use In 10 = 2.30259 to find logarithms of numbers greater than 10 or less than 1.

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1.0 0.0000 0100 0198 0296 0392 0488 0583 0677 0770 0862
1.1 0953 1044 1133 1222 1310 1398 1484 1570 1655 1740
1.2 1823 1906 1989 2070 2151 2231 2311 2390 2469 2546
1.3 2624 2700 2776 2852 2927 3001 3075 3148 3221 3293
1.4 3365 3436 3507 3577 3646 3716 3784 3853 3920 3988

1.5 0.4055 4121 4187 4253 4318 4383 4447 4511 4574 4637
1.6 4700 4762 4824 4886 4947 5008 5068 5128 5188 5247
1.7 5306 5365 5423 5481 5539 5596 5653 5710 5766 5822
1.8 5878 5933 5988 6043 6098 6152 6206 6259 6313 6366
1.9 6419 6471 6523 6575 6627 6678 6729 6780 6831 6881

2.0 0.6931 6981 7031 7080 7129 7178 7227 7275 7324 7372
2.1 7419 7467 7514 7561 7608 7655 7701 7747 7793 7839
2.2 7885 7930 7975 8020 8065 8109 8154 8198 8242 8286
2.3 8329 8372 8416 8459 8502 8544 8587 8629 8671 8713
2.4 8755 8796 8838 8879 8920 8961 9002 9042 9083 9123

2.5 0.9163 9203 9243 9282 9322 9361 9400 9439 9478 9517
2.6 9555 9594 9632 9670 9708 9746 9783 9821 9858 9895
2.7 9933 9969 *0006 *0043 *0080 *0116 *0152 *0188 *0225 *0260
2.8 1.0296 0332 0367 0403 0438 0473 0508 0543 0578 0613
2.9 0647 0682 0716 0750 0784 0818 0852 0886 0919 0953

3.0 1.0986 1019 1053 1086 1119 1151 1184 1217 1249 1282
3.1 1314 1346 1378 1410 1442 1474 1506 1537 1569 1600
3.2 1632 1663 1694 1725 1756 1787 1817 1848 1878 1909
3.3 1939 1969 2000 2030 2060 2090 2119 2149 2179 2208
3.4 2238 2267 2296 2326 2355 2384 2413 2442 2470 2499

3.5 1.2528 2556 2585 2613 2641 2669 2698 2726 2754 2782
3.6 2809 2837 2865 2892 2920 2947 2975 3002 3029 3056
3.7 3083 3110 3137 3164 3191 3218 3244 3271 3297 3324
3.8 3350 3376 3403 3429 3455 3481 3507 3533 3558 3584
3.9 3610 3635 3661 3686 3712 3737 3762 3788 3813 3838

4.0 1.3863 3888 3913 3938 3962 3987 4012 4036 4061 4085
4.1 4110 4134 4159 4183 4207 4231 4255 4279 4303 4327
4.2 4351 4375 4398 4422 4446 4469 4493 4516 4540 4563
4.3 4586 4609 4633 4656 4679 4702 4725 4748 4770 4793
4.4 4816 4839 4861 4884 4907 4929 4951 4974 4996 5019

4.5 1.5041 5063 5085 5107 5129 5151 5173 5195 5217 5239
4.6 5261 5282 5304 5326 5347 5369 5390 5412 5433 5454
4.7 5476 5497 5518 5539 5560 5581 5602 5623 5644 5665
4.8 5686 5707 5728 5748 5769 5790 5810 5831 5851 5872
4.9 5892 5913 5933 5953 5974 5994 6014 6034 6054 6074

5.0 1.6094 6114 6134 6154 6174 6194 6214 6233 6253 6273
5.1 6292 6312 6332 6351 6371 6390 6409 6429 6448 6467
5.2 6487 6506 6525 6544 6563 6582 6601 6620 6639 6658
5.3 6677 6696 6715 6734 6752 6771 6790 6808 6827 6845
5.4 6864 6882 6901 6919 6938 6956 6974 6993 7011 7029
Table II Natural Logarithms 507
Example. In 220 = In 2.2 + 2 In 10 = 0.7885 + 2(2.30259) = 5.3937.

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5.5 1.7047 7066 7084 7102 7120 7138 7156 7174 7192 7210
5.6 7228 7246 7263 7281 7299 7:317 7334 7352 7370 7387
5.7 7405 7422 7440 7457 7475 7492 7509 7527 7544 7561
5.8 7579 7596 7613 7630 7647 7664 7681 7699 7716 77:33
5.9 7750 7766 7783 7800 7817 7834 7851 7867 7884 7901

6.0 1.7918 7934 7951 7967 7984 8001 8017 8034 8050 8066
6.1 8083 8099 8116 81:32 8148 8165 8181 8197 8213 8229
6.2 8245 8262 8278 8294 8310 8326 8342 8358 8374 8390
6.3 8405 8421 8437 8453 8469 8485 8500 8516 8532 8547
6.4 8563 8579 8594 8610 8625 8641 8656 8672 8687 8703

6.5 1.8718 8733 8749 8764 8779 8795 8810 8825 8840 8856
6.6 8871 8886 8901 8916 8931 8946 8961 8976 8991 9006
6.7 9021 9036 9051 9066 9081 9095 9110 9125 9140 9155
6.8 9169 9184 9199 9213 9228 9242 9257 9272 9286 9301
6.9 9315 9330 9344 9359 9373 9387 9402 9416 9430 9445

7.0 1.9459 9473 9488 9502 9516 9530 9544 9559 9573 9587
7.1 9601 9615 9629 9643 9657 9671 9685 9699 9713 9727
7.2 9741 9755 9769 9782 9796 9810 9824 9838 9851 9865
7.3 9879 9892 9906 9920 9933 9947 9961 9974 9988 *0001
7.4 2.0015 0028 0042 0055 0069 0082 0096 0109 0122 0136

7.5 2.0149 0162 0176 0189 0202 0215 0229 0242 0255 0268
7.6 0281 0295 0308 0321 0334 0347 0360 0373 0386 0399
7.7 0412 0425 0438 0451 0464 0477 0490 0503 0516 0528
7.8 0541 0554 0567 0580 0592 0605 0618 0631 0643 0656
7.9 0669 0681 0694 0707 0719 0732 0744 0757 0769 0782

8.0 2.0794 0807 0819 0832 0844 0857 0869 0882 0894 0906
8.1 0919 0931 0943 0956 0968 0980 0992 1005 1017 1029
8.2 1041 1054 1066 1078 1090 1102 1114 1126 1138 1150
8.3 1163 1175 1187 1199 1211 1223 1235 1247 1258 1270
8.4 1282 1294 1306 1318 1330 1342 1353 1365 1377 1389

8.5 2.1401 1412 1424 1436 1448 1459 1471 1483 1494 1506
8.6 1518 1529 1541 1552 1564 1576 1587 1599 1610 1622
8.7 1633 1645 1656 1668 1679 1691 1702 1713 1725 17:36
8.8 1748 1759 1770 1782 1793 1804 1815 1827 1838 1849
8.9 1861 1872 1883 1894 1905 1917 1928 1939 1950 1961

9.0 2.1972 1983 1994 2006 2017 2028 2039 2050 2061 2072
9.1 2083 2094 2105 2116 2127 2138 2148 2159 2170 2181
9.2 2192 2203 2214 2225 2235 2246 2257 2268 2279 2289
9.3 2300 2311 2322 2332 2343 2354 2364 2375 2386 2396
9.4 2407 2418 2428 2439 2450 2460 2471 2481 2492 2502

9.5 2.2513 2523 2534 2544 2555 2565 2576 2586 2597 2607
9.6 2618 2628 2638 2649 2659 2670 2680 2690 2701 2711
9.7 2721 2732 2742 2752 2762 2773 2783 2793 2803 2814
9.8 2824 2834 2844 2854 2865 2875 2885 2895 2905 2915
9.9 2925 2935 2946 2956 2966 2976 2986 2996 3006 3016
508 Exponential and Hyperbolic Functions Table III
e_=
x ex sinh x cosh x tanh x
0 1.0000 1.0000 .00000 1.0000 .00000
0.1 1.1052 .90484 .10017 1.0050 .09967
0.2 1.2214 .81873 .20134 1.0201 .19738
0.3 1.3499 .74082 .30452 1.0453 .29131
0.4 1.4918 .67032 .41075 1.0811 .37995

0.5 1.6487 .60653 .52110 1.1276 .46212

0.6 1.8221 .54881 .63665 1.1855 .53705
0.7 2.0138 .49659 .75858 1.2552 .60437
0.8 2.2255 .44933 .88811 1.3374 .66404
0.9 2.4596 .40657 1.0265 1.4331 .71630

1.0 2.7183 .36788 1.1752 1.5431 .76159

1.1 3.0042 .33287 1.3356 1.6685 .80050
1.2 3.3201 .30119 1.5095 1.8107 .83365
1.3 3.6693 .27253 1.6984 1.9709 .86172
1.4 4.0552 .24660 1.9043 2.1509 .88535

1.5 4.4817 .22313 2.1293 2.3524 .90515

1.6 4.9530 .20190 2.3756 2.5775 .92167
1.7 5.4739 .18268 2.6456 2.8283 .93541
1.8 6.0496 .16530 2.9422 3.1075 .94681
1.9 6.6859 .14957 3.2682 3.4177 .95624

2.0 7.3891 .13534 3.6269 3.7622 .96403

2.1 8.1662 .12246 4.0219 4.1443 .97045
2.2 9.0250 .11080 4.4571 4.5679 .97574
2.3 9.9742 .10026 4.9370 5.0372 .98010
2.4 11.023 .09072 5.4662 5.5569 .98367

2.5 12.182 .08208 6.0502 6.1323 .98661

2.6 13.464 .07427 6.6947 6.7690 .98903
2.7 14.880 .06721 7.4063 7.4735 .99101
2.8 16.445 .06081 8.1919 8.2527 .99263
2.9 18.174 .05502 9.0596 9.1146 .99396

3.0 20.086 .04979 10.018 10.068 .99505

3.1 22.198 .04505 11.076 11.122 .99595
3.2 24.533 .04076 12.246 12.287 .99668
3.3 27.113 .03688 13.538 13.575 .99728
3.4 29.964 .03337 14.965 14.999 .99777

3.5 33.115 .03020 16.543 16.573 .99818

3.6 36.598 .02732 18.285 18.313 .99851
3.7 40.447 .02472 20.211 20.236 .99878
3.8 44.701 .02237 22.339 22.362 .99900
3.9 49.402 .02024 24.691 24.711 .99918

4.0 54.598 .01832 27.290 27.308 .99933

4.1 60.340 .01657 30.162 30.178 .99945
4.2 66.686 .01500 33.336 33.351 .99955
4.3 73.700 .01357 36.843 36.857 .99963
4.4 81.451 .01228 40.719 40.732 .99970

4.5 90.017 .01111 45.003 45.014 .99975

4.6 99.484 .01005 49.737 49.747 .99980
4.7 109.95 .00910 54.969 54.978 .99983
4.8 121.51 .00823 60.751 60.759 .99986
4.9 134.29 .00745 67.141 67.149 .99989

5.0 148.41 .00674 74.203 74.210 .99991

Table IV Trigonometric Functions 509

Deg. Rad. Sin Cos Tan Cot

0 0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 1.5708 90
1 0.0175 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 57.290 1.5533 89
2 0.0349 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349 28.636 1.5359 88
3 0.0524 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524 19.081 1.5184 87
4 0.0698 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 14.301 1.5010 86

5 0.0873 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 11.430 1.4835 85

6 0.1047 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051 9.5144 1.4661 84
7 0.1222 0.1219 0.9925 0.1228 8.1443 1.4486 83
8 0.1396 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405 7.1154 1.4312 82
9 0.1571 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 6.3138 1.4137 81

10 0.1745 0.1736 0.9848 0.1763 5.6713 1.3963 80

11 0.1920 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 5.1446 1.3788 79
12 0.2094 0.2079 0.9781 0.2126 4.7046 1.3614 78
13 0.2269 0.2250 0.9744 0.2309 4.3315 1.3439 77
14 0.2443 0.2419 0.9703 0.2493 4.0108 1.3265 76

15 0.2618 0.2588 0.9659 0.2679 3.7321 1.3090 75

16 0.2793 0.2756 0.9613 0.2867 3.4874 1.2915 74
17 0.2967 0.2924 0.9563 0.3057 3.2709 1.2741 73
18 0.3142 0.3090 0.9511 0.3249 3.0777 1.2566 72
19 0.3316 0.3256 0.9455 0.3443 2.9042 1.2392 71

20 0.3491 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 2.7475 1.2217 70

21 0.3665 0.3584 0.9336 0.3839 2.6051 1.2043 69
22 0.3840 0.3746 0.9272 0.4040 2.4751 1.1868 68
23 0.4014 0.3907 0.9205 0.4245 2.3559 1.1694 67
24 0.4189 0.4067 0.9135 0.4452 2.2460 1.1519 66

25 0.4363 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 2.1445 1.1345 65

26 0.4538 0.4384 0.8988 0.4877 2.0503 1.1170 64
27 0.4712 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 1.9626 1.0996 63
28 0.4887 0.4695 0.8829 0.5317 1.8807 1.0821 62
29 0.5061 0.4848 0.8746 0:5543 1.8040 1.0647 61

30 0.5236 0.5000 0.8660 0.5774 1.7321 1.0472 60

31 0.5411 0.5150 0.8572 0.6009 1.6643 1.0297 59
32 0.5585 0.5299 0.8480 0.6249 1.6003 1.0123 58
33 0.5760 0.5446 0.8387 0.6494 1.5399 0.9948 57
34 0.5934 0.5592 0.8290 0.6745 1.4826 0.9774 56

35 0.6109 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 1.4281 0.9599 55

36 0.6283 0.5878 0.8090 0.7265 1.3764 0.9425 54
37 0.6458 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 1.3270 0.9250 53
38 0.6632 0.6157 0.7880 0.7813 1.2799 0.9076 52
39 0.6807 0.6293 0.7771 0.8098 1.2349 0.8901 51

40 0.6981 0.6428 0.7660 0.8391 1.1918 0.8727 50

41 0.7156 0.6561 0.7547 0.8693 1.1504 0.8552 49
42 0.7330 0.6691 0.7431 0.9004 1.1106 0.8378 48
43 0.7505 0.6820 0.7314 0.9325 1.0724 0.8203 47
44 0.7679 0.6947 0.7193 0.9657 1.0355 0.8029 46

45 0.7854 0.7071 0.7071 1.0000 1.0000 0.7854 45

Cos Sin Cot Tan Rad. Deg.

510 Common Logarithms Table V

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
11 0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755
12 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106
13 1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430
14 1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732

15 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014
16 2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
17 2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
18 2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
19 2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989

20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962

25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757

30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428

35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010

40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522

45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981

50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 7067
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396
Table V Common Logarithms 511

N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451 7459 7466 7474
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774

60 7782 7789 7796 7803 7810 7818 7825 7832 7839 7846
61 7853 7860 7868 7875 7882 7889 7896 7903 7910 7917
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122

65 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319
68 8325 8331 8338 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 8426 8432 8439 8445

70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8686
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8739 8745

75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025

80 9031 9036 9042 9047 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289

85 9294 9299 9304 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440
88 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538

90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586
91 9590 9595 9600 9605 9609 9614 9619 9624 9628 9633
92 9638 9643 9647 9652 9657 9661 9666 9671 9675 9680
93 9685 9689 9694 9699 9703 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 9768 9773

95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818
96 9823 9827 9832 9836 9841 9845 9850 9854 9859 9863
97 9868 9872 9877 9881 9886 9890 9894 9899 9903 9908
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952
99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996
 INDEX

Absolute constant, 18 Astroid, 10, 155

Absolute maxima and minima, 46, 376 Asymptotes, oblique, 199
Absolute value, 18 theorems on, 200
Absolutely convergent series, 290 vertical or horizontal, 197
Acceleration, 44, 165, 471 Auxiliary equation, 446
angular, 170 Average curvature, 152
radial and transverse components of, Average ordinate, 273
181, 479 Average rate of change, 33
tangential and normal components of, Average value, 273
168, 471 Axis, of symmetry, 196, 346
Addition of infinite series, 298 polar, 173
Algebraic curves, 199
asymptotes of, 199 Bernoulli, Jacob, equation of, 436
singular points of, 202 Binomial expansion, 2, 297
Algebraic equations, 200 Bliss, G. A., theorem of, 77
Algebraic functions, 1o8, 200 Box product, 466
Algebraic substitution, integration by, 232 Branch of a curve, 200
Alternating series, 288 Briggsian logarithms, 133
test for convergence, 289
Amplitude of trigonometric functions, 121, Capacitance, 455
453 Cardioid, 10, 177
Angle, between curves, 42 Cartesian equation, 146
between lines, 331 Catenary, 155
between planes, 337 Cauchy, Augustin Louis, 188
between radius vector and tangent, 178 remainder of, 310
polar, 173 theorem of, 188
radian measure of, 121 Center, of curvature, 154, 155
Angles, direction, 329 of gravity, 87
Angular acceleration, 170 Centroid, 87
Angular velocity, 170, 476 of a plane area, 88, 395; in polar
Antiderivative, 63 coordinates, 400
Approximate error, 59, 361 of a solid of revolution, 92
Approximation, by differentials, 59, 361 of an arc, 265
formulas, 304 of composite areas, 89
of definite integrals, 247, 249 Chain rule, 114
of roots by Newton's method, 157 for partial derivatives, 366
Arbitrary constant, 18 Characteristic equation, 446
Arc, centroid of, 265 Chemical solutions, 442
differential of, 151, 262; in polar Circle, of curvature, 153
coordinates, 18o, 263 sector or segment of, 1
length of, 261 Circular motion, 171
moment of inertia of, 265 Cissoid, 9
regular, 479 Coefficients, undetermined, 239, 449
Archimedes, spiral of, 11, 177 Colatitude, 422
Area, element of, 72 Common logarithms, 133
in polar coordinates, 259, 399 table of, 510
in rectangular coordinates, 79, 393 Comparison test for series, 283
increment of, 71, 259 Complementary function, 449
of a curved surface, 408 Complex variable, 321
of a surface of revolution, 267 Components, of acceleration, 165, 471
of an ellipse, 222 of velocity, 165, 471
513
514 Index
Components (continued) Cusp, 203
radial and transverse, 18 r Cycloid, 12, 147, 155
rectangular, 461 Cylinder, 347, 351
tangential and normal, 168 Cylindrical coordinates, 6, 406, 420
Composition of ordinates, 122
Concavity, 49 Definite integrals, 17, 74
Conchoid, 11, 204 differentiation of, 378
Condition, necessary for a maximum or Degenerate quadrics, 348
minimum, 47, 375 Del, 472
necessary for convergence, 278 Dependent variable, 20, 353
sufficient for a maximum or minimum, Derivative, as slope, 41
50, 384 definition of, 15, 34
Conditionally convergent series, 290 directional, 472
Cone, 1, 350 four-step rule, 34
frustum of, 1 partial, 354
Conservative field, 481 second and higher order, 49, 356
Constant, absolute or arbitrary, 18 sign of, 47, 50
of integration, 63, 426, 436 total, 364
Continuity, 25, 353 Derivatives, in parametric form, 148
equation of, 475 of algebraic functions, io8
theorems on, 26 of definite integrals, 378
Continuous function, 25, 353 of exponential functions, 138
Continuum, 19 of hyperbolic functions, 314
Convergence, absolute, 290 of inverse hyperbolic functions, 318
alternating series test, 289 of inverse trigonometric functions, 129
comparison test, 283 of logarithmic functions, 135
conditional, 290 of powers, 37, 110
fundamental theorem on, 343 of trigonometric functions, 124
integral test, 279 Descartes, Rene, 13
interval of, 292 folium of, 9, 148
limit test, 288 Development in power series, 295, 306, 382
of integral, 224 Differentiable function, 34
radius of, 293 Differential, 58, 359
ratio test, 285 of arc, 151, 18o
theorems on, 277 of area, 68
Coordinates, cartesian, 325 total, 359, 364
cylindrical, 6, 406, 420 Differential equation, 425
polar, 5, 173 applications of, 440, 452
rectangular, 325 complete solution of, 426
spherical, 6, 421 degree of, 425
Cosecant, 122 exact, 432
Cosh x, 313 general solution of, 426, 449
Cosine curve, 7 homogeneous, 429
Cotangent, 122 lacking a variable, 439
Coth x, 313 linear, 435, 446
Critical, dampening, 454 non-homogeneous, 446, 449
points, 48 of first order, 428
value, 48 of higher order, 446
Csch x, 313 order of, 425
Cubical parabola, 9 particular solution of, 426
Curl, 475 reducible, 439
Curvature, center of, 154, 155 reducible to linear form, 436
circle of, 153 solution of, 425
definition of, 152 Differentiation, 34, io8
formula for, 153 logarithmic, 138
radius of, 154; in polar coordinates, 181 of definite integral, 378
Curve, algebraic, 199 of implicit functions, r 15, 367
branch of, 200 of power series, 301
differential of length of, 151, 18o, 262 of powers, 37
length of, 261 order of, 356
regular, 479 partial, 353
Curve tracing, 147, 175, 196 Directed line, 328
Curved surface, area of, 408 Direction angles, 329
Curvilinear motion, 165, 181, 471 Direction cosines, 329
 Index 515
Direction numbers, 6, 329 Fluid pressure, rot
normal to a surface, 333, 372 Flux, 484
of a curve, 370 Folium of Descartes, 9, 148
Directional derivative, 472 Foot-pound, 104
Discontinuity, 25, 353 Force, due to fluid pressure, toe
Discontinuous integrand, 224 element of, 102
Divergence, 473 Four-leaved rose, 11, 175
of integral, 224 Four-step rule, 34
of series, 277 Fractions, improper, irreducible, partial,
theorem, 484 proper, or rational, 238
Division of infinite series, 299 Frustum of a cone or pyramid, i
Domain, 19 Functions, 19
Dot product, 461 algebraic, 1o8, 200
Double integrals, 387 complementary, 449
for a centroid, 395 continuous, 25, 353
for a curved surface, 408 decreasing and increasing, 46
for a moment of inertia, 395 demand, I13
for a volume, 403 differentiable, 34
for an area, 393 discontinuous, 25, 353
iterated, 388 even and odd, 234
Double point, 203 expansion of, 295
Dummy variable, 74 explicit and implicit, 115
exponential, 132
e, limit defining, 133 homogeneous, 359
Electric circuits, 443, 455 hyperbolic, 313
Element of force, 102 inverse hyperbolic, 317
Ellipse, area of, 222 inverse trigonometric, 127
Ellipsoid, 348 irreducible, 199
Epicycloid, 151 logarithmic, 132
Equation, of Bernoulli, 436 of many variables, 353
of continuity, 475 periodic, 121
Equations, algebraic, 200 single-valued and multiple-valued, 20
auxiliary, 446 transcendental, 121
Cartesian, 146 trigonometric, I21
characteristic, 446 vector, 469
differential, 425 Fundamental theorem, 75
homogeneous, 429, 446
parametric, 146 Gauss, Carl Friedrich, theorem of, 484
polar, 174 General solution of differential equations,
Error, approximate, 59, 361 426, 449
in approximating alternating series, 290 General term of a series, 276
in Simpson's formula, 250, 252 Generator, 347
limit of, for power series, 304, 309 Geometric series, 2, 277
percentage and relative, 6o, 361 Gradient, 471
Euler, Leonard, formula of, 321 Graphs, in polar coordinates, 174
Even function, 234 of algebraic functions, 9, 196
Evolute, 156 of exponential functions, 8, 132
Exact differential equation, 432 of hyperbolic functions, 8, 313
Explicit function, 115 of inverse trigonometric functions, 7, 8,
Exponential functions, 132 128
differentiation of, 138 of logarithmic functions, 8, 132
graphs of, 8, 132 of trigonometric functions, 7, 122
integration of, 213 Gravity, center of, 87
values of, 508 Green, George, theorem of, 490
Exponential laws of decay and growth, 139 Gyration, radius of, 95
Exponential representation of trigono-
metric functions, 321 Half-angle substitution, 243
Extent of a curve, 196 Harmonic motion, simple, 275, 452
Extent of a surface, 346 Harmonic series, 278
Higher derivatives, 49
Factor, damping, 453 partial, 356
integrating, 433 Homogeneous, density, 88
Factorial notation, 2 differential equations, 446
Family of curves, 66 functions, 359
516 Index
Hooke's law, 105, 454 Integration (continued)
Hyperbolic, spiral, ii giving inverse trigonometric functions,
paraboloid, 350 21 9
Hyperbolic functions, 313 leading to inverse hyperbolic functions,
derivatives of, 314 319
geometric interpretation, of, 322 miscellaneous problems on, 253
graphs of, 8, 313 multiple, 387
identities involving, 314, 316 of exponential functions, 213
integrals of, 315 of hyperbolic functions, 315
inverse, 317 of infinite series, 301
relations with trigonometric functions, of powers, 63, 209
320 of rational fractions, 238
values of, 5o8 of trigonometric functions, 214
Hyperboloid, of one sheet, 348 partial, 389
of two sheets, 349 procedures, 227
Hypocycloid, 155 surface, 382
triple, 412
Intercepts, of a curve, 196
Implicit functions, 115 of a surface, 334
differentiation of, 115, 367 Interest, compounded continuously, 445
Improper fraction, 238 Interval of convergence, 292
Improper integral, 223 Inverse hyperbolic functions, 317
Increment, 33 derivatives of, 318
of a function of two variables, 359 integrals leading to, 319
Independent variable, 20, 353 logarithmic expressions for, 318
Indeterminate forms, 185 Inverse trigonometric functions, 127
Inductance, 443 derivatives of, 129
Inertia, moment of, 94 graphs of, 7, 8, 128
Infinite limits, 223 integrals giving, 219
Infinity, 28 Involute, 156
Inflection, point of, 50 Irreducible fractions, 238
Initial line, 173 Irrotational field, 477
Integral, approximation of definite, 247 Isolated point, 203
convergent or divergent, 224 Iterated integral, 388, 414
definite, 17, 74 in polar coordinates, 398
double, 387
improper, 223 Lagrange, Joseph Louis, remainder of, 309
indefinite, 63 Laplacian, 476
iterated, 388, 414 Law of the mean, 186, 308, 384
line, 480 Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 13
multiple, 387 Lemniscate, 11, 177
particular, 63 Length of arc, 261
sign, 63 L'Hospital, G. F. A. de, rule of, 190
surface, 482 Limacon, 10, 204
tables, 495 Limit, defining e, 133
test for convergence, 279 definition of, 23
triple, 412 lower or upper, 69, 74
Integrand, 63 of a function, 22
discontinuous, 224 of a sequence, 29
Integrating factor, 433 of a variable, 22
Integration, 63, 207 of error, for power series, 304, 309
approximate, 247 of sin 0/0, 123
between limits, 69, 74 test for convergence, 288
by algebraic substitution, 232 theorems, 23
by infinite series, 301 Line, directed, 328
by partial fractions, 238 integral, 480
by parts, 227 normal to surface, 372
by Simpson's rule, 249 symmetric equations of, 342
by trapezoidal rule, 247 tangent to curve, 41, 370
by trigonometric substitution, 235 Linear differential equations, 435, 446
by use of tables, 245 Lines, angle between, 5, 331
constant of, 63, 426, 436 perpendicular, 331
double, 387 Locus, equation of, 333
elementary formulas of, 207 Logarithmic differentiation, 138
 Index 517
Logarithmic function, 132 Ordinary point, 202
derivative of, 135 Orthogonal trajectory, 441
graph of, 8, 132 Oscillatory series, 277
Logarithms, 133
Longitude, 422 p series, 280
Pappus, theorems of, 90, 268
Maclaurin, Colin, series of, 296, 383 Paraboloid, elliptic, 349
Marginal, cost and revenue, 113, 114 hyperbolic, 350
Maxima and minima, 46, 374 Parallel axis theorem, 97
absolute, 46, 376 Parallelepiped, 326
applications of, 53, 376 Parameter, 146
necessary conditions for, 47, 375 Parametric equations, 146
sufficient conditions for, 50, 384 Partial derivatives, 354
tests for, 47, 50, 375 geometric interpretation of, 355
Maximum and minimum points, 46 of higher order, 356
Mean-value theorem, 75 Partial fractions, integration by, 238
Mid-point, 327 Partial integration, 389
Modulus, of common logarithms, 134 Particular solution, 426
of elasticity, 105 Parts, integration by, 227
Moment, second, 94 Pendulum, 458
Moment of inertia, 94 Percentage error, 6o, 361
for elements of area, 95, 395, 400 Periodic function, 121, 453
for elements of volume, 99 Perpendicular, lines, 331
of a cylinder, 99 planes, 337
of a rectangle, 96 rr, evaluation of, 302
of an arc, 265 Plane, direction of, 333
polar, 401 equation of, 333
theorem on, 97 intercept form Of, 340
Moment of mass, 87 normal form of, 336
Motion, angular, 169 normal to curve, 370
curvilinear, 165, 181, 471 projecting, 341
in a circle, 171 tangent to surface, 372
in a straight line, 44, 441 Point, critical, 48
simple harmonic, 275, 452 double, 203
Multiple integral, 387 isolated, 203
Multiple-valued functions, 20 maximum or minimum, 46
Multiplication of infinite series, 299 of discontinuity, 25, 353
of division, 327
Natural or Napierian logarithms, 133 of inflection, 50
table of, 506 ordinary, 202
Necessary condition, 278 singular, 202, 372
for a maximum or minimum, 47, 375 stationary, 46
for convergence, 278 triple, 203
Newton, Sir Isaac, 13 Polar angle, 173
method of, 157 Polar coordinates, 5, 173
second law of, 441 area in, 259, 399
Node, 203 curvature in, 181
Normal, direction, 334 differential of arc in, 18o
length of, 43 length of arc in, 263
Normal component of acceleration, 168, slope of curve in, 178
471 Polar moment of inertia, 401
Normal line, to a curve, 41 Pole, 173
to a surface, 372 Potential, 481
Normal plane to a curve, 370 Power series, 292
Numerical value, 18 Powers, table of, 504
Pressure, fluid, 101
Oblate spheroid, ioi Principal branches, 128
Octant, 325 Principal values, 7, 8, 128
Odd function, 234 Prism and prismatoid, i
Operations with series, 298 Prismoidal theorem, 249
Order, of derivatives, 49, 356 Probability curve, 9
of differential equations, 425 Progressions, 2
of differentiation, 356 Projectile, 144
of successive integration, 417 Projecting planes and projections, 341
518 Index
Prolate spheroid, 101 Series (continued)
Pyramid, frustum of, i infinite, 276
integration of, 301
Quadric surface, 348 interval of convergence of, 292
Maclaurin's, 296, 383
Radial components, 181, 479 multiplication of, 299
Radian measure, 2, 121 operations with, 298
Radius, of convergence, 293 oscillatory, 277
of curvature, 154 p series, 280
of gyration, 95 power, 292
Radius vector, 173. 178, 470 sum of, 277
Range of a variable, 19, 346 Taylor's, 306, 382
Rate of change, 14 Simple harmonic motion, 275, 452
Ratio test, 285 Simpson, Thomas, rule of, 250
Rational fractions, integration of, 238 Sine curve, 7, 121
Real continuum, 19 Single-valued function, 20
Reciprocals, table of, 504 Singular point, 202, 372
Rectangle, centroid of, 88 Sinh x, 313
moment of inertia of, 96 Slope of a curve, 41
Rectilinear motion, 441 Solenoidal field, 477
Reduction formulas, 229 Solution of a differential equation, 425
Region, 354 Space coordinates, cylindrical, 6, 406, 420
Relative error, 6o, 361 spherical, 6, 421
Remainder in power series, 309 Specific weight, 101
Resonance, 455 Speed, 165
Resultant, 460 Spherical coordinates, 421
Right-hand rule, 325, 460, 482 Spiral, hyperbolic, 11
Rolle, Michel, theorem of, 186 of Archimedes, 11, 177
Roots, tables of, 504 Spring constant, 454
Rose, four-leaved, 11, 175 Stationary point, 46
three-leaved, i 1, 177 Steady-state, 443
Rotation, 475 Stokes, Sir George G., theorem of, 486
Strophoid, 1o
Scalar, 459 Subnormal, 43
field, 471 Substitutions in integration, algebraic, 232
product, 461 half-angle, 243
triple product, 465 miscellaneous, 245
Secant, 41 reciprocal, 243
Secant curve, 7, 122 trigonometric, 235
Sech x, 313 Subtangent, 43
Second derivative, 49, 356 Sufficient condition, 278
Sections of a surface, 346 for a maximum or minimum, 50, 384
Sector of a circle, i Summation, 73
Segment of a circle or sphere, i Surface, area of, 408
Semicubical parabola, 9 equation of, 346
Separation of variables, 428 equivalue, 473
Sequence, 29, 276 intercepts of, 346
Series, absolutely convergent, 290 of revolution, 267
addition of, 298 quadric, 348
alternating, 288 regular, 482
approximation of, 304 sections of, 346, 347
arithmetic, 2 traces of, 334, 346
binomial, 2, 297 Symmetric equations of line, 342
conditionally convergent, 290 Symmetry, 196, 346
convergent, 277 System of curves, 66
differentiation of, 301
divergent, 277 Table of integrals, 495
division of, 299 Tacnode, 203
expansion of a function in, 296, 305 Tangent, 41
finite, 276 length of, 43
for comparison, 283 slope of, 41, 178
general term of, 276 Tangent curve, 7, 122
geometric, 2, 277 Tangent line to a curve, 41, 370
harmonic, 278 Tangent plane, 372
 Index 519
Tangential component of acceleration, 168, Undetermined coefficients, 239, 449
471
Tanh x, 313
Taylor, Brook, 306 Value, average, 273
Taylor's, formula with remainder, 308 maximum and minimum, 46
series, 306, 382 principal, 128
theorem, 308 Variable, 1g
Tests for convergence, alternating series, complex, 321
289 dependent or independent, 20, 353
comparison, 283 limit of, 22
integral, 279 range of, 22, 346
limit, 288 Variables, separation of, 428
ratio, 285 Vector, 165, 459
Tests for critical points, 47, 50 curl of, 475
Theorems of Pappus, 90, 268 derivative of, 469
Three-leaved rose, I1, 177 divergence of, 473
Time-rate, 16o fields, 473
Torus, 92 gradient of, 471
Total, derivative, 364 moment, 465
differential, 360 product of, 463
revenue, 113 radius, 173, 178, 470
Traces of a surface, 334, 346 triple product of, 466
Tractrix, 10, 155 Velocity, 44, 165, 471
Trajectory, 441 angular, 169, 476
Transcendental functions, 121 components of, 165
Transients, 443 radial and transverse components of,
Transverse components, 18 r, 479 181
Trapezoidal rule, 247 Vibrations, 452
Trigonometric functions, 121 damped, 453
derivatives of, 124 forced, 454
exponential representation of, 321 Volume, as a double integral, 403
fundamental identities for, 3 as a single integral, 81
graphs of, 7, 121 as a triple integral, 416
integration of, 214 by circular disks, 81
reduction relations for, 3 by circular rings, 82
values of, 2, 509 by cylindrical shells, 83
Trigonometric substitution, integration in cylindrical coordinates, 406, 420
by, 235 in spherical coordinates, 422
Triple integrals, 412 with known sections, 270
for a centroid, 418
for a moment of inertia, 418
for a volume, 416 Wallis' formulas, 501
in cylindrical coordinates, 420 Weight, specific, ioi
in spherical coordinates, 421 Witch of Agnesi, j o
Triple point, 203 Work, 104, 463
Trisectrix, 261 elements of, 105
Trochoid, 12, 151 unit of, 104