JOMO KENYATTA UNIVBERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

BSc MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING

EMG 2402 METROLOGY

LECTURE NOTES

BY Dr. J. MUTUA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JAN 2022—APRIL 2022

 2. Linear measurements

Introduction
Linear measurement includes the measurement of lengths, diameters, heights and thickness. The basic
principle of linear measurement (mechanical type) is that of comparison with standard dimensions on a
suitably engraved instrument or device. Linear measuring instruments are categorized depending upon their
accuracy. The two categories are non-precision instruments and precision instruments. Non-precision
instruments include steel rule, caliper divider, and telescopic gauge that are used to measure to the line
graduations of a rule. Precision instruments include micrometers, vernier calipers, height gauges and slip
gauges. A wide variety of electrical measuring devices is also available. Electric measuring devices are
mainly transducers, i.e. they transform the displacement into suitable measurable parameter like voltage
and current. Some of the displacement transducers are strain gauges, linear variable differential
transformers (LVDT) and potentiometers.

Low Precision Instruments

Steel Rule
It is the simplest and most common measuring instruments in inspection. The principle behind steel rule is
of comparing an unknown length to the one previously calibrated. The rule must be graduated uniformly
throughout its length. Rules are made in 150, 300, 500 and 1000 mm length. There are rules that have got
some attachment and special features with them to make their use more versatile. They may be made in
folded form so that they can be kept in pockets. The degree of accuracy when measurements are made by
a steel rule depends upon the quality of the rule, and the skill of the user in estimating part of a millimeter.
The main cause of error is the “Parallax error, an accuracy about 0.25mm can be obtained.

Calipers
Calipers are used for measurement of parts, which cannot be measured directly with the scale. Thus, they
are accessories to scales. The calipers consist of two legs hinged at top, and the ends of legs span part to be
inspected. This span is maintained and transferred to the scale. Calipers are of two types: spring type and
firm joint type.
 Figure 0-1: Inside and outside calipers

Divider
A divider is similar in construction to a caliper except that both legs are straight with sharp hardened points
at the end as shown in Figure 5.8. These are used for scribing arcs and circles and general layout work. The
distance between the fulcrum roller centre and the extreme working end of one of legs is known as the
nominal size Dividers are available in the sizes of 100, 200, 300 mm. In practice, one point is placed in the
centre position and the circle or arc may then be scribed on the job with the other point. A steel scale must
be used with this instrument. Figure 5.7 shows a divider.

Telescopic Gauge
The telescopic gauge shown in Figure 0-2: Telescopic gauges, is used for the measurement of internal
diameter of a hole during machining operation. It consists of a handle and two plungers, one telescopic into
the other and both under spring tension. Ends of the plungers have spherical contacts. The plunger can be
locked in position by turning a knurled screw at the end of the handle. To measure the diameter of a hole,
the plungers are first compressed and locked in position. Next, the plunger end is inserted in the hole and
allowed to expand the opposite edges. Finally, they are locked in place, taken out of the hole, and measured
by an outside micrometer.

Figure 0-2: Telescopic gauges

 Depth Gauge
This tool is used to measure the depth of blind holes, grooves, slots, the heights of shoulders in holes and
dimensions of similar character. This is essentially a narrow steel rule to which a sliding head is clamped
at the right angles to the rule as shown in Figure 0-3. The head forms a convenient marker in places where
the rule must be held in a distance from the point being measured.

Figure 0-3: Depth gauge

High Precision Instruments

Vernier Instruments
Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments that give an accuracy of 0.1 mm to 0.01 mm. The
main scale carries the fixed graduations, one of two measuring jaws, a vernier head having a vernier scale
engraved on. The vernier head carries the other jaw and slides on main scale. The vernier head can be
locked to the main scale by the knurled screw attached to its head. Enlarged diagram of the metric vernier
scale is shown in Figure 0-4.

Figure 0-4: Vernier Caliper

To understand the working principle of a vernier caliper, let us consider that the vernier scale has got 20
divisions which equals to 19 divisions of the main scale. Thus, one smallest division of the vernier scale is
slightly smaller than the smallest division of the main scale. This difference is called vernier constant for
that particular vernier caliper and when it is multiplied with the smallest unit of the main scale gives the
least count of that vernier. Now, 20 vernier scale divisions (VSD) = 19 main scale division (MSD)

Now, if the smallest unit of the main scale be 1 mm, the least count of the vernier scale = VC × one smallest
unit of the main scale.

If the smallest unit in the main scale be 0.5 mm, the least count of the vernier scale is,

To read a measurement from a vernier caliper, first the main scale reading up to the zero of the vernier scale
is noted down. It will give accuracy up to the smallest division of the main scale. Now, vernier number of
vernier scale division from its zero, which coincides exactly with the main scale is noted. This number
when multiplied with the vernierconstant gives the vernier scale reading. The actual length is obtained when
the vernier scale reading is added to the main scale reading.The caliper is placed on the object to be
measured and the fine adjustment screw is adjusted until the jaws tightly fit against the Workpiece. There
are vernier calipers that incorporate arrangements for measurement of internal dimensions and depth. The
vernier calipers are designed to measure both internal and external dimensions. The lower jaws of a vernier
scale are used for external measurement and the upper jaws for the measurement of internal dimensions.
The rectangular rod carried by the movable jaw is used for the measurement of depth.

SAQ 1
(a) Describe different types of caliper for measuring the linear dimensions.
(b) A vernier scale consists of 25 divisions on 12 mm spacing and the main scale has 24 divisions on 12
mm. What is the least count?

Advantages & Disadvantages

 A large range of sizes can be measured by one caliper
 The wearing parts are the jaws and usually these are hardened. Therefore, provided
that the jaws are undamaged the loss of accuracy due to usage is low
 Cannot measure very small measurements
 The jaws are comparatively light and may spring out of alignment if too much pressure is
applied

Other types of Vernier calipers : Vernier height gauge, Vernier depth gauge

Figure 0-5 Vernier height gauge

Micrometer Instruments
Micrometer is one of the most widely used precision instruments. It is primarily used to measure external
dimensions like diameters of shafts, thickness of parts etc. to an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The essential parts
of the instruments shown inFigure 0-6, consist of
(a) Frame
(b) Anvil and spindle
(c) Screwed spindle
(d) Graduated sleeve or barrel
(e) Thimble
(f) Ratchet or friction stop
(g) Spindle clamp
 Figure 0-6: Parts of Micrometer screw gauge

The frame is made of steel, malleable cast iron or light alloy. The anvil shall protrude from the frame for a
distance of at least 3-mm in order to permit the attachment of measuring wire support. The spindle does the
actual measuring and possesses the threads of 0.5 mm pitch. The barrel has datum and fixed graduations
Thimble is tubular cover fastened with the spindle. The beveled edge of the spindle is divided into 50 equal
parts, every fifth being numbered. The ratchet is a small extension to the thimble. It slips when the pressure
on the screw exceeds a certain amount. It produces uniform reading and prevents damage or distortion of
the instruments. The spindle clamp is used to lock the instrument at any desired setting.

Procedure for Reading in a Micrometer

The graduation on the barrel is in two parts divided by a line along the axis of the barrel called the reference
line. The graduation above the reference is graduated in 1 mm intervals. The first and every fifth are long
and numbered 0, 5, 10, 15, etc. The lower graduations are marked in 1 mm intervals but each graduation
shall be placed at the middle of the two successive upper graduations to be read0.5 mm. The thimble
advances a distance of 0.5 mm in one complete rotation. It is called the pitch of the micrometer. The thimble
has a scale of 50 divisions around its circumference. Thus, one smallest division of the circular scale is
equivalent to longitudinal movement of 0.5 1/50 mm = 0.01mm. It is the least count of the micrometer.

The job is measured between the end of the spindle and the anvil that is fitted to the frame. When the
micrometer is closed, the line marked zero on the thimble coincides with the line marked zero on the barrel.
If the zero graduation does not coincide, the micrometer requires adjustment. To take a reading from the
micrometer, (1) the number of main divisions in millimeters above the reference line, (2) the number of
sub-divisions below the reference line exceeding only the upper graduation, and (3) the number of divisions
in the thimble have to be noted down. For example if a micrometer shows a reading of 8.78 mm when
The various important terms used in connection with micrometers are given below.
Backlash: It is the lack of motion or lost motion of the spindle when the rotation of thimble is changed in
direction.
Measuring Range: It is the total travel of the measuring spindle for a given micrometer.
Cumulative Error: It is the deviation of measurement from the nominal dimension determined at any
optional point of the measuring range. It includes the effect of all possible individual errors such as errors
of the thread, errors of measuring faces etc. It can be determined by using slip gauges.
Types of micrometers: Outside Micrometer, Vernier Micrometer, Digital Micrometer, Inside Micrometer
Calliper, Inside Micrometer, Depth Micrometer, Floating Carriage Micrometer

Slip Gauges
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having a cross-section of about 30 by 10 mm. The essential
purpose of slip gauges is to make available end standards of specific lengths by temporarily combining
several individual elements, each representing a standard dimension, into a single gauge bar. The
combination is made by pressing the faces into contact and then imparting a small twisting motion while
maintaining the contact pressure. This is called wringing. Wringing occurs due to molecular adhesion
between a liquid film (thickness about 6 µm to 7 µm) and the mating surface. The combination made in
that way can be used as reference for transferring the dimensions of the unit of length from the primary
standard to gauge block of lower accuracy. It is also used for the verification and graduation of measuring
apparatus and for direct measurement of linear dimensions of industrial components. For this purpose,
control geometry of form such as flatness and parallelism of the surfaces and squareness of the gauging
surfaces are essential. According to accuracy, the slip gauges can be graded into three categories, i.e. Grade
0, Grade I and Grade II. Generally, two sets of slip gauges are available.

Normal Set
Slip gauges of the following dimensions are available in this type of set.

Table 0-1: Normal set

 Special Set
Slip gauges of the following dimensions are available in this type of set.

Table 0-2: Special set

The cross-section of most commonly used rectangular slip gauges are as shown below.

To assemble a gauge block stack

1. Remove the gauge blocks required from the protective case
2. Clean of the oil that they have been coated in using a special cleaner. It is acceptable to handle the blocks;
in fact the oil from your hands will help them stick together.
3. One at a time, hold the blocks so that the faces just overlap, push the blocks together, and slide them until
the faces overlap together. This will create a vacuum between the blocks that makes them stick together
(this process is known as wringing).
4. Make required measurements with the gauge blocks, being careful not to damage the faces
5. Take the blocks apart, and apply the protective coating oil, and return them to their box. When using
gauge blocks, minimize the number used. Each block will have tolerance errors, and as the stack of blocks
becomes larger, so does the error.Do not leave gauge block wrung together for long periods of time.

Selection of Slip Gauges

Standard procedure is followed in selecting slip gauges. It should be such that minimum number of slip
gauges is chosen for combination of blocks depending on the type of set available. The procedure will be
clear if we explain it with an example:
Let us consider the case where we have to arrange a dimension of 56.421 mm and normal sets of slip gauges
are available.
Solution
i. Always the last decimal point is to be considered first, i.e. 0.001 mm. Since gauge of 0.001 mm is
not available, 1.001 mm slip gauge is to be selected.
ii. The dimension left now is 56.421 – 1.001 = 55.42 mm.
iii. Now considering the second decimal place, slip gauge with 1.02 mm height is selected.
iv. The dimension left is 55.42 – 1.02 = 54.4 mm.
v. Next for 54.4 mm, slip gauge with 1.4 mm is to be chosen and then 3.0 mm gauge.
vi. Finally, 50 mm gauge is to be chosen.
vii. Thus, we have 50.000 + 3.000 + 1.400 + 1.020 + 1.001 = 56.421 mm. All these five slip gauges are
wrung properly to get the required dimension.
viii. If special set of gauges be used, the combination in this case would have been 50.000 + 5.420 +
1.001 = 56.421 mm.
Questions
1. List the slip gauges to be wrung together to produce an overall dimension of 93.458 mm using both
normal and special set of slip gauges without any protection slips.
2. Discuss of the following electric devices used for linear measurement: Strain Gauge, Potentiometer,
and Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
Comparators
Comparators are the instruments calibrated by means of end standards to measure unknown dimensions.
The purpose of a comparator is to detect and display the small differences between the unknown linear
dimensions and the length of the standard. The difference in lengths is detected as a displacement of a
sensing probe. The important and essential function of the instruments is to magnify or amplify the small
input displacement so that it is displayed on a scale. Comparators are classified on the basis of type of the
amplification method used. Accordingly comparators are of following types or hybrid thereof.
(a) Mechanical comparators,
(b) Optical Comparators.
(c) Pneumatic comparators,
(d) Electrical comparators.

Characteristics of Good Comparators:

i. It should be compact.
ii. It should be easy to handle.
iii. It should give quick response or quick result.
iv. It should be reliable, while in use.
v. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
vi. Its weight must be less
vii. It must be cheaper.
viii. It must be easily available in the market.
ix. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
x. The design should be robust.
xi. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform response.

Uses of Comparators
The various ways in which the comparators can be used are as follows:
i. In mass production, where components are to be checked at a very fast rate.
ii. As laboratory standards from which working or inspection gauges are set and
correlated.
iii. For inspecting newly purchased gauges.
iv. Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as working gauges to prevent
work spoilage and to maintain required tolerances at all stages of manufacturing.
v. In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three or more groups
depending upon their tolerances
 Mechanical Comparators
Mechanical Comparator works on gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc. It is self-controlled and no
power or any other form of energy is required. It employs mechanical means for magnifying the small
movement of the measuring stylus. The movement is due to the difference between the standard and the
actual dimension being checked. Conventional mechanical methods to obtain magnification are not suitable
in construction of mechanical comparators as it causes backlash and friction. Also they require a large input
force. Let us understand the mechanical comparators by studying a reed comparator which is strictly a
mechanical comparator

Figure 0-7: Mechanical Comparator

A spindle attached to the movable member is in contact with the component to be measured. Movable
member moves through a distance x, in response to displacement with respect to fixed member. The
movable member is constrained by flexture strips or reeds R1, to move relative to the fixed member. The
pointer is attached to reeds R2. A small input displacement produces a large angular movement, x, of the
pointer on account of their orientation relative to the motion. The scale is calibrated by means of gauge
blocks and indicate the difference in displacement of the fixed and movable elements. There is no friction
and the hysteresis effect is minimized by using suitable steel for the reeds. Comparators of this type have
sensitivities of the order of 0.25 × 103 mm/scale division. There are many other systems which are used for
mechanical comparators. However, there is a limit to magnification that can be achieved with purely a
mechanical comparator.

Optical Comparators
Optical comparators are based on the principle of projection of image. A simple optical comparator for
measurement of linear dimension is shown in Figure 0-8. The arrangement consists of mechanical system
which causes a plane reflector to tilt about an axis so that the image of an index is projected on scale on the
inner surface of a ground glass screen. The actual difference x between the two dimensions is amplified by
a lever to give an angular displacement θ of a pivoted mirror. The reflected ray is deflected through an
angle 2θ from the original line and gives a reading of X on the scale. The main advantage of an optical
comparator is that it is capable of giving higher degree of magnification due to reduction of moving
members and better wear resistance qualities.

Figure 0-8: Optical comparator

 Pneumatic Comparators
Pneumatic comparators are the widely used precision instruments which use the principle of obstructed
nozzle. The schematic diagram of a pneumatic comparator is shown in Figure 0-9Figure 0-9 It has two
orifices O1 and O2 with diameter d1 and d2 respectively. Through O1, air is supplied at a constant pressure,
Ps , which is the pressure of the source.

Figure 0-9: Schematic representation of optical comparator

The area of orifice O1 = A1 = (π / 4) d12. This area is fixed. The area of the second orifice through which air
can pass O2 = A2 = π d2.x. Thus, the area of orifice O 2 is variable and depends upon the displacement of the
workpiece x.The intermediate pressure P i between the fixed orifice and the outlet is dependent upon the
source pressure Ps, and the pressure drops across the two orifices O1 and O2. Since area A2 of the orifice O2
varies with displacement x, the intermediate pressure, P i, also changes with change in x. Thus, change of
pressure is a function of displacement x and hence can be used as a measure of dimension x.
Advantages:
i. It is cheaper, simple to operate and the cost is low.
ii. It is free from mechanical hysteresis and wear.
iii. The magnification can be obtained as high as 10,000 X.
iv. The gauging member is not in direct contact with the work.
v. Indicating and measuring is done at two different places.
vi. Tapers and ovality can be easily detected.
vii. The method is self-cleaning due to continuous flow of air through the jets and this makes
the method ideal to be used on shop floor for online controls.
Disadvantages:
i. They are very sensitive to temperature and humidity changes.
ii. The accuracy may be influenced by the surface roughness of the component being
checked.
iii. Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs.
 iv. Auxiliary equipments such as air filters, pressure gauges and regulators are needed.
v. Non-uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of air gauging as the variation of back
pressure is linear, over only a small range of the orifice size variation
Electrical Comparators
Electrical comparators are used as a means of detecting and amplifying small movements of a work
contacting elements. It may use any of the following transducers for magnification. They are
(a) strain gauges,
(b) variable inductance transducers, and
(c) variable capacitance transducers.
The transducer converts the displacement into a corresponding change in current and a meter recorder
connected in the circuit to indicate the electrical change calibrated to show in terms of displacement.
Generally, an amplifier is used to provide the requisite sensitivity and to match the characteristics of
different parts of the circuit. There are different types of electrical comparators. One of them, called an
electrolimit gauge, is used to check or measure the outside diameter of a roll. The object to be checked is
placed on the anvil under overhanging gauging spindle. Movement of the spindle for its deviation from a
standard dimension unbalances an electric circuit. The displacement is magnified electrically and shown on
the dial meter.There are a number of advantages of electrical comparators over the mechanical type. They
have little or no moving parts and, therefore, they maintain their accuracy over long periods. In addition,
the sensitivity of these comparators can be adjusted at will to suit the type of measurement being done.
Electrical comparators can give magnification from 600 to 10,000 according to the meter. Figure 0-10
shows the basic parts of an electric comparator.

Figure 0-10: Electric Comparator

Advantages:
i. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units.
ii. Variable sensitivity which can be adjusted as per requirement.
iii. No moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy over long periods.
 iv. Higher magnification is possible as compared to mechanical comparator.
v. Compact sizes of probes arc available.
Disadvantages:
i. The accuracy of working of these comparators is likely to be affect due to
temperature and humidity.
ii. It is not a self contained unit; it needs stabilized power supply for its operation.
iii. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts and it may alter calibration.
It is more expensive than mecha