EXPERIMENT NO.

Title: Linear and angular Measurement: Demonstration and calculations using Vernier Caliper,
Screw gauge, Dial gauge, height gauge, Bevel protector etc. and plotting cause and effect
diagram for their errors in measurement with the help of OER software’s or software’s like
Minitab or in excel sheet.
APPARATUS: Steel Rule, Vernier Caliper, Vernier Height Gauge, Micrometer, Sine Bar, Sine
Centre, Bevel Protractor.
THEORY:
STEEL RULE:
It is also known as scale. It is the line measuring device. It is the simplest and common
measuring instrument used for inspection. It works on the basic measuring technique of company
on unknown length to the one previously calibrated. It consists of a strip of hundred steel having
line graduation etched engraved on internal of fraction of standard unit of length, depending
upon the internal at which graduations are made. The scale can be manufactured in different
sizes and styles. It may be 150 mm, 300 mm, 600 mm or 1000 mm long.
VERNIER CALIPER:
The principle of Vernier is that when two scales or divisions slightly different in size are used,
the difference between them can be utilized to enhance the accuracy of measurement. The
Vernier Caliper essentially consists of two steel rules and these can slide along each other. The
details are shown in below figure.

Figure - Vernier Caliper

1. Outside jaws: used to measure external diameter or width of an object.
2. Inside jaws: used to measure internal diameter of an object.
3. Depth probe: used to measure depths of an object or a hole.
4. Main scale: gives measurements of up to one decimal place (in cm).
5. Main scale: gives measurements in fraction (in inch).
6. Vernier gives measurements up to two decimal places (in cm).
7. Vernier gives measurements in fraction (in inch).

Least Count =

Measurement = Main scale reading + (Least count × conceding Vernier scale division)

Value of smallest division on main scale = 1 mm

Total no. of division on Vernier scale = 50

Therefore Least Count = (1/50) = 0.02 mm

Figure - Measurements by Using Vernier Caliper

VERNIER HEIGHT GUAGE:
This is also a sort of a Vernier caliper equipped with a special base back and other attachments
which make the instrument suitable for height measurement. Along with the sliding jaw
assembly arrangement is provided to carry a removable clamp. The upper and the lower surface
of the measuring jaw are parallel to the base so that it can be used for measurement over or under
the surface. The Vernier height gauge is merely used to scribe lines of certain distance above
surface. However, dial indicator can be attached in the clamp and many useful measurements can
be exactly made as it exactly gives the indication when dial tip just touches the surfaces. For all
these measurements, use of surface plates as datum surface is very essential.

Figure - Vernier Height Gauge

VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE:

1) This is similar to Vernier height gauge.

2) It consists of main scale, Vernier scale, jaws, and lock nut fine adjustment screw like Vernier
caliper as shown in above figure.
3) In Vernier depth gauge, graduated scale can slide through the base and Vernier scale remains
fixed.
4) The Vernier scale is fixed to the main body of the depth gauge and is read in the same way as
Vernier caliper.
5) In Vernier depth gauge, graduated scale can slide through the base and Vernier scale remains
fixed.
6) The main scale provides the datum surface from which the measurements are taken. Vernier
depth gauge is used to measure depth of holes, distance from a plane surface to a projection and
recess.

Figure - Vernier Depth Gauge

MICROMETER:
The micrometer essentially consists of U shaped frame. The component to be measured is held
between fixed anvil and movable spindle. The spindle can be moved with the help of thimble.
There are two scales on Micrometer, main scale and circular scale. The barrel is graduated in unit
of 0.5 mm whereas thimble has got 50 divisions around its periphery. One revolution of thimble
moves 0.5 mm which is the lead of the screw and also the pitch.
 Figure 1.5 Micrometer

Least Count =

Measurement = Main scale reading + (Least count × coinciding thimble scale division)

DIGITAL MICROMETER:
1) It is used where high accuracy is required.

2) It is based on electronic technology.

3) It can be zeroed at any position, which greatly speeds the process of inspection.

Figure 1.6 Digital Micrometers

V BLOCK:

The Vee-block is essentially tool steel blocks that are very precisely 100mm square. Standard
Vee-blocks come as 45 degree block, i.e. the vee-sides slope 45 degree from horizontal or
vertical, the included angle of the vee being of course, 90 degrees. But blocks with different
angles and shapes are also available. For special purpose such as checking triangle effects or for
taps and other three-fluted tools, 60 degree Vee-blocks are also available. The included angle of
the vee then is 120 degrees. The major purpose of the Vee-blocks is to hold cylindrical pieces, or
move to the point, to establish precisely the centre line or axis of a cylindrical piece. In using a
vee-block, it is very essential that the cylindrical piece should rest on firmly on the sides of the
vee and not on the edges of the vee.

Figure 1.7 H & G Magnetic V Block

 All sides are hardened and ground, used for grinding, light Milling, Drilling and
inspection of round and square jobs.
 Accuracy for Flatness, squareness and parallelism within 0.005 mm upto 150 L and 0.010
mm for 200 L
 Hardness above 60 Rc
 Supplied in matched pair Uniform and Strong magnetic pull to all three magnetic surface
Top, Bottom and V Faces
 Easy ON - OFF facility
SURFACE PLATE:

For majority of dimension measurement and establishment of geometric accuracies, a reference

datum plane and flat surface is required. The instrument and jobs are kept on this surface for
measurement and also the surface is used for direct comparison and acts a master for checking of
Flatness and other characteristics of work surface. This perfectly flat plane of reference is
available on important methodical device known as surface plate.

Types of surface Plate: - 1) Cast Iron Surface Plate. 2) Granite Surface Plate. 3) Glass Surface
Plates.

Figure 1.8 Cast Iron Surface Plate Figure 1.9 Granite Surface Plate

ANGULAR MEASUREMENT SINE BAR:

A sine bar is a tool used to measure angles in metalworking. It consists of a hardened, precision
ground body with two precision ground cylinders fixed at the ends. The distance between the
centers of the cylinders is precisely controlled, and the top of the bar is parallel to a line through
the centers of the two rollers as shown in Figure 1.10.
 Figure 1.10 Sine Bar

The dimension between the two rollers is chosen to be a whole number (for ease of later
calculations) and forms the hypotenuse of a triangle when in use. Generally, the centre distance
between two cylindrical rollers is 10 inch or 100 mm sine bar (however, 5 inch sine bars are the
most commonly used).
Sin θ = (h/l)
Therefore θ = sin-1 (h/l)

SINE CENTRE: Sine Centre is a special type of sine bar, which is used for conical objects
having male and female parts, as shown in Fig. 3. It cannot measure the angle more than 45
degrees. Sine table (or sine plate) is used to measure angles of large work pieces. Compound sine
table is used to measure compound angles of large work pieces. In this case, two sine tables are
mounted one over the other at right angles. The tables can be twisted to get the required
alignment.
 Figure 1.11 Sine Centre

UNIVERSAL BEVEL PROTRACTOR:

A universal bevel protractor is used to measure angles between two planes. This consists of stem,
which is rigidly attached to main scale and a blade, which is attached to the Vernier scale and
can be rotated to read angles. To improve the accessibility, the blade can also slide. The least
count is calculated by knowing the value of the smallest division on the main scale and number
of division on the Vernier scale. It should be noted that the divisions on the main scale is in
degrees and that the fractional divisions of degrees are minutes (i.e. with 60 minutes/degree,
denoted). To measure angle between two planes, rest the stem on one of the planes (reference
plane). Rotate the blade such that blade is flush with second plane. Readings are taken after
ensuring that the stem and blade are in flush with the two planes. Lock the protractor at this point
and note sown the readings.

Figure 1.12 Universal Bevel Protractors

 Figure 1.13 Angle Measurements with Bevel Protractor

PROCEDURE: For Vernier Caliper/Micrometer/Height gauge:

1. Check the zero of main and Vernier scale to be coinciding.

2. Read the instrument for at least three random Vernier positions.

3. Measure the samples at indicated places and record as per the format.

Linear Measurement:-

Observation Table:-

1. Measurement with non-precision instrument (Caliper)

Sr. No Parameter Length(mm) Width(mm)

1 Top rectangular part 23 39
2 Middle rectangular part 21 19
3 Bottom rectangular part 18 19

2. Measurement with precision instrument (Digital Vernier Caliper)

Sr. No Parameter Length(mm) Width(mm)

1 Top rectangular part 23.66 39.04
2 Middle rectangular part 21.6 19.02
3 Bottom rectangular part 18.6 19.06
Angular Measurement

Observation:

1. Center distance between rollers (l) = 200mm

2. Height of slip gauge (h) = 51.38 mm

3. Angle of given work piece (ɵ)

Sin ɵ = h/l

θ = sin-1 (h/l)

= sin-1 (51.38÷200)

= 14.08 0

CONCLUSION:

From above observation table we conclude that, digital Vernier caliper (top part length value
23.66mm) is more accurate and precise than caliper (top part length value23 mm). Similarly, we
conclude all values in the observation table. Hence we have studied various precision and non
precision measuring instruments. Also we studied basic construction and working of sine bar and
sine center. The angle measured of given work piece is 14.08 0 .
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Title:-Limit Gauges: Concepts, uses and applications of Go –No Go Gauges, Taylor’s principle
and Design of gauges.
Definition of Limits: The maximum and minimum permissible sizes within which the actual
size of a component lies are called Limits.
Tolerance: It is impossible to make anything to an exact size, therefore it is essential to allow a
definite tolerance or permissible variation on every specified dimension.
Why Tolerances are specified?
Variations in properties of the material being machined introduce errors.
The production machines themselves may have some inherent inaccuracies.
It is impossible for an operator to make perfect settings. While setting up the tools and work
piece on the machine, some errors are likely to creep in.
Unilateral Tolerance:
Tolerances on a dimension may either be unilateral or bilateral.
When the two limit dimensions are only on one side of the nominal size, (either above or below)
the tolerances are said to be unilateral.
For unilateral tolerances, a case may occur when one of the limits coincide with the basic size.
Bilateral Tolerance: When the two limit dimensions are above and below nominal size, (i.e. on
either side of the nominal size) the tolerances are said to be bilateral. Unilateral tolerances, are
preferred over bilateral because the operator can machine to the upper limit of the shaft (or lower
limit of a hole) still having the whole tolerance left for machining to avoid rejection of parts.

Terminology of Limit Systems-

Limits of size: The two extreme permissible sizes of a component between which the actual size
should lie including the maximum and minimum sizes of the component.
Nominal size: It is the size of the component by which it is referred to as a matter of
convenience.
Basic size: It is the size of a part in relation to which all limits of variation are determined.
Zero Line: It is the line w.r.t which the positions of tolerance zones.
Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between a limit of size and the corresponding basic size.
Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size and the
corresponding basic size. It is denoted by letters ‘ES’ for a hole and ‘es’ for a shaft.
Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and the
corresponding basic size. It is denoted by letters ‘EI’ for a hole and ‘ei’ for a shaft.
Fundamental Deviation: It is the deviation, either upper or lower deviation, which is nearest to
the zero line for either a hole or a shaft. It fixes the position of the tolerance zone in relation to
the zero line.
Allowance: It is the intentional difference between the hole dimensions and shaft for any type of
fit.
Size of tolerance: It is the difference between the maximum and minimum limits of size.
LIMIT GAUGES
A Go-No GO gauge refers to an inspection tool used to check a workpiece against its allowed
tolerances. It derives its name from its use: the gauge has two tests; the check involves the
workpiece having to pass one test (Go) and fail the other (No Go). It is an integral part of the
quality process that is used in the manufacturing industry to ensure interchangeability of parts
between processes, or even between different manufacturers.
A Go - No Go gauge is a measuring tool that does not return a size in the conventional sense, but
instead returns a state. The state is either acceptable (the part is within tolerance and may be
used) or it is unacceptable (and must be rejected). They are well suited for use in the production
area of the factory as they require little skill or interpretation to use effectively and have few, if
any, moving parts to be damaged in the often hostile production environment.
PLAIN GAUGES -
Gauges are inspection tools which serve to check the dimensions of the manufactured parts.
Limit gauges ensure the size of the component lies within the specified limits. They are non-
recording and do not determine the size of the part. Plain gauges are used for checking plain
(Unthreaded) holes and shafts.
Plain gauges may be classified as follows-
1) According to their type:
(a) Standard gauges are made to the nominal size of the part to be tested and have the
measuring member equal in size to the mean permissible dimension of the part to be checked. A
standard gauge should mate with some snugness.
(b) Limit Gauges -These are also called ‘go’ and ‘no go’ gauges. These are made to the limit
sizes of the work to be measured. One of the sides or ends of the gauge is made to correspond to
maximum and the other end to the minimum permissible size. The function of limit gauges is to
determine whether the actual dimensions of the work are within or outside the specified limits.
2) According to their purpose:
(a) Work shop gauges: Working gauges are those used at the bench or machine in gauging the
work as it being made.
(b) Inspection gauges: These gauges are used by the inspection personnel to inspect
manufactured parts when finished.
(c) Reference or Master Gauges: These are used only for checking the size or condition of other
gauges.
3) According to the form of tested surface:
(a) Plug gauges: They check the dimensions of a hole
(b) Snap & Ring gauges: They check the dimensions of a shaft.
4) According to their design:
(a) Single limit & double limit gauges
(b) Single ended and double ended gauges
(c) Fixed & adjustable gauge
LIMIT GAUGING - Limit gauging is adopted for checking parts produced by mass production.
It has the advantage that they can be used by unskilled persons. Instead of measuring actual
dimensions, the conformance of product with tolerance specifications can be checked by a „GO‟
and „NO GO‟ gauges. A „GO‟ gauge represents the maximum material condition of the product
(i.e. minimum hole size or maximum shaft size) and conversely a „NO GO‟ represents the
minimum material condition (i.e. maximum hole size or minimum shaft size)

PLUG GAUGES:
Plug gauges are the limit gauges used for checking holes and consist of two cylindrical wear
resistant plugs. The plug made to the lower limit of the hole is known as „GO‟ end and this will
enter any hole which is not smaller than the lower limit allowed. The plug made to the upper
limit of the hole is known as „NO GO‟ end and this will not enter any hole which is smaller than
the upper limit allowed. The plugs are arranged on either ends of a common handle.

Plug gauges are normally double ended for sizes upto 63 mm and for sizes above 63 mm and
they are single ended type.
The handles of heavy plug gauges are made of light metal alloys while the handles of small plug
gauges can be made of some nonmetallic materials.

Progressive plug gauges: For smaller through holes, both GO & NO GO gauges are on the
same side separated by a small distance. After the full length of GO portion enters the hole,
further entry is obstructed by the NO GO portion if the hole is within the tolerance limits.

Ring gauges: Ring gauges are used for gauging shafts. They are used in a similar manner to that
of GO & NO GO plug gauges. A ring gauge consists of a piece of metal in which a hole of
required size is bored.
SNAP (or) GAP GAUGES:

A snap gauge usually consists of a plate or frame with a parallel faced gap of the required
dimension. Snap gauges can be used for both cylindrical as well as non cylindrical work as
compared to ring gauges which are conveniently used only for cylindrical work. Double ended
snap gauges can be used for sizes ranging from 3 to 100 mm. For sizes above 100 mm upto 250
mm a single ended progressive gauge may be used.

Double Ended gap gauge Progressive gap gauge

Desirable properties of Gauge Materials:
The essential considerations in the selection of material of gauges are-
1) Hardness to resist wear.
2) Stability to preserve size and shape
3) Corrosion resistance.
4) Machinability-for obtaining the required degree of accuracy.
5) Low coefficient of friction of expansion to avoid temperature effects
Taylor’s Principle of Gauge Design:
According to Taylor, “Go” and “No Go” gauges should be designed to check maximum and
minimum material limits which are checked as below;

‘GO’ Limit. This designation is applied to that limit of the two limits of size which corresponds
to the maximum material limit considerations, i.e. upper limit of a shaft and lower limit of a hole.
The GO gauges should be of full form, i.e. they should check shape as well as size.

No Go’ Limit: This designation is applied to that limit of the two limits of size which
corresponds to the minimum material condition. i.e. the lower limit of a shaft and the upper limit
of a hole. „No Go‟ gauge should check only one part or feature of the component at a time, so
that specific discrepancies in shape or size can be detected. Thus a separate „No Go‟ gauge is
required for each different individual dimension.

Gauge Tolerance:
Gauges, like any other jobs require a manufacturing tolerance due to reasonable imperfections in
the workmanship of the gauge maker. The gauge tolerance should be kept as minimum as
possible though high costs are involved to do so. The tolerance on the GO & NO GO gauges is
usually 10% of the work tolerance.

Wear Allowance:
The GO gauges only are subjected to wear due to rubbing against the parts during inspection and
hence a provision has to be made for the wear allowance. Wear allowance is taken as 10% of
gauge tolerance and is allowed between the tolerance zone of the gauge and the maximum
material condition. (i.e. lower limit of a hole & upper limit of a shaft). If the work tolerance is
less than 0.09 mm, wear allowance need not be given unless otherwise stated.
 EXPERIMENT NO - 3

Title - Surface roughness measurement of a given sample using surface tester.

Instruments required - Surface Roughness Tester, Sample Specimen.
Operations carried out on sample (Spur Gear) before surface roughness Measurement -
1) Surface Grinding

Fig.-Specimen (Spur Gear) (All Dimension are in mm)

THEORY:
Surface Grinding:-
In the grinding machine the job is held by using magnetic chuck, the magnetism is activated by
using handle when the job is at proper position, then magnet holds the job of fixed position.
As the surface finish operation get started coolant is supplied simultaneously grinding wheel
rotates at 2845 RPM.
Both sides are reduced by 1 mm both sides are grind to achieve proper finishing when grinding is
over the job is removed by demagnetizing the check and unloading the work piece.

Surface roughness measurement:-

Surface roughness of the job is measured using the surface roughness tester, which is used to
find out Ra and Rz values. For measurement of surface, the job & tester is set on the surface
plate in order to maintain the accuracy of measurement to be done. The sampling length is taken
as 0.25mm.
Measuring Procedure –

a) Switch on the instrument.

b) Check the parameter selected is right if not depress the key to select.
c) To check the cutoff length selected is right, if not depress the cutoff key to select.

d) To clear the surface of part to be measured,

e) Refer the figure 1 and fig. 2 to place instrument correctly.

f) Adjust the leg sheath of sensor.

Fig-1 Position of tester

Fig.-2 Position of tester.

Observation Table-

Following are the sample measurement obtained using tester at various points of the job.

Sr. No. Ra (μm) Rz (μm)

1 1.074 3.038
2 0.605 1.713
3 0.617 1.745

4 0.991 2.0803
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Title:- Determination of geometry & dimensions of given composite object using profile
projector and measurement of various angles of single point cutting tool using tool maker’s
microscope.

Aim: - To determine the dimensions of given composite bar.

Apparatus: -

1. Profile projector

2. Work piece (composite bar)

Theory: -

Profile projector is a highly sophisticated, versatile & easy to operate optical instrument designed
for checking profiles of objects having regular or irregular profile. It is ideal for rapid inspection
of linear & angular dimensions of small & medium sized components such as gears, screws
threads & tools.

Principle: -

In this by using light beam projector system small profile image can be magnified. That is the
optical system of the projector produces accurate, bright clear & sharp images of objects being
inspected which can be easily measured or compared

Construction & Working: -

A profile projector is an optical measurement tool that magnifies sample’s surface features to
allow Measurement on a linear/circular scale. A profile projector is also referred to as an optical
comparator, or even known as a shadowgraph. A profile projector projects a magnified profile
image of an area or Feature of a work piece onto a screen most commonly using diastolic
illumination. Dimensions can be measured directly on the screen or compared to a standard
reference at the correct magnification. For accuracy, it is important that the magnification does
not change with perspective.
 Fig.- Profile projector

Application:-
1) Used for inspection of form tool
2) Used for inspection of profile gauge gear tooth.
3) Used for screw thread

Tool maker’s microscope-

The tool maker’s microscope is a versatile instrument that measure by optical means with no
pressure being involved, thus very useful for measurement on small and delicate parts. It is
designed for:
a) Measurement on parts of complex form e.g. profile of external thread, tool, gauges, etc.
b) Measuring center to center distance of holes in any plane.
c) A variety of linear measurement
d) Accurate angular measurement
 Fig Tool Makers microscope

Tool maker’s microscope is shown in fig. The optical head can be moved up or down the vertical
column and can be clamped at any height by means of clamping screw. The table which is
mounted on the base of the instrument can be moved in two mutually perpendicular horizontal
directions (longitudinal and lateral) by means of accurate Micrometer screw having thimble scale
and venires.

Principle of operation:-
A ray of light from a light source fig. b is reflected by a mirror through 900 it then passes through
a transparent glass plate (on which flat parts may be placed).

Fig:-Principle of operation
A shadow image of the outline or counter of the workspaces passes through the objective of the
Optical head and is projected by a system of three prisms to a ground glass screen. Observations
are made through an eyepiece. Measurements are made by means of cross lines engraved on the
ground glass screen. The screen can be rotated through 3600 the angle of rotation is read through
an auxiliary eyepiece.
Applications of Tool Makers Microscope:-
1. Determining the relative position of the various points on the work piece.
2. Measurement of angles.
3. Comparison of thread forms with master profiles engraved on the eye piece.
4. Measurement of pitch & effective diameter of screw threads.
5. Comparison of an enlarged projected image with a scale tracing fixed on the screen.

Observation Table
A] Screw Thread Measurement:-
1. Measurement of minor diameter of screw thread-
Thimble
Total Difference
Barrel (Main Scale (Circular Least Count
Reading (MSR+(CSR (Final – Initial
Reading)MSR scale (LC)
X LC)) reading) mm
reading)CSR
Initial 0 0 0.01 0
18.09
Final 18 9 0.01 18.09

2. Measurement of major diameter of screw thread-

Thimble Total Difference

Barrel (Main Scale Least Count
Reading (Circular scale (MSR+(CSR (Final – Initial
Reading)MSR (LC)
reading)CSR X LC)) reading) mm
Initial 0 0 0.01 0
21.20
Final 21 20 0.01 21.20

3. Thread Angle - 40
B] Gear measurement:-
Measurement of minor diameter of gear-
Barrel Thimble Total Difference
Least
Reading (Main Scale (Circular scale (MSR+(CSR (Final – Initial
Count (LC)
Reading) MSR reading)CSR X LC)) reading) mm
Initial 0 0 0.01 25.24
25.24
Final 25 24 0.01 25.24

Conclusion:-
We measure various parameters of regular or irregular shapes using profile projector.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Title:-Verification of dimensions and geometry of given components using
Mechanical/Optical/Pneumatic comparator in context of manufacturing.
Definition: A comparator is a device used to get dimensional variation between unknown
Dimensions of a part and same standard or master setting (slip gauge).
THEORY -
The comparator is a device which takes a dimension of standard job as reference dimension, and
Gives a reading to a pointer on a scale, the variation in such dimension of the job to be compared
Upper end of the vertical beam, and an adjusting screw is provided for final zero setting of the
scale. A new patented feature is shown at K. This is a magnetic counter balance which serves to
neutralism the positive 'rate' of spring reaching on the measuring tip. In this way a constant
pressure over the whole scale range is achieved. The instrument is available with vertical
capacities of 6‟, 12', and 24,' and magnification of 500, 1000, 500, 3000 and 5000. The scales are
graduated both in English and Metric systems. The least count is of order of 10R Inch. A work
table on the base of this comparator stand is used to keep the job on. Special attachments are
used for typical jobs like screw thread effective/outside diameter. Dial indicator type of
mechanical comparator consists of a sensitive dial indicator mounted on a Horizontal arm on a
stand. The arm is capable of coarse and fine adjustment movements in the Vertical direction for
initial setting of the Instrument. The base is heavy so that stability and rigidity of the instrument
is ensured.
Types of Comparator based on principle used for magnification.
1. Mechanical comparators.
a) Dial-indicator.
b) Johnson Mikrokator.
c) Read-type mech. comparators.
d) Sigma comparators.
2. Mechanical-Optical comparators.
3. Electrical and Electronic comparators.
4. Pneumatic comparators.
5. Fluid displacement comparators.
Mechanical comparator
Principle – It works on the principle of converting linear moment into angular using rack and
pinion. It uses the gear train for magnification & scale pointer as indicating device.
2. Pneumatic comparator

Principle –Pneumatic comparator works on the principle of back pressure. A simple pressure
regulator which may control the pressure of air from the normal supply line is provided in Solex
gauge by passing the high pressure air after filtering through a flow valve. Here is a tank in
which water is filled up to a certain level and a dip tube is immersed into it up to a depth
corresponding to air pressure required. Since air is sent at higher pressure than required one,
some air will leak out from dip tube and bubbled out of water, and the air moving towards
control orifice will be at desired constant pressure H. The air at reduced pressure than passes
thought the control orifice and escape from the measuring jets. The back pressure in the circuit is
indicated by a head of water displaced in the manometer tube. The tube is graduated linearly to
show changes in pressure resulting from changes in internal diameter of the work measured.
Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators
1. The gauging member does not come in to contact with the part to be measured and hence
particularly no wear takes place on the gauging member.
2. It has usually very small number of moving parts and hence some cases none. Thus the
accuracy is more due to less friction and less inertia. Measuring pressure is very small and the jet
of air helps in cleaning the dust, if any, from the part to be measured.
3. It is possible to have very high magnification.
4. The indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit.
5. It is very suitable device for measuring diameter of holes where the diameter is small
Compared with a length.
6. It is probably the best method for determining the ovality and taperness of the circular bores.
Disadvantages of Pneumatic Comparators:-
1. It requires elaborate auxiliary equipment such as accurate pressure regulator.
2. The scale is generally not uniform.
3. When indicating device is the glass tube, then high magnification is necessary in order to
avoid the meniscus errors.
4. The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather elaborate for many industrial applications.
5. Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions.
EXPERIMENTATION
Mechanical comparator:-
Instruments used:- 1) Dial gauge indicator 2)“V” block 3)Slip gauges
Construction: - It consist of dial gauge indicator which indicates rack & pinion springs , gear,
plunger, guide way, printer, scale, support with helical gear. It has six gear meshing together as
A, B, C, D, E & F. Pointer shows reading. Coil H is used for avoiding backlash.
Working:-
When plunger P moves up with rack R, Gear A rotates as shown in figure. Linear movement is
converted into angular movement. As A & B rotates D also rotates, which is meshed with C gear
rotates. To the centre of E pointer Po is attached. The pointer Po shows reading on the scale.
Gear H is used for support where as spring coil H is used for avoiding backlash. Guide way G is
used for support plunger. The spring is used to maintain pointer at O position when plunger
movement is zero. It is self control & no power or any other form of energy required to it. It
employs mechanical stylus for magnifying the small of movement of measurement. The ovement
mechanism of the instrument is housed in metal case for its protection from any damages.
Procedure:
A) Checking the flatness of given object –
1. Fix the dial gauge indicator to the stand.
2. Measure the height of given object.
3. Take the slip gauge of same height.
4. Set the slip gauges below the plunger & set to the dial gauge pointer to Zero level.
5. Remove the slip gauges.
6. Now adjust the given component below the plunger of dial gauge indicator & give some
movement to the component.
7. If components having some irregularities the pointer will give some deflection.
B) Checking of roundness of given objects:-
1. Fix the dial gauge indicator to the stand.
2. For the measurement of roundness of given object take a V block.
3. Put the object on V block & set it below plunger of dial gauge indicator.
4. Rotate it in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
5. More deflection of pointer will indicate the ovality of roundness.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Standard
Work piece Comparator Reading
dimensions
A 55 55.3 55.1 55.5

B 85 85.8 85.2 85.4

Conclusion:
From above observation table we conclude that, work piece comparing with standard
dimensions there is slight deflection in the comparator reading due to surface roughness.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

TITLE: Measurement of gear tooth thickness by gear tooth Vernier Caliper.

APPARATUS: Gear tooth Vernier caliper, bench vice.

THEORY: Brief description of different characteristics of measuring of tooth thickness by gear

tooth Vernier is given. It consists of a horizontal and a vertical Vernier scale. It is based on the
principle of Vernier scale. The thickness of a tooth at pitch line and the addendum is measured
by an independent tongue each of which is adjusted independently by adjusting the slide screws
on graduated beams.
TERMINOLOGY OF GEAR TOOTH
(i) Pitch circle diameter (PCD) : It is the diameter of a circle which by pure rolling action would
produce the same motion on the toothed gear wheel.
It is equal to D = (T X OD)/(T+2) where OD = outside diameter T = number of teeth.
(ii) MODULE: It is defined as the length of the pitch circle diameter per truth. Module m=D/T
and is expressed in mm.
(iii) CIRCULAR PITCH (CP) : It is the arc distance measured around the pitch circle from the
flank of one truth to a similar flank in the next 1.00th CP==PD/T=Pm.
(iv) ADDENDUM: This is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the tip of the truth. It is
equal to one module.
(v) Clearance: This is the radial distance from the tip of a tooth to the bottom of the mating
tooth space when the teeth are symmetrically engaged. Its standard value is 0.157m or 0.25m.
(vi) DEDENDUM: This is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of tooth space.
Deddendum = Addendum +Clearance = m +0.157m =1 .157m.=1.25m (metric gearing system)
(vii) TOOTH THICKNESS: This is the arc distance measured along the pitch from the
intercepts with one flank to the intercepts with the other flank of the same tooth.
Vernier Tooth Caliper
Gear Tooth Details Procedure:
For finding PCD, module, addendum, Deddendum and clearance:
1. First find the blank diameter, OD by a Vernier caliper and also count the number of teeth T of
the spur gear.
2. Next calculate pitch circle diameter D = (T x OD)/(T+2)
3. Find addendum, clearance, pitch, module and Deddendum as per the formulae given in the
theory.
For Chordal Tooth Thickness (using gear tooth callpier):
1) Set the Chordal depth (addendum) on the vertical side of the gear tooth Vernier and then insert
the jaws of the instrument on the tooth to be measured.
2. Adjust the horizontal Vernier slide by the fine adjusting screw so that the jaws just touch the
tooth.
3. Read the horizontal Vernier slide and note the reading. It gives the Chordal thickness of tooth.
4. Repeat the observations for the different teeth.
5. Compare the values of different characteristics with the standard value and set the percentage
error.
Observation:
1. Least count of caliper= 0.02mm
2. Number of teeth= 40
3. outside diameter = 48 mm
Table for Setting Gear Tooth Caliper for Spur Gear

No. of Teeth 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Chordal
1.5700 1.5701 1.5702 1.5703 1.5703 1.5704 1.5704
Thickness
Height of
1.0206 1.0192 1.0182 1.0171 1.0162 1.0154 1.0146
Tooth

Chordal Thickness:
Chordal Thickness Verification
Sr No MSR VSR
(M.S.R+V.S.R*LC (Digital Vernier)
1 4 8 4 + 8*0.02 = 4.16 4.49

2 4 9 4 + 9*0.02 = 4.18 4.32

Height of the Tooth:

Verification
Chordal Thickness
Sr No M.S.R V.S.R (Digital Vernier
(M.S.R+V.S.R*L.C
Caliper)
1. 4 7 4+ 7*0.02 = 4.14 4.26

2 4 6 4 + 6*0.02 =4.12 4.10

Calculations:

1. Pitch circle diameter, D= (T x OD)/(T+2) = 45.71

2. Module, m=D/T mm= 1.14

3. Addendum= m = 1.14

4. Deddendum= m+0.157m = 1.31

Conclusion:

Hence we have measured various gear parameters of gear using Vernier gear caliper.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

Title - Study of Dial Gauge and Dial Calibration Tester to know the fundamentals of
measurements and Calibration process by using Dead weight Tester/Strain Gauges/Pressure
Gauge/Dial calibration Tester.

APPARATUS: Dial Calibration Tester.

THEORY: Dial indicators, also known as dial gauges and probe indicators, are Instruments used
to accurately measure small linear distances, and are frequently used in industrial and mechanical
processes. They are named so because the measurement results are displayed in a magnified way
by means of a dial. Dial indicators may be used to check the variation in tolerance during the
inspection process of a machined part, measure the deflection of a beam or ring under laboratory
conditions, as well as many other situations where a small measurement needs to be registered or
indicated. Dial indicators typically measure ranges from 0.25 mm to 300 mm (0.015 in to 12.0
in), with graduations of 0.001 mm to 0.01 mm (metric) or 0.00005 in to 0.001 in (imperial)
Applications · To check for run out when fitting a new disc to an automotive disc brake. Run out
can rapidly ruin the disc if it exceeds the specified tolerance (typically 0.05 mm or less). · In a
quality environment to check for consistency and accuracy in the manufacturing process. · On
the workshop floor to initially set up or calibrate a machine, prior to a production run. · Dial
indicators help users measure the distance between two plates, but the readings given by the tool
could be faulty.

PROCEDURE:

1. Wipe the surface plate, the gauge blocks and the tip of the dial indicator's plunger to remove
any dirt or debris. Lock the dial indicator in place on its stand, resting the indicator high enough
to allow the plunger to travel its full length and still be able to touch off against the surface plate.

2. Rest the tip of the plunger directly on the surface plate. Rotate the indicator's face until the "0"
marking aligns with the dial.

3. Raise the plunger and slip a 0.020-inch gauge block underneath. Lower the plunger onto the
surface of the gauge block. Check that the indicator reads 0.020-inch. Raise and lower the
plunger two more times to check that the dial indicator gives the same measurement in the same
spot repeatedly.
4. Repeat the process with 0.025-inch, 0.050-inch, 0.100-inch, 0.250-inch, 0.400-inch and 1-
inch gauge blocks. Check each block three times to ensure the dial indicator's repeatability. If the
indicator's plunger reaches a 2-inch depth, stack the blocks to check the dial indicator at 1.025-
inch, 1.050-inch.

ELECTRONIC DIAL GAUGE TESTER It meets the Iso 9000 requirements for periodic
calibrations of one micron least count dial gauges [l.C: 0.001]. The equipment is useful for
periodic calibration of plunger type dial gauge and lever types dial gauges and bore gauges. It
includes rigid stand having dial gauge fitting arrangement on upper holder and micro screw with
probe in the holder below the same. The dial gauge holding system is having mechanism of fine
adjustment for setting the dial gauge. This is the specialty of the design. The digital unit indicates
movement of probe that is fitted in micro screw. The digital indication unit is having a required
operating switch for setting different modes that consists of change of resolution either 0.0001,
0.001, or 0.01 mm.

CONCLUSION: Hence we have studied Dial gauge calibration.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Title - Numerical analysis relevant to metrology.