1

Etruria, Etruscans little historical documentary evidence to sup-

port an invasion or immigration hypothesis.
CARRIE ROTH-MURRAY
These views of the Etruscans originating from
outside Italy gradually lost favor after numer-
INTRODUCTION, ORIGINS, HISTORY ous excavations indicated continuity between
OF THE STUDY the “Villanovan” and Etruscan phases of sites.
Pallottino initiated the idea by stating that the
The Etruscans played a key role, not just “civilization of ancient Etruria did not grow
in central Italy, but across much of the Medi- entirely from foreign seeds,” in fact, the sites
terranean. Even now the Etruscans are famed that become the great historical centers of
for the material culture they produced them- Etruria develop from the early “Villanovan”
selves, and the material culture they collected times to historical times without break
from other contemporary cultures, particu- (Pallottino 1956: 70–1; see VILLANOVAN CULTURE).
larly the Greeks. The majority of research on the Etruscan
There are countless Etruscan sites in Italy. culture centers around the necropoleis and
Livy (5.1) spoke of the Etruscan dodecapoloi, temples, due to less available information
consisting of three groups of twelve leading concerning the habitation areas at most of the
Etruscan cities. The oldest of these refers to sites. One of the most striking elements about
Etruria proper (roughly modern northern the Etruscan culture is the degree of variability
Lazio, Tuscany, and western Umbria), followed in certain aspects, such as the forms of burials
by the creation of settlements in Campania, as and ritual spaces. These differences give an
well as a period of colonization or expansion important insight into the varying forms of
across the peninsula in the Po Valley (Scullard organization for Etruscan familial, political,
1967: 231–3). The organization of these towns and religious practices, and may help us under-
as a league is often questioned now, and viewed stand the amount of independence over time
as a possible Roman mislabeling or misunder- and between the settlements, rather than view-
standing of a political system unlike their ing the Etruscan culture as a homogeneous
own. Others such as Bloch postulated that the regional entity (Barker and Rasmussen 1998;
Etruscans had immigrated to Italy from LYDIA Haynes 2005; Roth-Murray 2007).
after the Trojan War, based on the account by
the Greek historian Herodotus (I.94) mention-
ing a race called the “Tyrsenoi,” who were LANGUAGE
believed to have made such a journey ca.
1300 BCE due to a famine (1956: 51–5). These Despite the survival of roughly thirteen thou-
ideas are symptomatic of the text-driven inter- sand inscriptions in Etruscan, the language is
pretations of later Latin and Greek sources. It still not fully understood. The majority of
seems likely that Etruscan towns were run as inscriptions are short dedications, or declara-
independent states, for the most part. Much tions of possession and identity on grave goods
early scholarship focused on the origin of the and sarcophagi, and are largely based around
Etruscans, often attributing them to north of proper names. None of the inscriptions is
the Alps, central Europe, or the Balkans, based entirely secular, but they rather appear to be
on elements shared with other cultures regard- ritual in some way. The language is unrelated
ing language and metalwork. to the Indo-European languages of the Italian
However, the Greek historian, Dionysius peninsula (Agostiniani 2001). Etruscan utilises
of Halicarnassus (1.30.2), argues that the a western Greek script, and was probably
Etruscans were indigenous to Italy. In fact, adopted as contact increased with Greeks in
there is no direct archaeological evidence and the Bay of Naples (see ALPHABETS, ITALY). Lengthy

The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition. Edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine,
and Sabine R. Huebner, print pages 2536–2541.
© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20056
2

bilingual inscriptions have helped increase used for the ossuary urns, is characteristic of
knowledge of the language. The Pyrgi tablets, the tenth to eighth centuries. Bucchero, how-
from the sanctuary of the port site of Cerveteri, ever, produced during the seventh and sixth
although not strictly bilingual, are gold lami- centuries, is synonymous with the Etruscans.
nae inscribed in both Etruscan and Punic, The rich black fabric is a result of the reduction
describing the dedication of a temple. process during the firing, and it is thought
that very fine examples imitate metal vessels.
A number of shapes that originate in bucchero,
TRADE AND EXCHANGE AROUND THE including the kantharos, kyathos, and carinated
MEDITERRANEAN amphora, were later adopted by Greek
potters. In terms of painted pottery, the
Intense contacts existed between the Etruscans Etruscans also produced Etrusco-Geometric,
and other cultures across the Mediterranean, Etrusco-Corinthian, Etruscan black figure,
owing to sailing and trading. Trade connec- and Etruscan red figure. Etruscans are also
tions between Etruscans, Greeks, and Phoeni- renowned for their bronze sculptures, bronze
cians were well-established at least by the mirrors, architectural terracotta decorations,
eighth century BCE. Rumors of piracy suggest painted tombs, and gold granulated jewelery
that Etruscans patrolled the Tyrrhenian waters (Spivey 1997; Torelli 2001). These items
(see Homeric Hymn 7 to Dionysos). However, containing depictions of myth give insight
what is clear is that the overwhelming number into the Etruscan culture and its selective
of Greek vases, on display in museums around adoption of Greek myth (Bonfante and
the world, survive because of their use as Swaddling 2006).
grave goods in Etruscan burials. The influx of
imported goods demonstrates the rise and fall
of the changing producers and traders of the BURIAL PRACTICES
Mediterranean world throughout this time.
As opposed to the views that the Etruscans One of the most significant things to note
indiscriminately accepted any material culture about the Etruscans is the variation in burial
brought to the region by Greek traders (Board- practices over time at each site. During
man 1980: 200), the Etruscans are now the Villanovan phase (ninth to eighth centu-
believed to have been active participants and ries), burials were characteristically cremations
instigators of these exchange relationships. held in biconical urns placed within a larger
The distribution of Etruscan bucchero (see stone cavity accompanied by grave goods such
below), especially along the southern coast of as razors, spindle-whorls, and fibulae. The
France and the northwestern coast of Spain, grave goods are, not unproblematically, often
indicate that this ceramic style was highly used to identify the sex of the deceased. Huge
sought after by other cultures, and it is chamber tombs are characteristic of the orien-
highly probable that Etruscans brought their talizing and early Archaic phases (seventh to
wares to these shores themselves. early fifth centuries) at some of the best known
Etruscan necropoleis, such as Cerveteri and
Tarquinia. The chamber tombs, drum-shaped
ART, MATERIAL CULTURE AND MYTH structures made of the local stone, tuff, with
earthen mounds heaped on top, represent
The Etruscans are responsible for creating a monumental funerary architecture for the
number of unique types of material culture, demonstration of elite life. The chambers typ-
much of which, particularly pottery, has ically held one or two inhumation burials in
survived to modern times as grave goods. each. The late Archaic phase (fifth and fourth
Impasto, a coarse, hand-thrown fabric often centuries) marks an important architectural
 3

change at some sites, such as Cerveteri and to what was an exclusively male sphere for
Orvieto, with the adoption of the cube tomb, Greek symposia.
or smaller rectangular chamber tombs
constructed in rows. The use of sarcophagi
also becomes more widespread during this ETRUSCAN RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
period and continues into the Hellenistic
period (third to first centuries), for crema- Etruscan divinities are usually aligned with
tions, such as the alabaster examples at Greek and Roman gods for convenience of dis-
Volterra, or for inhumations at sites including cussion, but should not be thought of as strict
Tarquinia. Many of the sarcophagi incorpo- equivalents, such as Etruscan Tinia’s alignment
rated sculpted portraits of the deceased on with Zeus/Jove. An understanding of Etruscan
the lids and mythological scenes sculpted in religious practices is partly based on writings
low-relief on the caskets. The dramatic from Cicero (Div.) and Seneca (Q Nat.)
increase in the number of burials from multi- among others, who describe ancient texts that
ple generations of a family included in many no longer survive concerning the Etrusca
chamber tombs during the Hellenistic period disciplina. Other important forms of evidence
at many sites, including Tuscania and Volterra, include: inscriptions referring to religious
indicates different socio-familial politics at roles, particularly those on sarcophagi; equip-
work from the previous periods. The site of ment, tools, and models related to religious
Chiusi and its surrounding area produced practices; and imagery of practices. The two
starkly different funerary containers from the main religious practices organized through
rest of the region during the orientalizing priestly roles were augury and haruspicy, for
and Archaic periods; the erroneously-termed which the Etruscans were famed. Augury was
“canopic urns” are crudely portrait-based ash based upon divining omens through the inter-
urns often placed in miniature thrones, pretation of bird flight and lightning. Augurs
many of which bore a bronze mask. The are identified by their association with the
small number of sarcophagi containing lids lituus, or curved staff. Haruspicy involved
sculpted with a male and female couple reclin- the “reading” of animal entrails, especially the
ing together, particularly the two “married liver, for portents. Votive offerings were poten-
sarcophagi” from Cerveteri, are thought by tially enacted by any member of the culture.
many to indicate loving marriages and the Sacred places in nature and temples were
relative importance of women in Etruscan places that received donations of items, includ-
society. ing vases and bronze statuettes.
Etruscan tomb paintings are thought by
many to reveal glimpses into Etruscan life.
The majority, but certainly not all, are from THE FORMATION OF SETTLEMENTS,
Tarquinia, where despite the presence of URBAN PLANNING
approximately one hundred and forty painted
tombs, this number represents only a small Recently much research has been devoted to
percentage of the total number of tombs at trying to understand the sphere of Etruscan
the site (Steingräber 2007). Some of the most culture which has been neglected for so long,
famous wall paintings depict banquets, with that is the actual settlements. Several excava-
both men and women partaking in the food tions have sought to examine habitation areas
and drink, while reclining on dining couches, to better understand the Etruscan life ways,
such as the Tomb of the leopards and Tomb of rather than just their ritual and funerary
hunting and fishing. If these scenes reflect social rites. Unfortunately, the majority of settle-
practices (in life), then Etruscan women held ment areas have not been recovered. Many
relatively privileged positions, including access of the same plateaus where the Etruscan
4

settlements are located have been covered by Tarquinia; however, an architectural terracotta
medieval or even modern towns, making it vir- tradition in Etruria grew out of indigenous
tually impossible to excavate. Instead, tomb roots early in the sixth century BCE. Huge struc-
architecture (the interior of the chamber tures combining religious, domestic, and
tombs and the exterior of the cube tombs), the other functions, sometimes referred to as
layouts of cemeteries, and even the Villanovan “monumental complexes,” that existed during
hut-urns, were used as examples of Etruscan the late Orientalizing and Archaic periods
architecture. Ornamental decoration in the demonstrate local traditions in architecture
tombs included carved doorframes, stone and architectural terracottas, such as at Poggio
benches resembling banqueting couches, and Civitate, Murlo near Siena; and Acquarossa
stylized window openings. However, it is diffi- near Viterbo.
cult to say if these elements are an accurate view Etruscan temples as a more specific form of
of Etruscan domestic architecture. We know at architecture developed later, from the end
least that the building materials differed of the Archaic period. The Roman architect,
between the domestic and funerary spheres of Vitruvius, defined the “Tuscan Temple” in
life, and maybe the overall appearance of the definite terms that included a columned
structures differed too. The tombs were built portico and three cellae in the rear. In reality,
to last through the ages, sometimes built directly Etruscan temples are variable in their form and
into the bedrock; the domestic structures seem, size. The Portonaccio Temple at VEII is often
for the most part, to have been built using viewed as an excellent example of this form of
wood, waddle and daub, etc., sometimes with architecture, along with its ridgepole statues
stone foundations. This was not the result of the of Hercules, Apollo, Hermes, and others.
lack of construction technology, but due to
other ideals of the culture.
The exceptional example of Marzabotto, an ETRUSCAN WOMEN
Etruscan settlement just south of Bologna,
contains a north–south grid plan dating to Etruscan women are highly visible in the
the early fifth century BCE (Bentz and Reusser archaeological record, particularly in the funer-
2008). It has been suggested that the town was ary sphere, with sculpted portrait sarcophagi,
founded and organized spatially through the rich grave goods, including chariots in
use of Etruscan ritual foundation rites, involv- many cases during the orientalizing and early
ing an augur determining the orientation, Archaic periods, names inscribed on sarcoph-
organization, and extent of the urban space. agi, tombs, and grave goods. Iconography
depicting Etruscan women banqueting with
men, and as domina lanifica, or the domestic
ETRUSCAN TEMPLES AND head of weaving and spinning, suggest that
ARCHITECTURE they held socially significant and visible roles
in Etruscan society.
Non-funerary architecture for the Etruscans
often consisted of stone foundations with
wooden superstructures and terracotta deco- INTERACTION WITH THE
rations adorning and protecting the roof. This ROMAN WORLD
more ephemeral form of construction means
that tombs dominate modern perceptions of The “King Period” at Rome intertwines
Etruscan architecture. Allusions are often Roman and Etruscan history, when cultural
made to DEMARATUS OF CORINTH introducing the and political boundaries were more fluid
technique to Etruria as an immigrant to across the Tiber than suggested by historical
 5

maps. The Tarquin Dynasty produced Lucomo SEE ALSO: Cerveteri (Caere); Pottery, Archaic
Tarquin, who became Lucius TARQUINIUS PRISCUS and republican Rome; Pottery trade; Religion,
(reportedly 616–579) when he rose to power in Etruscan; Tarquinii (Tarquinia); Volaterrae.
Rome. Lucius TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS (reportedly
535–510/509) also took control after usurping
power, and ruled until he was expelled, which REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
paved the way for the founding of the Roman Agostiniani, L. (2001) “The language”. In
Republic. M. Torelli, ed., The Etruscans, exhibition
Interactions and clashes between Rome and catalogue, Palazzo Grassi: 485–99. London.
the Etruscan cities escalated during the late Barker, G. and Rasmussen, T. (1998) The
fourth century. Livy describes the wars Etruscans. Oxford.
between Rome and Veii as culminating in Bentz, M. and Reusser, C. (2008) Marzabotto:
the sacking of the latter in 396; however, Planstadt der Etrusker. Mainz.
archaeological investigations indicate that Veii Boardman, J. (1980) The Greeks overseas. Their
continued to exist on a reduced scale after colonies and trade. London.
this time. The nature of the clashes, and in Bonfante, L. and Swaddling, J. (2006) Etruscan
myths. London.
some cases negotiations between the elites of
Haynes, S. (2005) Etruscan civilization. A cultural
cities, is the subject of debate. Further archae- history. London.
ological investigations into townscapes and the Pallottino, M. (1956) The Etruscans. London.
surrounding countryside, such as at Volterra Roth-Murray, C. (2007) “Elite interaction in
and the surrounding Cecina Valley, suggest Archaic Etruria: exploring the exchange
that any discussions of processes related to networks of terracotta figured frieze plaques.”
ROMANIZATION, must be much more nuanced Journal of Mediterranean Studies 17:
in order to acknowledge the continuity of 135–60.
Etruscan culture on many levels throughout Scullard, H. H. (1967) The Etruscan cities and
Etruria (and in Rome) for many centuries Rome. New York.
later (Terrenato 1998). Spivey, N. (1997) Etruscan art. London.
Steingräber, S. (2007) Abundance of life: Etruscan
In terms of material culture, the Etruscans
wall painting. New York.
left to the Romans a legacy of important status Terrenato, N. (1998) “Tam firmum municipium:
symbols, including the purple-bordered toga, the romanization of Volaterrae and its
sella curulis, fasces, lituus, and triumphal cultural implications.” Journal of Roman Studies
procession. These items continued on and 88: 94–114.
became integral elements in the Roman Torelli, M., ed. (2001) The Etruscans. Exhibition
Republic and Empire. catalogue, Palazzo Grassi. London.