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Ali Bin Abi Talib on Language Functions

By

Rafed Khashan, MA

Washington – D.C.

2021
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Abstract

Functions of language is a relatively old topic that is intensively and extensively studied

by linguists and language experts worldwide. The topic, however, seems to be associated with

the work of modern functional scholars like Michael Halliday and Geoffrey Leech, and formalist

linguists like Roman Jacobson, to name just a few. These scholars have a seminal impact on

linguistics and their elucidation of language functions is still being applied in different social and

technological fields as well as the field of speech pathology and artificial intelligence. At the

same time, scholars of Arabic language and linguistics do not seem to bother to look for any

elucidations of language functions within the vast philosophical, religious, and linguistic

literature that have been passed on to them from generation to generation. This literature, and

upon a closer inspection, is full of hints, signals, anecdotes, and sometimes astonishing

descriptions of linguistic aspects and language functions. This is not to say that scholars have not

worked on the works of Al-Khalil bin Ahmed Al-Faraheedi or Amr ibn Bahr Al-Jahidh, for

example. On the contrary, the works of these and other scholars have been extensively

investigated by language scholars across history. This is mainly because these works are directly

dealing with language. This study purports to investigate Imam Ali bin Abi Talib’s references to

the functions that language serves on the personal and social level as explained in his important

sermon of Wasilah. It is an invitation to Arab researchers to revisit the vast Arabic heritage in

search of old wisdom for modern-day problems.

Key words: Language, language functions, linguistics, Imam Ali

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‫وظائف اللغة عند االمام علي‬

‫المستخلص‬

‫يعد موضوع وظائف اللغة من المواضيع القديمة نوعا ً ما والذي تناوله علماء اللغويات وخبراء اللغة في جميع أنحاء‬

‫العالم بشكل مكثف وواسع ‪ .‬ومع ذلك ‪ ،‬يبدو أن الموضوع مرتبط بأعمال بعض العلماء الوظيفيين المعاصرين من أمثال مايكل‬

‫هاليداي وجيفري لييتش ‪ ،‬واللغويين الشكالنيين مثل رومان جاكوبسون‪ ،‬على سبيل المثال ال الحصر‪ .‬هؤالء العلماء لهم تأثير‬

‫أساسي على علم اللغة وال تزال شروحاتهم لوظائف اللغة مطبقة في مختلف المجاالت االجتماعية والتكنولوجية باإلضافة إلى‬

‫مجال علم أمراض النطق والذكاء االصطناعي‪ .‬في الوقت نفسه ‪ ،‬ال يبدو أن دارسي وعلماء اللغويات العرب قد كلفوا أنفسهم‬

‫عناء البحث عن أي توضيحات لوظائف اللغة في األدبيات الفلسفية والدينية واللغوية الواسعة التي توارثناها من جيل إلى جيل‪.‬‬

‫إن هذه األدبيات ‪ ،‬عند فحصها عن كثب ‪ ،‬مليئة بالتلميحات واإلشارات ‪ ،‬وأحيانًا األوصاف المذهلة للجوانب والوظائف اللغوية‪.‬‬

‫هذا ال يعني أن العلماء لم يدرسوا أعمال الخليل بن أحمد الفراهيدي أو عمرو بن بحر الجاحظ‪ ،‬على سبيل المثال بل على العكس‬

‫من ذلك ‪ ،‬فقد اشبع علماء اللغة العرب وغير العرب أعمال هؤالء وغيرهم دراسةً وبتفصيالً عبر التاريخ وهذا يرجع إلى حقيقة‬

‫أن هذه األعمال تتعامل مباشرة مع موضوع اللغة وتراكيبها بشكل رئيسي‪ .‬تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى التحقيق في إشارات اإلمام‬

‫علي بن أبي طالب إلى الوظائف اللغوية أو الوظائف التي تخدمها اللغة على المستوى الشخصي واالجتماعي كما هو موضح في‬

‫خطبته المهمة التي تسمى خطبة الوسيلة وهي دعوة للباحثين العرب وغيرهم في استقصاء الموروث العربي اللغوي من اجل‬

‫الكشف عن الخبايا اللغوية المتناثرة في ارجاءه لخدمة القضايا المعاصرة‪.‬‬

‫الكلمات المرجعية‪ :‬اللغة ‪-‬علم اللغة – وظائف اللغة – االمام علي‬

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Introduction:

Historically, Ali Bin Abi Talib (henceforth ABT) is one of the Prophet’s successors, his

cousin, confidant, and the one who accompanied the Prophet since childhood. However, this

paper does not intend to delve into the polemical, historical, or ideological positioning of ABT in

Islam. It seeks to highlight a very interesting reference to language functions in one of ABT’s

famous and longest sermons that is called Khutbat Al-Wasilah or “the Sermon of Functions.” I

choose to translate “wasilah” as “function” although the word “wasilah” has multiple senses

including “function,” “vehicle,” “means,” “supplication,” and “intercession.” Wasilah itself is

also a rank in Paradise that is preserved to Prophet Mohammed, according to Islamic tradition

(Al-Mu’jam Al-Waseet 2014:1032)

The sermon itself speaks about different ontological, philosophical, ethical, and religious

issues that bear on man’s position in the universe and the means of achieving perfection. The

mention of language functions in this sermon positions language into the social and cosmological

context of man’s existence. In this sense, the sermon might be called “The Sermon of Means to

Perfection” or “The Vehicle to Perfection,” etc.

In this sermon, ABT speaks about achieving perfection through speech and silence.

Among the things ABT surprisingly speaks about are the functions of language, which are a

topic that does not represent a central issue for Arabs and Muslims in the sixth century.

However, ABT is the first to establish Arabic grammar and the Arabic language rules through his

teachings to Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali (Ãl-Yassin 1964: 11-12.) I will call this establishment of

Arabic grammar rules the microlevel of language as it is concerned with the specific rules of

language and not with the general rules and observations that apply to Arabic and other

languages as in the case of language functions, which I call the macrolevel of language. This is
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evident in ABT’s reference to language users in general through his use of “humans” and not the

Arabic language speakers in particular in the excerpt below which is taken from Sharh Usoul al-

Kafi by Mohammed Saleh al-Mazindarani (Vol. 11, p. 230).

‫ وناطق يرد به‬،‫ حاكم يفصل بين الخطاب‬،‫ شاهد يخبر عن الضمير‬:‫أيها الناس في اإلنسان عشر خصال يظهرها لسانه‬

‫ ومعز تسكن به‬،‫ وواعظ ينهى عن القبيح‬،‫ وأمير يأمر بالحسن‬،‫ وواصف يعرف به األشياء‬،‫ وشافع يدرك به الحاجة‬،‫الجواب‬

.‫ ومونق تلتذ به األسماع‬،‫ وحاضر تجلى به الضغائن‬،‫األحزان‬

People! There are 10 traits in humans that are made visible by one’s own tongue

[talking:] A witness to one’s conscience, an arbitrator for settling (discoursal) arguments, an

articulator that provides answers, a means through which needs are fulfilled, a descriptor by

which things are made known, a commander that commands the doing of good things, an advisor

that advises against bad acts, A comforter to allay the sorrow, an interlocutor through which,

tensions are diffused, and a [linguistic] adornment that delights the ears.1

Interestingly, Abd Al-Qahir Al-Jurjani (2007:137) mentions almost the same text with

some variations but without crediting ABT. He merely says that

،‫ وشاهد ينبئك عن غائب‬،‫ وظاهر يخبر عن الضمير‬،‫ اللسان أداة يظهر بها حسن البيان‬:‫قال بعض البلغاء في وصف اللسان‬

،‫ وحاصد يحصد الضغينة‬،‫ وزارع يحرث المودة‬،‫ ومزين يدعو إلى الحسن‬،‫ وواعظ ينهى عن القبيح‬،‫وحاكم يفصل به الخطاب‬

"‫ومله يونق األسماع‬

Some well-spoken person said, describing the tongue [language] as: A tool through

which eloquence is shown, something visible [a sign] that tells of conscience, a witness that tells

1
All translations from Arabic provided in this paper are by me, the researcher.
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you about [something] absent, an arbitrator for settling (discoursal) arguments, an advisor that

advises against bad acts, an ornamentor that calls for doing good deeds, a cultivator that

cultivates affection, a reaper that reaps grudges, and a distractor that delights the ears.

Research Problem

Arabic language studies are lacking in research on language functions and their

applications. Arab linguists, especially early linguists, focus on the microlevel of language like

grammar, phonology, and meaning. This is driven by a focus on the interpretation and recitation

of the Holy Quran. Language functions, one of the macrolevels of language, bring about a new

focus on the relation of language to different fields of life. It connects language to other fields

and phenomena. An exploration of language functions as stated by ABT sheds the light on the

need to explore these functions and their applications to modern problems where language plays

an important role, which this study is purporting to do.

Research Hypothesis:

By mentioning language functions, ABT brings to focus an important aspect of the

macrolevel of language, which is language functions. He explains how language is used and

what functions it serves because a conscious use of language is essential for forming and

developing personal and social experiences. In mentioning the language functions within a

religious sermon, ABT is indicating that language use is a conscious process that connects

language to other fields and phenomena.

A Brief Survey of Language Functions:

The topic of language functions is not new. Modern linguists are heavily concerned with

language functions not only as an end in themselves but also as they serve a slew of other
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purposes like language learning, language acquisition, text analysis, language pathology,

sociology of language, neurolinguistics, psychology, education, and public speaking, to mention

just a few. Different linguists also propose different numbers and labels for language functions

and sometimes there is an overlap between, say, the conative function proposed by Roman

Jakobson, and the instrumental function proposed by Michael Halliday (Mathews, 1997:71.)

In his seminal work "Closing statements: Linguistics and Poetics", Jakobson (in Sebeok,

1960: 353-359) defines six language functions, which he associates with a certain factor in the

linguistic message. As such, he associates functions as follows:

Referential: Context

Aesthetic/poetic: Message

Emotive: Addresser

Conative: Addressee

Phatic: Channel (of communication)

Metalingual: Code

Exploring Jacobson’s language functions in TESOL, Angela C. Tribus (2017:11)

provides the following useful table to explain Jacobson’s language functions.

Classification Strongest Factor Function Examples

Referential Context descriptions, contextual Our business hours
information are 9am-5pm,
Monday through
Friday.
Emotive Addresser interjections/expressions Oh, man…
of emotional state Awesome! Whew!
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Conative Addressee concerned with Go on, open it! Shoo.

commanding; vocative or Get out of here.
imperative addressing of Check this out.
the receiver
Phatic Contact concerns channel of Hey!
communication; performs Mmmhmmm….How
social task as opposed to about that?
conveying information; to Really?
establish, prolong, or No way.
discontinue conversation
Metalinguistic Code requires language Noun, adjective,
analysis; using language codeswitching
to discuss language Water is a non-count
noun, right?
Poetic/Aesthetic Message involves choosing words But, soft! What light
carefully; the art of words, through yonder
often self-reflective window breaks?

Leech (1974) also mentions five functions of language. These are the informational,

expressive, directive, aesthetic, and phatic function of language. According to Leech (ibid.,) “the

informational function “concentrates on the message. It is used to give new information.” On the

other hand, the expressive function is used to express the speakers’ feelings and attitudes while

the directive function, as the name indicates, is used to influence the addressee and make them

do or refrain from a certain action.” The aesthetic function is concerned with “the use of

language for the sake of the linguistic artifact itself, and for no purpose” (Ibid.) And, finally, the

phatic function is “the function of keeping communication lines open, and keeping social

relationships in good repair (in Britain culture, talking about the weather is a well-known

example of this)” (ibid.)

Others mention more or different functions for language. For example, Finch (2003:39)

states seven functions of language. These are: The physiological, phatic, recording, identifying,

reasoning, communicative, and the pleasure function. On the other hand, Halliday (2004:4),
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“proposes a set of seven functions, the first six serving as the basis of interpreting the language

of very young children: (1) instrumental, (2) regulatory, (3) interactional, (4) personal, (5)

heuristic, (6) imaginative, and (7) informative.”

Of the early Arab linguists who speak, rather rudimentarily and in passing, about the

function(s) language serves are Ibn Jinni and Ibn Sinan Al-Khafaji. Ibn Jinni defines language as

"sounds through which each [group of] people express their purposes [needs.]" So, "the function

of language as seen by Ibn Jinni is the expression of purposes and needs" (Bouguemra and

Shalaf, 2017:16). In the same vein, Khafaji sees that "speech is not an end in itself. Rather, it is

needed by people to express their purposes [needs] and understand the meanings that are inside

them" (ibid.)2 Khafaji presses language functions to a further domain, which is the experiential

and heuristic domain or the domain of learning, exploring (one’s inner being) and gaining

knowledge. In other words, while Ibn Jinni limits language to the communicative-social domain,

Khafaji adds another function whose locus is the language users themselves irrespective of the

communicative function of language.

The definition of each function depends on the approach adopted by the linguist or their

research background. Many of the functions stated by researchers – linguists and others – share

the same labels and the same definition, sometimes, as in the phatic function and the aesthetic

function, for example. Some do not share the same name, yet they overlap with other functions

as in, for example, Lyons (cited in Mathews, 1997:151) “distinguishes the descriptive function

(corresponding to Buhler’s representational or Jakobson’s referential) from the social and

expressive functions, together classes as interpersonal.”

2
Translation provided by me, the researcher.
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The following table compares the functions as mentioned by ABT, Jacobson, Leech,

Finch, and Halliday. It helps us see how these functions overlap and where they diverge.

Table 1

Comparison of language functions and their denominations by major scholars

No. Functions Ali bin Abi Talib Jacobson Leech Finch Halliday

(ABT)

1- Ideational/experiential Yes No No No Yes

2- Metalingual No Yes No No No

3- Heuristic/informative Yes No Yes, as Yes, as Yes, as Heuristic

Informative Communicative

4- Instrumental Yes No No No Yes

5- Representational Yes No Yes, as Yes, as Yes

Informative Communicative

6- Directive/ regulatory Yes Yes, as Yes, as No Yes, as

Conative Directive Regulatory

7- Emotive/interpersonal Yes Yes, as Yes, as No Yes, as

Emotive Expressive Interactional

8- Preventive/cathartic Yes No No No No

9- Poetic/aesthetic Yes Yes Yes, as Yes, as Pleasure No

Aesthetic

10- Phatic No Yes Yes Yes No

11- Physiological No No No Yes No

12- Recording No No No Yes No

13- Identifying No No No Yes No

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14- Reasoning/analytic Yes No No Yes, as No

reasoning

15- Communicative Yes, as No Yes, as Yes Yes, as

Representational Informative Representational

16- Pleasure Yes, as Poetic Yes, as Yes, as Yes No

Poetic Aesthetic

17- Referential No No No Yes No

18 Conative No Yes No No No

As the table shows, there is a lot of overlap among the functions. There are also functions some

scholars mention while others drop out of their categorization. Some functions are given

different names by different scholars like the communicative function, which is referred to as the

representational by ABT (based on his explanation) and Halliday and the informative function by

Leech. In the above table, “yes” means that the function is mentioned as such by the scholar,

“no” means that it is not categorized as a function by the scholars in question, and “yes

informative, poetic, etc.” means that the function is categorized as a function but is under another

label. The “yes Label” share the same description and definition among the different scholars.

ABT’s Functions of Language:

In his sermon, ABT aptly speaks about 10 functions of language when he says that “there

are 10 traits that a human’s tongue reveals.” The word “tongue” is used interchangeably with

“language” in Arabic. Through a close inspection of ABT’s description of these “traits,” we can

glean the following functions:

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Table 2

Language functions mentioned by ABT (translations provided by me)

No. Function Arabic Original Text English Translation3

1- Ideational/experiential ‫شاهد يخبر عن الضمير‬ A witness to one’s inner

(meta-) function consciousness. (It reveals one’s ideas,

attitudes, opinions, etc.) According to

Halliday (cited in Ahmad (2015:31),

the ideational function “serves as

expression of content in language,

articulating our mental experiences

and representations of the world.”

2- Reasoning/analytic ‫حاكم يفصل بين الخطاب‬ A judge or an arbitrator for settling

function ‫واتيناه الحكمة وفصل الخطاب‬ (discoursal) arguments.

‫ "تفكيك الكالم الحاصل من مخاطبة واحد‬:‫الميزان‬

‫لغيره وتمييز حقه من باطله وينطبق على القضاء بين‬

".‫المتخاصمين في خصامهم‬

3- Heuristic/informative ‫ناطق يرد به الجواب‬ An articulator that provides answers.

function

4- Instrumental function ‫شافع تدرك به الحاجة‬ A means through which needs are

fulfilled.

5- Representational ‫واصف تعرف به األشياء‬ A descriptor by which things are

function made known.

6- Directive/ regulatory ‫أمير يأمر بالحسن‬ A commander that commands the

function doing of good things.

3
English translation of the Arabic text is provided by me, the researcher.
 12

7- Directive/ regulatory ‫واعظ ينهى عن القبيح‬ An advisor that advises against bad

function things.

8- Emotive/interpersonal ‫معز تسكن به األحزان‬ A comforter to allay the sorrow.

function

9- Curative/cathartic ‫حاضر تجلى به الضغائن‬ An interlocutor through which,

function : ‫ ومنه‬، ‫ وحادثهم بما يَحْ ضره‬، ‫ جالسهم‬: ‫حاض ََر القو َم‬ tensions are diffused.

‫سن المحاضرة‬
َ ‫ فالن َح‬.

10- Poetic/aesthetic ‫مونق تلتذ به األسماع‬ An adornment that delights the ears.

function

Some of these functions ABT mentions like the “esthetic function,” “the interpersonal

function,” “the representational,” “the instrumental,” etc. are already accounted for and

explained by the above-mentioned linguists and many others. However, there is a function ABT

mentions, which I could not find in modern linguistic literature. This is what I call the

“curative/cathartic function,” which serves the purpose of diffusing tensions and dispelling

rancor, bitterness, and resentment among people. ABT places this function within an

interpersonal, social, sphere, i.e., it goes beyond the personal level of functioning, which is

referred to by Finch (2003: 21) as the physiological function, which “allow us to release pent-up

energy which otherwise would be quite intolerable.” Moreover, Finch’s function is restricted to

bad language and swearing (ibid. 22) and so it is diametrically opposing to the cathartic effect

proposed by ABT which accounts for removing tensions and hard feelings among people

through talking, dialogue, speaking up, and verbalization.

I want to highlight these linguistic traits or functions because they are considered ground-

breaking that a man in the heart of the desert in the 7th century Arabia can speak about purely
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theoretical matters like language functions. I should note, nevertheless, that the way ABT puts

these traits and the context in which he mentions them serve the purpose he wants to achieve,

which is the establishment or the reinforcement of an Islamic value system for daily consumption

by believers.

Interestingly, as mentioned above, ABT does not use the word function although this

word appeared in some of the Prophet Mohammed’s hadiths. Instead, ABT uses the word “trait”

or “khisla.” To speak about the functions that language serves. The attestation provided by the

Doha Historical Dictionary of Arabic (DHDA,) which is available online, dates the word

“function” to 632 B.C. It cites the following hadith by the Prophet as an attestation:

،‫ضأ َ ث َ َالثًا فَذَلِكَ ُوضُوئِي‬ َّ ‫ َو َم ْن ت ََو‬،‫ضأ َ َواحِ دَة ً فَت ِْلكَ َوظِ يفَةُ ْال ُوضُوءِ الَّتِي َال بُدَّ مِ ْن َها‬
َّ ‫ َو َم ْن ت ََو‬، ‫ضأ َ اثْنَتَي ِْن فَلَهُ ِك ْفلَ ْي ِن‬ َّ ‫َم ْن ت ََو‬

.‫َو ُوضُو ُء ْاأل َ ْن ِب َياءِ قَ ْبلِي‬

Translation4:

“Whoever washes for ablution once, then this is the required limit of ablution. Whoever

washes twice, then they will be twice rewarded. Washing thrice is my [way of doing] ablution

and that of the prophets who came before me.”

In this context, DHDA defines the word “function” as the required limit or the

precondition for something to be complete. The dictionary lists another sense for the word,

which is “the required duty levied on something.” DHDA cites a tradition by the Prophet as an

attestation to this sense:

.ُ‫ في الوظيف ِة الفريضة‬،ٍ‫لكم يا بني نهد‬

4
My translation.
 14

Translation5:

“You will have [to pay,] you Bani Nahd, the duty that is required [from you to pay.]”

Both senses that mentioned by DHDA above do not match the modern meaning of the word

“function,” which is the purpose someone or something, naturally or by assignment, serves. For

Crystal (2008:201) “the role language plays in the context of society or the individual is also

referred to by the term ‘function’ (social function). For example, language is used (‘functions’)

to communicate ideas, to express attitudes, and so on. The Online Etymology Dictionary (of

English) dates the English word “function” to the 1530s.

The word “khisla” that is used by ABT to refer to language functions in his sermon has

the same meaning being used in modern times, which is a trait or a quality of something, whether

good or bad. In other words, ABT wants to say that, for language to be a language, it must have

certain qualities or traits. One of these qualities is that it must serve a function and he moves lists

the 10 functions (which represent in total a quality or trait of any human language.)

After this discussion of the word “function” and the word “khisla” or “trait,” it is time to

move to discuss the language functions listed by ABT in his “Sermon of Wasila.” To validate my

findings and since even modern linguists do not agree on unified labels for their language

functions, I take ABT’s explanations and match them with similar explanations used by modern

linguists for language functions. Many of ABT’s explanations do match the explanations offered

by linguists. ABT says language is used for revealing what is inside man’s mind (dhameer,

which is derived from the root dhamar, meaning to hide) man’s ideas, thoughts, opinions,

attitudes, etc. are hidden away from people. Once the speaker talks, people come to know what

5
My translation.
 15

he is thinking of, feeling, intending, or hiding. This ability of language to reveal what is inside

man’s head is what others call the expressive, the informative, or representational function.

The “intermediary for settling discoursal disputes” function of language is yet another

new function introduced by ABT. This function presupposes the existence of a multiplicity of

discourses (levels of ideation and conceptual content) and the use of language to sift through

these levels and contents to arrive at a unified discourse or a ground for understanding one’s

inner thoughts and those of others through process like brainstorming, group discussions,

negotiations, and trial defenses, etc. Only Finch (2003:32) mentions this function and labels it

“the reasoning function.” Finch (ibid.) says, “As an exercise you might try thinking about

something, making a conscious effort not to use words. Making your mind blank is one of the

most difficult things to do because the brain is in a state of constant activity; its principal concern

is with enabling us to survive, and language is an essential part of that survival process.”

Interestingly, Khafaji (in Bouguemra and Shalaf, 2017:16) mentions something similar

when he says that “speech is not an end in itself. It is rather needed by the people to express their

purposes [needs] and understand the meanings that are inside them.” By using the word

“intermediary,” ABT highlights the objective nature of language, especially the one used for

reasoning and argumentation, which is manifest in discourse. In Crystal’s (2008: 84) words, the

cognitive meaning or function of language “refers to those aspects of meaning which relate

directly to denotations of lexical items and the propositional content of sentences, and thus

corresponding to an intellectually objective level of interpretation, as opposed to one where

emotional or subjective interpretation is involved.” Language also here is a medium, not merely

a tool of, thought.

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Then ABT states that language is “an articulator that provides answers.” This is what

Halliday calls the “heuristic” function or the use of language as “language as a means of

exploring, learning, and acquiring knowledge about one's environment, typically through the use

of questions,” (Chandler & Munday, 2011:186). Providing answers implies the existence of

questions. Language is used to gain information and knowledge through the asking of questions,

which in turn presupposes the provision of answers, hence the heuristic function of language.

And finally, Language is “a means through which needs are fulfilled.” This is the

instrumental function of language. ABT portrays language here as a means, a tool or an

instrument through which needs are fulfilled. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics

defines the instrumental function of language as the use of language for “achieving some

practical end,” (Mathews, 1997:151.)

Conclusion:

Arabic studies of language functions and the history of language functions depends

mostly on sources and studies borrowed from linguistic and cultural studies in the West.

Authentic Arabic sources like Islamic sermons and tradition need to be revisited and explored for

any mention of linguistic theories to highlight the perspectives and contributions of Arab

scholars in the field and build on these theories to come up with studies that can address the

unique challenges facing the Arabic language as a tool, a medium, and a means to resolve some

of the problems the Arab society is experiencing. Language functions like the ones mentioned by

ABT is only one example. There are others in Islamic tradition that explicitly mention issues like

language arbitrariness and speech acts theory. These issues squarely bear on other philosophical

and theological matters like divine unity and human responsibility as well as legal and rhetorical

matters.
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This study is an invitation to Arab linguists to revisit the rich Islamic and Arab linguistic,

philosophical, and maybe the medical heritage to shed light on and address many of the issues

our modern society needs to resolve like the problems facing fledgling democracies, language

pathology in schools, autism issues, public and political debates, advertising and digital media,

religious sermons, and many other issues in which language figures strongly.

Finally, it is imperative to read the linguists’ elucidations of language functions as the

explanations offered in this paper are very limited viewing the aim and the scope of the study.

Further readings of language functions provide more insight and support for the importance of

animating discussions of ABT’s language functions.

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Al-Yassin, Mohammed Hassan. The Poetry of Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali. Dar al-Nadha, 1964.

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