FLOW IN PIPES (CLOSED PIPE FLOW)

A pipe is a closed conduit, generally of circular section used to carry water or any other fluid.
When a pipe is running full, the flow is under pressure; but when a pipe is not running full (like
in sewers, culverts) the flow is not under pressure, but rather atmospheric pressure exists in the
pipe.
Flow in pipes is therefore due to a pressure gradient.

V12/2g
hf (Head loss)
P1/ρg

V22/2g

Z1
P2/ρg

Z2
Datum
1 2

If a fluid is not moving, V2/2g = 0, which gives HGL

Whenever there is a moving fluid, there is some loss of energy accompanied by a drop of
pressure in the direction of flow. The methods of computing the head loss depends on whether
the flow is Laminar or turbulent.
The turbulent or laminar nature of the flow is defined by Reynolds number (Re)
Re= where: V= mean velocity,

d= diameter of the pipe and

Where: = dynamic viscosity,

Re= = density

VELOCITY PROFILE OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

From experiment it has been verified that for flow in closed pipes, laminar flow occurs for values
of Re up to 2000. After Re=2000, a transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow occurs. This
flow condition is known as the transition flow. At higher values flow becomes turbulent.
Laminar flow occurs in the pipe when the flow is orderly. This is analogous to the telescoping of
a large number of thin concentric tubes.

1
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
The outer concentric tube adheres to the pipe wall while the tube next to it moves with and
slightly higher velocity.
The velocity of each successive tube increases gradually and reaches a maximum velocity near
the Centre of the pipe. In this case the velocity distribution takes the form of a paraboloid of
revolution with the mean velocity V= perpendicular of the Maximum Centre line velocity as
illustrated below.

Paraboliod in revolution (Laminar)

R V=0.5Vmax
Logarithmic curve in revolution (Turbulent)
(Laminar)

In turbulent flow, the turbulent motion causes the slower water particles adjacent to pipe wall to
mix continuously with high speed particles in middle stream. As a result the high speed particles
in the middle of the stream are slowed down. For this reason the velocity distribution for
turbulent flow in pipes is more uniform (flatter) than that of laminar flow. The velocity profiles
take the general form of logarithmic curve in revolution.

HEAD LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION

Energy loss due to friction is considered to a major energy loss and it’s donated by hf. Several
studies performed in the past have shown that resistance to flow (friction) in a pipe is;
I. Independent of the pressure under which the water flows.
II. Linearly proportional to the pipe length (L)
III. Inversely proportional to the some power of the pipe diameter (D)
IV. Proportional to some power of the mean velocity (V)
V. Related to the roughness of the pipe if the flow is turbulent.
Several formulae have been developed and used. The most popular being the Darcy-Weisbach
formula developed by Henry Darcy and and Julius Weisbach. It takes the following form.

hf= ( )

This relates to the British moody chart.

Note;

In some books, hf = which relates to the American moody chart.

LAMINAR FLOW – For course participant’s consumption.

In laminar flow the friction factor (f) can be determined by balancing the viscous forces at two
ends of a longitudinal pipe separated by the distance L in a cylindrical portion of radius r (figure
shown below).

2
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
The difference in pressure force between the two ends of the cylinder= (P1 – P2)πr2.
The viscous force in the cylinder is equal to 2πrLῑ, where ῑ = shear stress, also ῑ = under
equilibrium conditions when the pressure force and the viscous force on the cylinder water are
balanced, we may write that,
- ………………………(i)

The negative implies that velocity decreases as radius position r increases. There for is always
negative in pipes flow.
Integrating equation (i), gives
V= ………………………………...(ii)

Where r0 = inner radius of the pipe

Equation (ii) shows that velocity distribution in a laminar flow in a pipe is a parabolic flow of
radius r. the total discharge through the pipe can be obtained by integrating the discharge
Q=∫ ∫
Q=∫ 1

Therefor

Q=

Q=

The equation above is called the Hagen-Piseulle law for laminar flow in pipes. Mean velocity
(V).

V=

V= ………………………………… (iii)

For horizontal flow in a uniform pipe Bernoulli’s law leads to hf=

i.e

Z1 = Z2 = 0, IF A1 = A2, V1=V2
=

3
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
hf =

Therefore, hf= = ………………………………………… (iv)

From (iv)

(P1 – P2) = and substitute in (iii)

( )
V=

1=

f= …………………………………………………. (v)

From (v)
Re =

f= ……………………………………………. (vi)

hf = ………………………………………………….. (vii) substitute for f

f= in hf= ( )

i.e for laminar flow

Where = dynamic viscosity
V = mean velocity
D = pipe diameter
L = pipe length
g = acceleration due to gravity
= density of fluid

The equation states (vi) indicates an inverse relationship between the frictional factor f and Re
for laminar flow. It is independent of the surface roughness of the pipe.
As Re increases, to greater values than 2000 the flow becomes turbulent and values of f become
dependent on the Re but more on the surface roughness (e is the measure of core of roughness
height of a pipe wall and D is the pipe diameter.)
Other ways in which (f) can be quantified include
1. Hanzen-william equation
V = 0.354CH D0.63 S0.54
Where CH depends on pipe material; CH is the Hanzen – William coefficient,

4
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
 2g – PVC → 130 – 140
Ductile iron → 110
2. Manning’s formula for steady pipes

V=

S = SF =
I.e. Sf= slope of the pipe or then frictional gradient

n- Manning’s coefficient
D- Diameter
3. Cole brook and white formula
= -2log

And V = -2 √
√

Ѵ = kinetic viscosity
V = mean velocity
e = K = roughness height
4. Praudit and Nikrudire equation (moody chart)

For laminar flow

For transitional flow f is function of (Re, )

K = roughness height

MINOR /LOCAL ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES

In addition to friction losses, there may arise local or minor losses. These occur over a short
length and may be neglected in long pipes (since friction out ways minor losses).
Minor losses may arise from the following:-
I. Junctions
II. Bends
III. Valves and fittings (e.g. elbows)
IV. Section changes (abrupt/sudden or gradual changes).
These (minor losses) arise from sudden changes in velocity direction or velocity magnitude.

5
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
 This non-uniformity in flow thus generates large scale turbulence in which energy is dissipated
as heat. The losses (magnitude) are proportional to the abruptness of velocity change.
The total head loss in a pipe = sum of friction loss for length of the pipe under consideration +
minor losses
Losses are normally expressed in the form;

hL =

Equation above is the general equation of head loss where KL = Loss coefficient and KL is
constant for a given geometry
V = mean velocity
hL – head loss

LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT

B C
A
Eddie
s
PI
bI
d D
1
eI 2
PI

E
F D
1 P1V1 2
P2V2

Given two points 1 and 2 as shown above. Let the pressure in the annular space be (Bb1 x e1E)
OR the area , occupied by eddying fluid at section (1) be P1
Assuming the common axis of the pipe to be horizontal. If the pressure and average velocity in
(2) are P2 and V2 respectively, from the continuity equation Q= A1V1 = A2V2

i.e. ⇌
From Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2

Z1 + …………………………………………….. (i)

Assuming datum heads to be the same, Z1=Z2=Z

hL= energy loss in terms of head due to sudden enlargement
Applying the momentum principle to the control volume ABCDEF, since the radial acceleration
over the angular space is very small, we assume mean pressure P1 of the eddying fluid is almost
equal toP1 thus;

6
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
Momentum force (mass x velocity == vol/time x density x velocity) is applicable here; pressure
units =kgm-1s-2
= P1A1 + P1 (A2 - A1) – P2A2
Since P1 ≈ P1
→ = (P1 – P2) A2
Or (P1 – P2) =

Therefore (P1 – P2) = V2 (V2 – V1) Since V2 =

Substituting the value (P1 – P2) in equation (i), we have,

–
hL = i.e. from equation (i)

hL =
( )
hL =

hL =

hL =

hL =

hL = ………………………………… (ii)

from continuity equation,

A1V1 = A2V2 → V2 = and substitute V2 in (ii)

hL =

hL =

and if V1 = is substituted in equation (ii)

( )
hL =

Thus, hL = ………………………………………(iii)

Equation (iii) is known as Borda-Carnot head loss

7
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
 EXIT LOSS

A2

V1 Reservoir

Eddies

When discharges into a large reservoir area, A2=∞ and the loss at sudden (abrupt) enlargement
tends to i.e. from hL=

As A2 → ∞, A1/A2→ 0
 hL = V12/ 2g, V1 = velocity in the pipe

LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN CONTRACTION

Equation (ii) under sudden contraction may be applied in a reduction in pipe size provided that it
is realized that more energy losses occur at the expansion of initially contracted flow.

Vena Contracta
A1V1 (Area where expansion begins)
acVc

A2V2

Eddie
s

Let the area of flow of the vena contracta be ac and the corresponding velocity be Vc, thus, the
head loss in equation (ii) i.e.

hL = becomes,

hc =

but VC = i.e. from acVc =

If CC = ac/ A2, then Vc = V2/Cc, CC = coefficient of contraction

8
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017
hc =

hc =

hc =
Where KL = (1/Cc - 1)2 which is the coefficient of the hydraulic radius.
KL is also dependent on the ratio A2/A1 or d2/d1

ENTRY LOSS
Entry loss is the loss corresponding to the flow from a large reservoir into a sharp edged pipe
(provided the pipe the pipe doesn’t protrude into the reservoir) giving rise to situation when A1 =
∞ and = 0

The loss coefficient therefor due = 0 is 0.5.

Thus head loss (entry loss) = ………………………………… (iv)

Where KL = 0.5
The above equation is known as the entry loss for a non-protruding sharp edge i.e. figure (b)
below. It should also be noted that;
1) A protruding pipe in fig (a) below gives a greater loss.
2) A well rounded pipe gives a much smaller loss (figure (c) below).
a)

d V

b)

d V
KL = 0.5
c) HL = 0
KL = 0
d V

There are other losses like losses in gradual expansions, due to bends, due to pipe fittings and
valves (where KL values are different).
Course Participant to Research on this and produce a write up.

9
Ambrose & Sandra @ 2017