WHAT IS EARTH SCIENCE

-Is the name of all sciences that collectively seek encountered at Earth’s surface are considered
to understand Earth. minerals.

-It includes geology, oceanography, Generally inorganic- Inorganic crystalline

meteorology and astronomy solids that are found naturally in the ground are
considered minerals
BRANCHES OF EARTH SCIENCE Can be represented by a chemical formula-
most minerals are chemical compounds having
Geology is traditionally divided into broad compositions that can be expressed by a
areas; Physical and historical chemical formula.

Physical Geology examines the

SILICATES OR NON-SILICATES
materials composing earth.

Historical Geology aims to understand Silicate Minerals- minerals that contain a

the origin of the earth. combination of silicon and oxygen

>Oceanography study of ocean science Non-Silicates- Do not have silicon as a

component
>Meteorology the study of the
atmosphere and. The process that produces Silicon-oxygen Tetrahedron-The basic
climate and weather structural unit of silicate minerals

>Astronomy the study of heavenly Feldspars- most abundant mineral on Earth’s

bodies or celestial object crust.

MINERALS
-Plagioclase Feldspar (NaAISi3O3- CaAI2Si2O8)
>Are the Building blocks of rocks contains ions of oxygen silicon, aluminum, and
calcium or sodium.
>Geologists define minerals as naturally
occurring. “Inorganic” solid. -Potassium (orthoclase) feldspar (AIKO8Si3) is
composed of ions of oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
EARTH MATERIALS THAT ARE and potassium.
CLASSIFIED AS MINERALS EXHIBIT
THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS
Naturally Occurring- minerals formed by
natural, geologic processes. Color-is an obvious characteristic, but is often
not useful for identification.
Solid substance- minerals are crystalline
substances, which means their atoms area Streak- is the color of the Powder of a mineral.
arrange in an orderly manner A mineral may exhibit an appearance of several
colors, but it will always show the same color
Orderly Crystalline Structure- only crystalline streak.
substances that are solid at temperatures
Hardness- the resistance of a mineral to being mineral by the density of water. A 4.08 g crystal
scratched. It is also measured by using Mohs of the mineral augite measures 1.43 cm long by
Scale. Which is a list of 10 minerals in order of 0.98 cm wide by 0.89 cm high, and its cleavage
hardness. causes it to break into a rectangular solid. What
is its specific gravity.
Cleavage- the tendency of some minerals to
break along define smooth planes. The degree of
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
cleavage is a clue to the identity of the mineral

The Mineral may exhibit distinct There are stories and beliefs passed on from one
cleavage along one or more planes. Indistinct generation to another. There are hypotheses and
Cleavage or No Cleavage. theories continuously being tested and
challenged through the scientific method.
Can Have no cleavage (example:
quartz) Genesis- one of the Hebrew Bible and Christian
Old Testament. On how God created everything
Can have 1 plane of cleavage (ex. in a span of 6 days
Biotite)
This belief is also known as the “Divine
Can have multiple planes of Intervention”
cleavage . types of cleavage: one direction,
two directions, three directions Theories of the Origin of the Universe

Cyclical or Oscillating Universe-

Fracture- refers to the way in which a mineral
breaks. It may break into splinters; rough, Hindu Text Rigveda. It describes the
irregularly surfaced pieces; or into shell-shaped universe as an oscillating universe.
forms.
In which a “Cosmic Egg” or Brahmanda
Luster- the appearance of the mineral’s surface containing the whole universe
in reflected light.
Primordial Universe [Anaxagoras]- The
The crystal form, or shape of a well-developed cosmos was a mixture of all its ingredients.
crystal of a mineral, is often a useful clue to its
identity. The crystal form is related to the -The Mixture was not entirely uniform.
internal geometric arrangement of the atoms Some ingredients were present in higher
making up the crystal structure. The ions of concentrations.
sodium chloride, for example, are arranged in a
-A whirling motion sifted and separated
cubic structure, and table salt tends to crystallize
material objects.
in the shape of cubes.
Atomic Universe- Founded by Leucippus and
Specific Gravity- is the ratio of a mineral
Democritus [Greek philosophers].
sample to the mass of an equal volume of water.
They stated that the universe is composed of
EXAMPLE: Specific gravity is a measure of
atoms.
the density of a mineral. It is the ratio of the
density of the mineral to the density of water
-universe are composed of very small,
and is calculated by dividing the density of a
indivisible and indestructible atoms and are
composed of different arrangements of eternal -This model followed the general
atoms. they’re of relativity equations of the universe
with Positive curvature.
Stoic Universe- Stoic Philosophers of Greece
believe that the universe is like a giant living Steady State Universe- Proposed by Fred
body. Hoyle [English Astronomer] and the Austrians
Thomas and Herman Bondi.
-With the sun and the stars as the most
important parts to which all the other parts are
-Predicted a universe that expanded but
interconnected.
did not change its density with matter.
-What Happens in one place affects
what happens elsewhere Multiverse- This theory sees our universe as
just one of many bubbles.
Cartesian Vortex Theory- According to Rene
Descartes, the vacuum space was not empty but -Proposed by Andrei Linde
rather filled with matter.
Steady- State infinite universe- published by
This model involved a system of huge swirling Isaac Newton. Describes a static, steady state
whirlpools of fine matter that is called infinite universe
gravitational effects.
-Universe gravitationally balanced but
Static or Newtonian Universe- Principia essentially unstable.
published by Isaac Newton.
Model- a representation of an idea, an object or
-Describes that the universe is a static even a process.
steady state and infinite.
2 Types- Geocentric and Heliocentric
-The universe is gravitationally balanced
but essentially unstable. Geocentric- states that the Earth is at the
center of the solar system. [ Claudius Ptolemy]
Einsteinian Universe- The model of the
universe assumed by Albert Einstein. He Heliocentric- States that the Sun is the
theorized that it was a dynamically stable center of the solar system. [ Nicholas
universe which was neither expanding nor Copernicus]
contracting.
Nebular Hypothesis- Immanuel Kant and
Big Bang Theory- The essential statement of Pierre-Simon Laplace. First to propose the
the theory is usually attributed to the Belgian earliest theory of the how solar system
Roman catholic priest George Hneri Joseph originated
Edoured Lemaitre in 1927 even before Hubble’s
-This presumes that the solar system began as
corroborating evidence.
a cloud of dispersed interstellar gas called
“MOST ACCEPTED THEORY” Nebula.

Oscillating Universe- Einstein’s favored model Planetesimal and Tidal Theories- Thomas
after he rejected his own model Chrowder Chamberlin and Forest Ray Moulton.
 -They worked on the Kant-Laplace Caused by the radiogenic heat from
Nebular Hypothesis. radioactive decay materials found in the core
and mantle.
- “Chamberlin-Moulton Planetesimal
Hypothesis” From the Sun:

-They proposed that a star passed close A radiation from the sun enters the
enough to the sun, creating huge tidal tides and Earth, some heat is trapped by the atmosphere.
causing materials to be ejected.
Motion of Earth
Tidal Theory
The Motions of the Earth create day and
-proposed by James Hopwood Jeans and Harols night and seasonal change.
Jeffreys. It is the variation of the planetesimal
concept. The solar system model places the sun at
the center with the terrestrial and Jovian Planet.
Protoplanet Theory- it is a modified version of
the nebular Hypothesis, which incorporates The motions of the sun and planets
modern knowledge of matter. happen simultaneously.

Under the influence of tidal action, the nebula Earth’s motion is evidenced by daily
broke into whirlpools of gas within a rotating rotation and the yearly revolution.
mass called protoplanets.
There are 2 different kinds of rotation

Life on Earth -sidereal day, the amount it takes for the earth
to return on its axis. it is about 23 hours and 56
Earth minutes and 4. 09 seconds.

-The only planet that can sustain life - solar day, amount of time rotation for the sun
to return to its same spot. (24 hours)
-The origin of the earth, as dust particle that
combine through accretion An axis- is an imaginary line about which a
body rotates.
Some characteristics of the Earth
Earth
-The Presence of water
-The third planet in the solar system
-Ability to maintain heat
-Revolves to the sun around 365-366
-Existence of its atmosphere days

Heat comes from 2 sources- -The only planet to harbor life

From Earth and from the Sun Why is earth Habitable?

From the Earth: Earth is in the habitable/ Goldilocks zone

 -It has a right distance from the sun -98% of the water is Salt water

-It has a strong magnetic field that -Helps the atmosphere to become its
shields us from the electromagnetic radiation current state.
coming from the sun
Geosphere
-It is protected by the plate tectonics
from the very hot temperature of the core -The solid state of the Earth

-It has the right chemical materials that -It includes the structure, composition,
could support life (e.g., water) minerals, and processes of Earth.

Cycles -Lithosphere, it is a part of the

geosphere that is composed of the solid,
-It has one of the major themes of the outermost part of the planet.
Earth’s subsystems
Biosphere
-It is the process wherein the material in
the Earth system was continuously recycled in -It is the most important subsystems on
numerous overlapping cycles. Earth

Atmosphere -It is the totality of all the ecosystems in

the whole earth
-Set of layers of gasses that surround or
protect the planet that is held by the Planet’s -It drives us to be in constant need of
gravity. interaction with the planet

Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 20.95% -Coined by the Geologist Eduard Suess

in 1875.
Argon 0.93% OtherGasses 0.04%
1) Baryonic matter – “ordinary” matter
Layers of Atmosphere consisting of protons, electrons and neutrons
that comprises atoms, planets, stars,
Troposphere- where we live galaxies, and other bodies

Stratosphere- contains ozone layer 2) Dark Matter- matter that has gravity but
does not emit light
Mesosphere- where meteors burn
3) Dark energy- a source of anti-gravity
Thermosphere- Where satellites orbit and causes the universe to expand
earth
4) Protostar- an early stage in the
Hydrosphere formation of a star resulting from the
gravitational collapse of gasses.
-It is the liquid component of earth
5) Thermonuclear reaction- a nuclear
-Covers 70% of the Earth’s surface
fusion
 6) Main sequence Stars- stars that fuse A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars.
hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in
their cores; outward pressure resulting from -In between the cluster is practically
nuclear fusion is balanced by gravitational empty space.
force.
-This organization of matter in the
7) Light years- The distance light can universe suggests that it is indeed chumpy at a
travel in a year; a unit of length used to certain scale. But at a large scale it appears
measure astronomical distance. homogeneous and isotropic.

-Isotropic, having physical properties

that are the same when measured in different
· Astronomy – study of directions.
heavenly bodies.
-Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8
· Astronomers- expert in the billion years old. The diameter of the universe is
study of heavenly bodies. possibly infinite but should be at least 91 billion
years (1 light year= 9.4607 x 1012 km) and its
· Universe- All existing matter density are 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3
and space considered as a whole.
Expanding Universe
(13.8 billion Years Old)
In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his
Earth (Solar system 4.5-4.6 billion years old significant discovery of the “Red Shift”

Hubble- The Milky way is but part of billions of Red shift- evidence for an expanding universe
galaxies in the universe
-galaxies are moving away from each
Composition of the universe other.

- 4.6% baryonic matter

ROCKS AND THE ROCK CYCLE
- 2.4 % Cold Dark matter

- 91.4 Dark Energy Rocks- is naturally-occurring, coherent

aggregate of minerals or solid materials such as
Hydrogen – H natural glass or organic matter.

Helium - He Rock Type

Lithium - Li Igneous Rock- are formed from the

cooling and solidification of magma or lava. The
word “Igneous” is derived from Latin igneus,
which means “Fiery” or “Fire”
The Remaining dust and gas may end up as they
are or as planets, asteroids, or other bodies, in -2 TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
the accompanying planetary system.
Intrusive or Plutonic- are formed on the lava,
PROCESSES PRODUCT
which has emerged from underground.
MELTING MAGMA
[Examples: Diorite, Granite, Pegmatite, Gabbro]
CRYSTALLIZATION IGNEOUS
Extrusive or Volcanic- are from magma that ROCKS
cools and solidifies within the crust of the
UPLIFT AND EXPOSURE
planet.
WEATHERING AND EROSION SEDIMENTS
TRANSPORTATION
[Examples: Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite, Scoria]
DEPOSITION SEDIMENT
LITHIFICATION ARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rock- products of METAMORPHISM METAMORP

lithification of rocks and mineral fragments such HIC
as quartz, feldspar, and clay. They are
crystalline when they precipitate out of solution,
such as dolomite, calcite, halite, or gypsum.

-2 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK

Clastic- are the fragments of rocks and minerals.

Exogenic Process-interconnected with the
They are made out of eroded fragments.
atmosphere,hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Non Clastic- created when water evaporates occurring above the surface of the earth
from the remains of plants and animals.
● Physical Weathering- a process that
causes the disintegration of rocks,
minerals and soils without chemical
Metamorphic rock- it can be foliated change.
when the dominant agent of the metamorphic ● Chemical Weathering- the erosion or
rock is pressure, or it can also be crystalline disintegration of rocks, building
when the dominant agent is heat. materials, etc. caused by chemical
reaction. It must include OXIDATION,
-2 TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCK CARBONATION, HYDRATION,
SOLUTION
Foliated- rock has bands or visible layers in the ● Biotic Weathering- is the weakening and
rock pattern. This is created due to the direct subsequent disintegration of rocks by
pressure and heat. plants, animals, and microbes.

Non Foliated- rocks do not contain minerals that Endogenic Process- is an internal geomorphic
align during metamorphism and do not appear in process. The energy emanating from within the
the layer or the rocks do not have bands or earth is the main force behind the endogenic
they're layers are not visible geomorphic process. It occurs beneath the Earth
Types of endogenic process: Slow Forces, Heat is seen as an energy from the motions of
Sudden Forces the molecules of bodies, such as earth, that may
be transferred by conduction, convection, or
Volcanism - eruption rock called magma onto radiation.
Earth’s surface through a vent.

The melting caused by decreasing

pressure and it is called PRESSURE-RELEASE
MELTING

Tectonic Forces and Processes

The heat from the radio active processes

within the planet’s interior causes the planets to
move, sometimes toward and sometimes away
from each other.

3 MAIN TYPES OF PLATE

BOUNDARIES:

● Convergent- tending to move toward

one point or to approach each other
● Divergent-moving or extending in
different directions from a common
point.
● Transform- to change something into
something else.

Mass Wasting- Refers to the downslope

movement of rock, regolith, and soil because of
gravity

Soil Erosion- The product of weathering is the

disintegration of rocks into particle soil.

Types of Erosion

1. Wind Erosion
2. Sheet Erosion
3. Rill Erosion
4. Gully erosion