Earth Science  Albert Einstein – model of the universe was

no different from Newton’s model

Theories on the Origin of the World  Edwin Hubble – in 1929, showed that the
 The creation – one of the books of the Hebrew universe was not static
Bible and Old Testament, describe how God Modern Theories on the Origin of the Universe
separeted light from darkness, created the sky,  Big Bang Theory - the current accepted
land, sea, moon, stars, and every living creature in model on the formation of the universe
a span of six days o describes that the universe as
 Rigveda – describes the universe as an expanding, having originated from an infinitely
oscillating universe tiny, inifinitely dense point around 14 billion years
o Cosmic egg – cointains the whole universe ago
including the sun, moon, planets, and o matter was not present at the beginning
space expanded out of a single of time; there was only pure energy compressed
concentrated point called Bindhu. in a single point called singularity
 Anaxagoras – believed in a primordial universe  Georges Lemaitre - a Belgian priest who
and explained that the original state of the attributed the fundamental statement of the
cosmos was a promordial mixture of all big bang theory in 1927
ingredients which existed in infinitesimally small  Oscillating Universe - Albert Einstein;s
fragments of themselves favored model after rejecting his own original
 Leuccipus and Democritus – belived in an model
atomic universe  Steady State Theory – predicted a universe
o held that the universe was composed of that expanded but did not change its density
very small, indivisible, and indestructible o Proposed by the astronomers Fred
atoms Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Hermann
 Aristotle and Ptolemy – proposed a geocentirc Bondi
universe where earth stayed motionless in the  Inflationary Universe – proposed by Alan
heavens and everthing was revolving it Guth, he incorporated a short early period of
 Nicolaus Copernicus – contardict other exponential cosmic inflation in order to solve
philisophers’ view with his theory of heliocentrism the uncertainities of the standard big bang
 Sir Isaac Newton – described the universe as a model, such as horizon and flatness problems
static, steady-state, inifinite universe  Andrei Linde - developed the concept of
o matter on a large scale is uniformly inflationary universe from his chaotic inflation
distributed, and the universe is theory in 1983
gravitaionally balanced but essentially Origin of the Solar System
unstable  Encounter Hypothesis – a rogue star passed
 Rene Descartes – a French philosopher outlined close to the sun and stripped material from
a cartesian vortexx model of universe with many both the sun and the rogue star
of the characteristics of Newton’s static, infinite  Nebular Hypothesis – the entire solar system
universe started as a large cloud of gas that
o the vacuum of space was not empty at all contracted due to self-gravity
but was filled with matter that swirled  Protoplanet Hypothesis – the present
around in large and small vortices, working model on the formation of the solar
producing what would later be called system
gravitational effects
 Life on Earth  Crystal form – forms a definite structure
 Liquid water – scientists believe that water on which crystallizes
earth came from two possible sources: water  Habit – outward appearance of the
released through volcanism and water that mineral’s crystal forms
came from the icy meteors of the outer regions of  Cleavage - the tendency to break
the solar system that bombarded earth along planes of weakness
 Heat Source – comes from two sources: internal  Luster – appearanve of the light as it is
heating of the earth (radiogenic heat) and refelcted off its surface
external heating from the sun (sunlight)  Streak – the color of the mineral in its
 Atmospehere – the resposible for the powdered form
occurance of the greenhouse phenomenon, an  Specific gravity – measure of a density
natural process which maintains heat of a mineral
Earth’s Subsystems Rocks and the Rock Cycle
 Geosphere – solid earth  Rock – naturally-occuring, coherent
o rocks – naturally-occuring solid aggregate aggregate of minerals or solid matereials
of minerals, organic materail or natural such as natural glass or organic matter
glass  Lithos – stone
o regolith – loose particles of rocks that  Rock cycle – model that describes all
blanket the surface of the earth the process by which rocks are froemed,
 Hydrosphere – the totality of the earth’s water modofies, transported, decomposed,
o cryosphere – permanetly frozen part of melted, and reformed
water  Weathering and erosion – the rocks
 Atmosphere – misture of all gasses break down in to smaller pieces called
 Biosphere - includes all the life forms and even sediments
organic matter that has not yet decemposed  Lithification - transforms sediments into
Minerals sedimentary rocks
 Minerals – naturally-occuring, inorganic solid  Metamorphism – tranforming into
with a definite chemical composition and an metamorphic rocks
ordered internal structure Classification of Rocks
o Naturally-occuring  Igneous Rocks – either crystalline when
o Inorganic they form from cooled magma or lava, or
o Solid pyroclastic when they are made of
o Definite chemical composition consolidated eruption products like
o Ordered internal structure volcanic ash
Composition of Minerals o Dunite
 Silicates – composed primarily od silicon- o Gabbro
oxygen tetrahedrons o Diorite
 Oxides - consist of metal cations bonded to o Granite
oxygen anions o Basalt
 Sulfides – consist of metal cation bonded to o Andesite
sulfide o Rhyolite
 Silfates – consist of metal cation bonded to the o Obsidian
anionic group  Sedimentary Rocks – clastic when they
 Halides - composed of a halogen ion form from lithification of rock and mineral
 Carbonates – characterized by the presence fragments such as quartz, feldspar, and
of carbonic ion clasy
 Native metals – consist of a single metal such o Conglomerate
as copper and gold o Breccia
Physical properties of Minerals o Sandstone
o Shale
 o Limestone
o Rock salt
o Rock gypsum
o Chert
 Metamorphic Rocks – may be foliated when
the dominant agent of the metamorphic is
pressure, or crystalline when the dominant agent
is heat
o Slate
o Phyllite
o Schist
o Gneiss
o Quartzite
o Marble