1 s2.0 S0045653522018689 Main
1 s2.0 S0045653522018689 Main
1 s2.0 S0045653522018689 Main
Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling editor: Derek Muir Microalgae-based wastewater treatment has previously been carried out in huge waste stabilization ponds.
Microalgae, which can absorb carbon dioxide while reusing nutrients from sewage, has recently emerged as a
Keywords: new trend in the wastewater treatment business. Microalgae farming is thought to be a potential match for the
Microalgae modern world’s energy strategy, which emphasizes low-cost and environmentally benign alternatives. Micro
Heavy metals
algae are being used to treat wastewater and make useful products. Microalgae, for example, is a promising
Wastewater
renewable resource for producing biomass from wastewater nutrients because of its quick growth rate, short life
Cost-effective
Environmentally friendly span, and high carbon dioxide utilization efficacy. Microalgae-based bioremediation has grown in importance in
the treatment of numerous types of wastewater in recent years. This solar-powered wastewater treatment
technology has huge potential. However, there are still issues to be resolved in terms of land requirements, as
well as the process’s ecological feasibility and long-term viability, before these systems can be widely adopted.
Due to cost and the need for a faultless downstream process, it is difficult to deploy this technology on a large
scale. Other recent breakthroughs in wastewater microalgae farming have been investigated, such as how varied
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: saravanan3.raj@gmail.com (S. Rajendran).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135375
Received 29 March 2022; Received in revised form 31 May 2022; Accepted 13 June 2022
Available online 20 June 2022
0045-6535/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
pressures affect microalgae growth and quality, as well as the number of high-value components produced. In
this review, the future of this biotechnology has also been examined.
1. Introduction and Kumar, 2020). Toxic metals can be safely removed from the envi
ronment by using microalgae for bioremediation. Microalgae have an
Global urbanization, industrialization, and commercialization have added benefit over higher plants because they grow quickly and can be
accelerated in the twenty-first century at the expense of increased car used to make biofuels and fertilizers (Pavithra et al., 2020). Microalgae
bon emissions, depletion of energy and water supplies, and toxic can also be utilized to recover valuable metal ions, including thallium,
degradation of aquatic habitats (Shahid et al., 2020). Pollution problems silver, and gold.
are becoming more severe as a result of increased industrialization, This paper summarizes several wastewater treatment approaches,
urbanization, and human population, as well as their indirect conse with a focus on microalgae-based wastewater treatment (phycor
quences on the overall ecosystem. Excessive generation of waste emediation), as well as potential challenges and prospects. Algae bio
streams/wastes, as well as their release into natural water bodies, have refineries are also shown to be possible. This idea shows that wastewater
major effects on aquatic ecosystems and the environment; thus, posing can be utilized as a cheap growth medium and as a natural stress-
serious difficulties for society in terms of our planet’s sustainability manipulator to increase biomass production and algal metabolite
(Vardhan et al., 2019). The discharge of wastewater is one of the most content.
significant sources of contamination in water bodies. Each type of
pollutant has its characteristics, necessitating the development of spe 2. Constraints of conventional wastewater treatment
cific solutions to meet and overcome the obstacles posed by pollution. A
major threat to the stability of developing countries is the mixing of Numerous efforts were made over a certain period to develop a va
effluent in aquatic bodies (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2021). The main riety of wastewater treatment systems that are tailored to the individual
purpose of wastewater treatment is to eliminate micropollutants, nu need and the kind of wastewater being handled. Currently, a wide range
trients (nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), etc.), heavy metals of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are available, each with its
(HMs) (chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury design and capacity to meet the needs of a certain geographical area,
(Hg), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), etc.), and organic pollutants (phenolic kind of wastewater, and also the amount of water to be processed (Hou
compounds, aromatic hydrocarbons, surfactants, along with biocides). et al., 2021). The following treatment processes are typically found in
As heavy metals aren’t biodegradable, they tend to stay in the envi traditional WWTPs: preliminary, primary, secondary, and tertiary, fol
ronment for a long time, causing them to build up in the food chain, lowed by disinfection and disposal of solid sludge formed at various
which can be bad for the environment and our health (Hussain et al., levels of treatment. The maiden treatments are essentially simple
2021). Even at very low levels, heavy metals and their compounds are screening of waters to remove solid and larger particles that could clog
extremely toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. Humans are or damage the subsequent treatment processes, whereas the primary
exposed to these heavy metals by direct touch, inhalation, and ingestion, treatment uses clarifiers and sedimentation tanks to remove oil and
which can cause mutations and genetic damage, as well as impair the greasy substances, along with primary sludge (Cunha et al., 2020a). The
central nervous system and increase the risk of cancer (Leong and majority of the organic contents are eliminated owing to a microbial
Chang, 2020). breakdown in the secondary treatment, which is followed by advanced
The remediation of these toxic heavy metals is therefore required phases of treatment at the tertiary level. The stability of
before the disposal of wastewater effluent. Ion exchange, floatation, oxygen-demanding chemicals, reverse osmosis, coagulation, prolonged
membrane filtration, coagulation-flocculation, electrochemical biological nutrient removal, filtration, and flocculation are all parts of
methods, and chemical precipitation are all utilized to remove heavy this process. Chlorination, ultraviolet (UV) lighting, ozonation, and
metals from wastewater (such as electrofloatation, electrodeposition, other processes are used to disinfect the treated wastewater (Dris et al.,
and electro-coagulation). However, these approaches have several 2018). The process concentrates (i.e., biological sludge) produced while
drawbacks, including high operating and maintenance costs and sec carrying out the treatment, are dewatered and used as fertilizer, or these
ondary contamination caused by hazardous sludge accumulation are treated further or discarded. This is a major problem with CWWTP
(Ummalyma et al., 2018). As a result, new wastewater recycling technologies. Wastewater treatment plants, in general, are more
methods, as well as carbon fixation in the atmosphere, must be expensive to build due to the high energy inputs needed to run them. In
developed. addition, maintenance, as well as operations, necessitate technical
Heavy metal bioremediation, which employs a variety of microor competence, which incurs extra costs (Sarmah and Rout, 2018). Other
ganisms, including yeasts, fungi, microalgae, and bacteria, has become issues include WWTPs breaking down frequently owing to mechanical
increasingly popular as a substitute for conventional treatments owing failure or mistreatment. Because biological wastewater treatment is very
to its environmental friendliness as well as cost-effectiveness at low successful at removing nutrients, these systems are quite effective.
heavy metal levels (Gonz á lez-Camejo et al., 2021). Using However, it increases overall treatment expenses by around 3–4 times
microalgae-based bioremediation instead of traditional treatment (Restrepo-Fl ó rez et al., 2014). Furthermore, because biological systems
methods is the best, safest, and most effective way to clean up pollution. account for a large percentage of the treatment, unfavorable environ
This is because microalgae have a wide range of uses for the algal mental conditions can cause such systems to fail. Microflora partici
biomass they make. The production of microalgae has long been used to pating in biological nutrient removal processes die and decay when
remediate urban wastewater (Ravikumar et al., 2021). Microalgae, physico-chemicals, water, or geo-environmental conditions change
which has exceptional biological traits, including high photosynthetic somewhat, whereas filamentous bacteria overgrow and bulk up,
efficacy and a simple structure, can grow well in harsh environmental resulting in bulking and foaming. As a result, such methods have a
circumstances including extreme temperature, nutritional stress, pres limited utility in economically underdeveloped countries (Devi et al.,
ence of heavy metals, and high salinity. Among all microorganisms, 2016).
owing to their high binding affinity, availability of the vast number of Only if energy and expense are kept to a minimum, the wastewater
binding sites, and large surface area, microalgae are quickly being treatment will be flawless. Using microalgae to treat wastewater is a
exploited in phycoremediation of hazardous heavy metals. Biosorbents novel and cost-effective approach. Over the course of several decades,
can be made from both living and non-living microalgal biomass (Pal such systems have been employed to treat a wide range of wastewater
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A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
types (Naushad, 2014). These systems are getting a lot of attention in concentrations of textile waste (25–100 percent). Microalgae were
temperate areas, where there is enough light and temperature all year observed to grow up to 75% of the concentrated effluent as well as
long. Additionally, they are environmentally safe and sustainable due to reduce BOD, nitrate, and phosphate by 63, 82, and 87%, correspond
their reliance on an algae source that requires sufficient temperature and ingly. Algal biomass can absorb methylene blue dye, with wet algal
sunlight. biomass having a higher absorption capacity than dry algal biomass,
according to the research. Chlorella vulgaris UMACC 001 was cultured in
3. Bioremediation in wastewater treatment a high-rate algal pond (HRAP) loaded with textile dye (Supranol Red
3BW) and textile industry effluent, and the algae were able to remove
In general, Physico-chemical and biological processes are used in the dye by 42–50%, as well as nitrogen, phosphate, and COD by
wastewater treatment. The most often used Physico-chemical processes 38–62%, respectively (Lambert and Wagner, 2018). Another technique
in the suspended and floating particles, treatment of colors, and the for removing contaminants from wastewater as quickly as possible is to
elimination of harmful chemicals include nano photocatalysis, floccu co-cultivate microalgae and bacteria. Co-cultures of Chlorella vulgaris
lation, ultra coagulation, electrolysis, oxidation, adsorption, ozonation, and Pseudomonas putida were used to assess the speed with which nu
reverse osmosis, and sedimentation (Rani-Borges et al., 2021). Despite trients and COD were eliminated. The elimination of organic and inor
its extensive use, the treatment’s cost is driven up by its high expense ganic molecules was greater in the co-culture system than in each axenic
and the need to reprocess the items. Biological treatments, on the other culture, demonstrating that C. vulgaris’ ability to absorb nutrients was
hand, are relatively inexpensive and create a small number of products, boosted by the presence of P. putida. For five days, the suspended
because the majority of the decontaminated products are being co-culture removed 70% of ammonia, which is five times the amount
engrossed by the microorganisms themselves (Liu et al., 2020). Further, removed by suspended P. putida alone. The nitrogen removal efficiency
crucially, while DWW bioremediation is taking place, nutrients, the was enhanced to 75% when both were immobilized (Cunha et al., 2019).
availability of pH and oxygen, temperature, along with chemical The maximum nitrogen removal was achieved by cultivating immobi
composition, evaluate the microorganism perspective. Furthermore, lized C. vulgaris as well as suspended P. putida for 5 days, which removed
extracellular oxidases produced by white-rot fungi, including manga nearly 85 percent of ammonia. Comparing the effectiveness of phos
nese peroxidase, laccases also lignin peroxidase, are effective in the phorus and COD removal in a co-culture system to that of farming alone,
degradation of numerous xenobiotics as well as the decolorization of co-culture systems remove 66–85% of the phosphorus and COD (da Silva
dyes found in DWW (Sussarellu et al., 2016). Algae are more favorable and Gouveia, 2020). For effluent treatment in an outdoor open pond
because they are photosynthetic in nature, which means they don’t with mixed populations of microalgae Scenedesmus species, 60% of the
require external fertilizers like nitrate, ammonium, or phosphate to effluent was optimal for microalgal cultivation, with extreme BOD
flourish. Apart from bioremediation, the biomass as well as value removal of 82% and maximum COD reduction of 75%. At the end of the
products attained during DWW treatment, make phycoremediation cultivation periods, 65% NO3–N and 71.29% PO4–P had been removed
more suitable and a superior bioremediation process to all others (Bry (Eriksen et al., 2014). The cultivation of algae in a bioreactor that
ant et al., 2016). removes pollutants from wastewater is shown in Fig. 1. Algae can be
grown in pulp and paper mill wastewater to reduce freshwater loads as
4. Microalgae-based wastewater treatment well as nutrients, while also eliminating pollutants for long-term envi
ronmental sustainability. It was found on the second day of growing that
4.1. Nutrient removal from wastewaters alga can eat the organic carbon in palm oil mill effluent (Mas ó et al.,
2016). This means that algae can use the organic carbon in the effluent
Many pollutants are present in water that come from a variety of to grow. For 250 mg/L of similar effluent, the best nutrient exclusion
sources, including agricultural wastewater, municipal effluent, indus rate with C. incerta has been roughly 67% COD after 28 days. As a result
trial effluent, and effluent from other sources. This makes the water of these investigations, it is clear that algae might be eradicated from all
more eutrophicated and hurts aquatic life. As a result, wastewater that is contaminants from wastewater and that high-value metabolites, as well
intended for release into bodies of water must be treated to eliminate as compounds derived from algal biomass, might be employed in in
nutrients (Bryant et al., 2016). Algae can remove nutrients from waste dustrial applications, improving the value of waste streams (Zhang et al.,
streams and also produce biomass that can be utilized for many different 2020).
things. The production of algal biomass requires a lot of important nu
trients to be available. These nutrients include carbon, nitrogen, phos 4.2. Heavy metal removal
phorus, and micronutrients, which can be costly if a lot is needed. Using
wastewater for algal biomass production, on the other hand, can help to The increasing concentration of heavy metals in the atmosphere,
keep the cost of production and the number of nutrients provided to a therein water, as a result of expanding industrialization and urbaniza
minimum (Xue et al., 2021). For another reason, the fact that algae can tion leads to alarming hazardous levels in the land as well as water,
be used to treat wastewater and make biomass for biofuels or nutra implying that heavy metals abundance in numerous ecosystems is
ceuticals makes it worth using algae to do both things at the same time. directly tied to anthropogenic activity (Wang et al., 2020). Traditional
A free supply of oxygen is required for the effectual bioremediation of heavy metal usage was explained in a variety of ways in several reports.
organic compounds using heterotrophic bacteria that produce carbon Zn, Cu, Cr, Hg, Cd, and Pb are some of the most common heavy metal
dioxide as a byproduct of their metabolic processes (Gradus et al., 2017). contaminants found in industrial wastewater, and they contribute to one
Several studies have shown that algae can remove P, N, along with of the world’s most severe environmental issues. Heavy metals in the
other organic contaminants from wastewaters. The microalga Chlor marine environment can survive for long periods or undergo bio
ococcum sp. RAP-13 can eliminate organic pollutants like chemical transformations, eventually amassing all along the food chain and
oxygen demand (COD) along with biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) posing a major hazard to the ecosystem if not effectively eliminated
from raw dairy effluent at a ratio of 93 and 82%, correspondingly, when (Erni-Cassola et al., 2019). It will, nevertheless, have a huge impact on
cultivated in a mixotrophic environment. In an 8-day indoor lab-scale ecosystems in terms of the environment, public health, and economics.
experiment, algal culture in unsterilized dairy effluent eliminated Heavy metals are difficult to remove from wastewaters compared to
COD, phosphorus, and nitrogen, at a ratio of 84–89, 89 to 91, and other pollutants since they cannot be reduced chemically or biologically.
83–99% in 2–20% of raw dairy wastewater, respectively (Carocci et al., Heavy metals discarded in the marine environment as waste has a
2015). According to a current report, the probable player is Chlorella destructive influence on the marine system, damaging the aquatic
pyrenoidosa for phycoremediation and dye removal at diverse body’s ability to self-purify (Nava and Leoni, 2021).
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A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
Precipitation, ion exchange, electrokinetic, membrane processing, fatty acids in comparison to saturated fatty acids. Stress treatment of
and adsorption are some of the current physicochemical approaches for microalgal strains may improve their fatty acid profile. Using nitrogen
eradicating heavy metal ions from wastewaters. The cost of chemicals starvation as well as carbohydrate biosynthesis inhibitors, the micro
involved in the industry is a key constraint of this process, and metal algae Nannochloropsis oculata was able to increase fatty acid content to
removal is poor (Tang et al., 2021a). Biosorption of heavy metals by up to 40% of the total dry biomass. Porphyridium purpureum produced
algae species is an alternative strategy. The use of algae for the bio polyunsaturated fatty acids and arachidonic acid when stressed, sug
sorption of metal ions from wastewater can be an environmentally gesting that a low phosphate concentration in the media may enhance
friendly, cost-effective, and efficient solution. Algae can be used to D6-desaturase activity, which catalyzes the conversion of C16 is to 0 to
biosorb poisonous and radioactive metal ions, and to recover metal ions C18 is to 2, and therefore unsaturated fatty acids. Eight out of the nine
including gold as well as silver (Burns and Boxall, 2018). To achieve the microalgal strains studied in a previous phosphate stress study had
desired degree of treatment with algal growing systems, however, it is altered their fatty acid composition, particularly in the palmitoleic as
necessary to understand the maximal phototrophic biomass production well as oleic acids. Monosaccharides and polysaccharides are the pri
as well as the physiological features of algae. At the micro-scale level, mary sources of energy for microalgae, which are photosynthetic or
various mechanisms of heavy metal biosorption by algae are depicted, ganisms (Amaral-Zettler et al., 2020). Carbohydrates are classified as
including ion exchange, complex formation, and electrostatic contact disaccharides, monosaccharides, polysaccharides, or oligosaccharides,
(Song et al., 2020). Algae use ion exchange as the most prevalent depending on the number of sugar units present. Carbohydrates have
method for removing heavy metal ions from the environment. Some of been required by organisms for cell structure, defense, energy synthesis,
the benefits of algae biosorptions are that they are environmentally as well as function. Microalgae can produce carbohydrates, which can
friendly, produce biomass all year long, and can be used in waters with be used in food, feed, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, medicinal agents,
high levels of metals. Algae have a high selectivity for binding up to 10% and cosmetics as a thickening agent. Carbon dioxide helps a microalga
of their biomass and do not produce harmful waste. When it comes to the keep its natural makeup by enhancing the carbohydrates it contains.
removal of dissolved metallic ions from wastewater, microalgal affin Some microalgae can still use organic compounds like carbonates and
ities for polyvalent metals like Chlorella and Scenedesmus stand out also bicarbonates through a heterotrophic mechanism, while another
(Hossain et al., 2019). Those that investigated the importance of marine microalgae group uses both autotrophic and also heterotrophic mecha
algae species as biosorbents for metal acceptance went into greater nisms (Cunha et al., 2020b). This means that microalgae can trap carbon
detail and found that Chlorellaminiata, Chlorellasorokiniana, C.vulgaris, dioxide from the atmosphere, which includes industrial exhaust gases,
Chlorellaminiata, Chlorella salina, Chlorococcum sp., Chlamydomonas through a photosynthetic pathway. Microalgae’s ability to trap carbon
reinhardtii, Chlorellaminiata, Cyclotellacryptica, Porphyridium purpureum, dioxide and produce biofuels is a unique way to reduce carbon-dioxide
Scenedes musabundans, Lyngbyataylorii, Scenedesmus quadricauda, Scene levels in the atmosphere. Numerous reports on the protein content of
desmus quadric Microalgae, as well as other eukaryotic photosynthetic microalgae proposed that improved technologies be developed to
organisms preferentially produce heavy metal-binding peptides further exploit it for protein. Protein from microalgae has gained rele
(Padervand et al., 2020). As a result, organometallic complexes form, vance as the traditional method of extracting protein from food crops
which are then positioned inside vacuoles to allow for proper manage has become a concern, contributing to pollution and scarcity (Gu, 2017).
ment of heavy metal cytoplasmic concentrations within the cells, pre If progress has been made on the quality along with the number of their
venting or neutralizing the metals’ toxic effects (Sarmah and Rout, protein contents, microalgal protein can be a viable choice. Protein
2020). extraction from microalgal cells is a difficult undertaking due to their
high cost and promise as a substitute source. Diverse strategies are being
4.3. Composition of microalgae deliberated to make it more suitable. For the release of protein from
cells, different solvents such as 1-propanol, methanol, water, and
The creation of beneficial substances, such as polyunsaturated fatty ethanol are being utilized, with water being the most efficient and
acids, has sparked a new interest in microalgae-based technology. cost-effective (Kumar et al., 2017).
Nannochloropsis gaditana, Dunaliella salina, Chlorella vulgaris, diatoms,
Dictyochloris, Schizochytrium sp., and Nannochloropsis oculata are among 4.4. Microalgae remove heavy metals from the surroundings
the microalgal strains that can produce fatty acids (Fern á ndez and
Albentosa, 2019). The research was being performed to improve the Heavy metals, like iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), Zn, molybdenum (Mo), Cu,
microalgal ability to create physiologically necessary polyunsaturated manganese (Mn), and boron (B), have been used by microalgae as trace
4
A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
elements for enzymatic activity and cell metabolism; whereas, alginate), organic proteins, and lipids with various functional groups
poisonous heavy metals, like Hg, Cr, Pb, arsenic (As), along with Cd, are (including thiol, imidazole, amino, sulfonate, phosphate, carboxyl, hy
hazardous to microalgae (Yokota et al., 2017). However, because of the droxyl, and others) that are capable of binding heavy metals, such as
hormesis effect, small amounts of toxic heavy metals must boost well as peptides and exopolysaccharides with uronic groups, comprise
microalgae growth and metabolism. Owing to their resilience to heavy the cell wall of microalgae (Molinuevo-Salces et al., 2019). Deproto
metal stress, certain cyanobacterial species, including Oscillatoria, Ana nated sulphate, laminarin, carboxyl groups, and monomeric alcohols, all
baena, Spirogyra, and Phormidium, can naturally develop in heavy of which attract anionic as well as cationic heavy metal species, were
metal-contaminated water. Microalgae possessing reactive clusters with also found in abundance in the soil samples. Carbonyls and hydroxyls in
active binding sites may also form complexes with other contaminants in microalgae biomass promote biosorption by amides and carboxylic
wastewater, in addition to heavy metals (de Souza Leite et al., 2019). acids. An amalgamation of Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), as well as
This causes flocculation, which reduces solid concentrations. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, can identify the
removal of heavy metals from the surroundings is shown in Fig. 2. To microalgal functional groups involved in the formation of heavy metal
protect themselves from heavy metal toxicity, microalgae species use complexes and the interactions that occur between them. The chemical
heavy metals that are unable to mobilize, exclusion, chelation, and gene structure of biosorbents is crucial for estimating the affinities of heavy
regulation, as well as anti-oxidants or reducing enzymes that diminish metal ions (Naushad et al., 2013).
heavy metals via redox processes. Microalgae cells can create There are three main ways in which microalgae accumulate heavy
protein-heavy metal complexes without compromising their function metals on their surfaces. It is possible to form covalent bonds between
(Mohsenpour et al., 2021). More organometallic complexes are kept in heavy metals and microalgae exo-polysaccharides, exchange heavy
vacuoles to help keep the number of heavy metal ions in the cytoplasm metal ions with the cell wall cations, as well as to adhere heavy metal
under control, which can lessen their negative effects on the body. cations to negatively charged uronic acids (Wollmann et al., 2019).
Heavy metals also stimulate the production of proteins, thiol-rich pep Phytochelatins, antioxidant proteins, GSH, as well as metal transporters
tides, as well as phytochelatins (PCs) that bind to heavy metals and are all examples of proteins and peptides that contain binding sites for
relieve their stress (Molazadeh et al., 2019). heavy metals that penetrate the cell membrane and cytoplasm. Fig. 2
Whenever microalgae get exposed to toxins like lead and mercury, illustrates how microalgae remove heavy metals from the environment.
they make enzymes like ascorbate peroxidation, glutathione reductase
(GSH), catalase, and SOD to fight the free radicals that come out of them. 4.5. Wasterwater treatment using microalgae
These non-enzymatic free radical scavengers include antioxidants like
ascorbic acid, carotenoids, proline, cysteine, along with GSH. Superox Encouraging remarkable research into long-term treatment systems
ide anion is broken down in and out of oxygen molecules and hydrogen has been made possible by concerns about protecting aquatic environ
peroxide by SOD, which needs to serve as another line of defense against ments and human health, using wastewaters for energy production, as
it. With the help of catalase, hydrogen peroxide has been further well as for the provision of potable water. Several ways have recently
decomposed into water and oxygen molecules. Crystein serves as an been introduced to reuse wastewater for human welfare and to provide
indicator because it is a precursor to many sulfur-containing com cleaner water (De Francisci et al., 2018). To assure the creation of useful
pounds, including PCs, GSH, metallothioneins, as well as other antiox products, microalgal growth is largely dependent on the occurrence of
idants (Otondo et al., 2018). sufficient nutrients in the development media. Micronutrients, vitamins,
Reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as free radical damage, can be and trace minerals, in addition to the two macronutrients of nitrogen
significantly reduced by microalgae’s production of GSH and ASC - two and phosphorus, are required for proper microalgal growth shown in
important antioxidants produced by the microalga. Scavenging ROS and Fig. 3. The majority of organic and inorganic nutrients reported to be
maintaining the ascorbic acid-glutathione (ASC-GSH) path are ways in useful for cultivating microalgae are found in wastewater (Marazzi et al.,
which ASC protects microalgal cells. Microalgae also generate a sub 2020). Different wastewaters are being treated with different microalgal
stantial amount of ASC, which acts as a hydrophilic redox buffer, pro strains to achieve beneficial results. Mixotrophic microalgae could be
tecting the cytosol as well as other cellular components from oxidative used to efficiently treat wastewater, generating high biomass and
damage. High amounts of GSH, on the other hand, preserve microalgae increased lipid content. Adding 5 g/L glucose to residential wastewater,
by restoring the substrate for other antioxidants, giving tolerance, for example, can boost total lipid, carbohydrate, and protein content,
scavenging free radicals, and promoting the production of PCs and ASC respectively (Amenorfenyo et al., 2019). In this respect, the efficacy of
(Li et al., 2019). microalgae for wastewater treatment has been established in several
Microalgae remove heavy metals in two steps. Biosorption is the first papers. Municipal wastewater has a significant number of heavy metals
stage, which is followed by slow intracellular transport and the buildup and requires three tedious processes in traditional treatment, namely
of positive ions (bioaccumulation). Polysaccharides (cellulose as well as primary, secondary and tertiary; whereas, accomplishment has been
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A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
obtained employing microalgae, depending on the technology used for solar radiation along with CO2 assimilated by chloroplasts. Organic
treating community wastewater (Naushad et al., 2015). carbon molecules are the primary energy and carbon source for het
The wastewater created by animal manure leaches into bodies of erotrophic microalgae in such a heterotrophic nutritional configuration,
water, resulting in a large amount of contaminated wastewater all over resulting in greater biomass productivity and the economics of
the world. Animal wastewater has the greatest nitrogen-to-phosphorus large-scale production. Because they can use both autotrophic as well as
ratio, with ammonia accounting for more than half of the nitrogen. heterotrophic mechanisms to obtain organic carbon and carbon dioxide
This ratio is influenced substantially by the kind, age, nutrition, loca from the atmosphere, some photosynthesis algae may be capable of
tion, as well as the environment of the animals (Tang et al., 2021b). surviving in a mixotrophic environment (Nguyen et al., 2021).
Animal manure is commonly used in crop production to meet the Fertilizers and water are necessary to support the growth of micro
nutritional needs of the crops. The excrement leaches into the sur algae. In addition to synthetic fertilizer, other organic components can
rounding water, rendering it unfit for human and animal consumption be used by algae to generate biomass for value-added biofuels as well as
due to its incorrect nutrient ratio. Several successful attempts to clean chemicals, owing to increased demands. However, algae cultivation in
animal wastewaters, using a microalgae culture procedure that produces freshwater is not a practical procedure (Lutzu et al., 2021). As a result,
high-value products, have been made (Paddock, 2019). The quality of growing algae in wastewaters or steams offers actual benefits in terms of
industrial wastewater is determined by the types of waste-producing waste/pollutant remediation as well as valuable biomass for use in many
enterprises. In most situations, compared to heavy metals, industrial sectors. Algal culture necessitates the use of a large amount of water. It
wastewater has less phosphate and nitrogen than animal feces. Because has been estimated that 6000 L of water is consumed for every liter of
industrial wastewater releases a large number of contaminants into the algal oil produced in the traditional algal cultivation system. Water
environment, it must be treated quickly. In this regard, microalgae have provides the physical environment for algae growth, as well as for dis
been used as a biological treatment agent in addition to physical and tribution of nutrients, elimination of waste products, and acting as a
chemical treatments (Gupta et al., 2019). temperature controller. Therefore, combining algae-based biofuel gen
eration with wastewater cleanup is being deemed a cost-effective and
4.6. Microalgae’s importance in wastewater treatment environmentally sound technique. For this type of wastewater-depended
microalgal growing system, however, vast amounts of water can be
The microscopic photosynthetic organisms known as microalgae can conserved, along with the cost of the nutrients (P and N) (Arias et al.,
be found in both marine and freshwater environments around the world. 2018).
As a result of their basic cellular structure as well as the fact that they are
submerged in an aqueous environment, their photosynthetic potential is 4.7. Bioremediation of microalgae in wastewater treatment reactors
nearly as high as that of terrestrial plants (Vo et al., 2020). In general,
they are better at converting solar energy into biomass. A microalga is a Many microalgal-depended bioremediation investigations are un
single cell, chain, or floc that can be found in both marine, as well as dertaken in flasks; however, large-scale cultivation in reactors may be
freshwater environments, and is thought to be one of the planet’s more valuable. Open pond raceways, as well as photobioreactors, can be
earliest life forms, with a size ranging from several microns to hundreds used as microalgal cultivation reactors. The open pond system, with or
of microns. Unlike other plants, microalgae (Thallophytes) don’t have a without a paddle wheel, is often viewed as one of the most cost-effective
root system, leaves, or stems. They also lack a sterile cell layer sur algae production systems. An open pond system is affected by a variety
rounding their reproductive cells (Kadir et al., 2018). Their principal of environmental factors, including the location of the pond, evapora
photosynthetic pigment is chlorophyll. Due to their ability to grow from tion, and contamination from other undesirable organisms. HRAP,
a cellular level up, microalgae can adapt to changing environmental spherical ponds, raceway ponds, and slope systems, among other open
conditions and continue to thrive over time. Algae’s ability to adapt systems, are being now employed for algae cultivation using wastewa
their nutrient requirements to their environment is among their most ters (Salbitani and Carfagna, 2021). This mechanism eliminated up to 85
important evolutionary traits. There are a variety of ways in which algal percent of nitrogen as NH+ 4 . Another study on piggery wastewater
growth can take place, including autotrophic, heterotrophic, and mixed treatment using the HRAP system found that it aids inconsistent as well
modes. For their growth, autotrophic as well as phototrophic algae rely as competent nitrogen, along with carbon oxidation performance, with
solely on inorganic carbon sources, Light from the sun powers photo average COD and TKN elimination efficiencies of 76 and 88%, respec
trophic algae, which suck up CO2 from the atmosphere (Agarwal et al., tively. The wastewater treatment using microalgae, its application, and
2019). Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as well as oxygen, the energy form its limitations were given in Table 1.
useable by autotrophic algae, are produced during photosynthesis from Despite the high initial and operational costs of photobioreactors for
6
A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
Table 1
Microalgae production and its applications in wastewater treatment (60–63).
Production method Projections Applications Limitations
Tubular More biomass production, Low cost compare to other Treating industrial wastewater and Fouling, High DO level, adverse pH
Photobioreactor production methods, best suitable for outdoors possible wastewater treatment
Tic Bag Good sterility and low-cost method – Used plastic bags disposal into waste create
Photobioreactor problem in production
Flat-panel Easy scale up production, less DO level, low-cost method, best possible wastewater treatment Algal biomass formation, temperature
Photobioreactor suitable for outdoors control, and stress issues
algae cultivation, they are often more competent in terms of biomass viability It does, nevertheless, suffer significant limitations, as it is
output owing to the greater control over culture conditions as well as difficult to form stable consortia due to the wide range of conceivable
contamination that they provide (Su, 2021). Photobioreactors have combinations. Furthermore, maintaining consortia for extended periods,
gained popularity in recent years as a means of improving wastewater particularly in an open pond scheme, has been proven to be difficult (Li
treatment along with microalgae. In a closed photobioreactor, cyano et al., 2018).
bacteria from wastewater and a diverse group of microalgae are
co-cultivated. The culture medium in this reactor is an amalgamation of
5.1. Microalgae-bacteria (MB) consortia
urban supplementary effluent and digestate. The presence or absence of
carbon, phosphorus volumetric load, inorganic phosphorus concentra
Microalgae and bacteria can create symbiotic relationships in the
tion, total inorganic nitrogen, as well as various species present in the
form of mutualism, parasitism, or commensalism. Bacteria heterotro
consortium all contributed to the removal of nutrients and the produc
phically manufacture carbon dioxide as well as other essential nutrients
tion of biomass, according to the findings. Using wastewater as a
that microalgae use for growth. In exchange, bacteria benefit from the
nutrient supplier for photobioreactor growth has been demonstrated in
O2 produced by microalgae during photosynthesis. Furthermore, bac
this study (Kaloudas et al., 2021).
teria feed microalgae with growth-promoting hormones as well as
vitamin B, both of which are required for growth. This symbiotic
5. Binary culture to augment microalgal wastewater
interaction also defends the microalgae from invasion by other species.
phycoremediation
Bacteria can cause mutilation to the microalgal cell wall to access
intracellular nutrients. This feature is particularly useful during the
Binary cultures that exist in the form of consortia (microalgae-
harvesting step when cell shattering is necessary to obtain the desired
microalgae or microalgae-bacteria) are being comprehensively
product; thus, lowering the cost as well as the time of downstream
described for improved wastewater treatment, owing to their greater
biorefinery treatment (Jaiswal et al., 2020). The microalgae harvesting
nutrient elimination capabilities and increased biomass creation. Poly
techniques are shown in Fig. 4. The dead algal cells are also used as a
cultures can be linked with a range of metabolic activities to enable
nutrition source by the MB-consortia. Bacteria and microalgae may
them to thrive in demanding conditions, allowing them to form powerful
restrict each other’s growth by excreting specific molecules. This char
biological systems for wastewater treatment (Sharma et al., 2014). One
acteristic can help save money on sterilizing by reducing the risk of
strain removes nitrogen, while the second removes heavy metals. Thus,
contamination. In a lab-scale photobioreactor, the MB-consortia have
integrated consortia consume nutrients at a quicker rate. In effect, the
shown to be successful at removing carbon (59–80%), phosphorus
advantages of such polycultures include: (i) increased nutrient con
(35–88%), and nitrogen (43–89%) from municipal wastewater (You
sumption ensures sufficient nutrient sources throughout the entire
et al., 2021). Furthermore, for the treatment of aquaculture effluents, a
process, (ii) advancement of a flocculation system that is settleable, thus
marine algal-microbial consortium (Pseudomonas sp., Chitrinomycetes,
eliminating harvesting limitations, (iii) development of a settleable
along with Picochlorum sp.) was established, which exhibited up to 95%
mechanism for flocculation, and (iv) increased phycoremediation
removal effectiveness in 4–5 h. In group reactors refined with the
7
A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
MB-consortia, total phosphorus and total nitrogen removal from home 5.4. Carbon dioxide fixation
wastewater improved by 46 percent and 12 percent, respectively. The
MB consortium of B. licheniformis + C. vulgaris resulted in the removal of CO2 emissions totaled 6870 MMT (Million metric tonnes) in 2014,
COD (86.5%), TP (80.2%), along with TN (88.9%) from synthetic accounting for 81% of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and a
wastewater with excellent efficiency (Nzayisenga et al., 2020). In an significant contributor to global warming. GHG emissions from indus
outdoor cultivation system, the symbiotic interaction between chlorella trial processes accounted for 21% of the total emissions. When
and proteobacteria removed 72% TN, whereas an indoor cultivation compared to any other photosynthetic organisms, microalgae are being
system employing piggery effluent removed 100 percent TP and 83% Zn. thought to have the greatest ability to fix atmospheric carbon. Algae
have been intensively researched for their ability to reduce carbon di
oxide levels in the biosphere by photosynthetic fixation. Their ability to
5.2. Microalgae-microalgae consortia sequester carbon dioxide is 10–50 times greater than that of terrestrial
plants (Hariz et al., 2019). Microalgae can be transformed into carbon
Increasing biomass-specific lipid production in diverse communities dioxide from industrial gas along with the atmosphere into organic
rather than monocultures may reduce the problems as well as obstacles biomass with high chemical energy, such as carotenoid, bioethanol,
affiliated with microalgal cultivation by harnessing the synergistic ef acetone, and lipids. Because they contain external carbonic anhydrase,
fects of multiple algal species. Moreover, biomass stability is a crucial several microalgae, including C. reinhardtii, D. terteolacta, Chlorococcum
prerequisite of mass farming and is related to diversity. Furthermore, littorale, C. pyrenoidosa, and S. obliquus, have demonstrated the ability of
primary producer communities with a wide range of features have more HCO3-1 along with carbon dioxide utilization (Nguyen et al., 2022;
assortment. Polyculture of 15 native-algal strains resulted in more than Smaali et al., 2021). When compared to the control, immobilized Nan
96% nutrient elimination efficacy, 6.82% lipid content, and 9.2–17.8 nochloropsis sp. mitigated greater than 99% carbon dioxide in second
tonnes per year per hectare of biomass production (Alam and Wang, ary POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent) with concurrent lipid production of
2019). When cultivated under photoautotrophic conditions, mixed 0.35 g/L, which was 1.41-fold greater. Cell growth and lipid buildup
microalgal cultures primarily comprising Chlorella with tiny levels of were enhanced when S. obliquus was grown in beer effluent supple
Scenedesmus were able to remove 31 mg per liter of phosphate and 481 mented with 5% of CO2. During the entire year and the summer,
mg per liter of nitrogen from textile wastewater. Chlorella sp. poly microalgae-based sludge treatment lowered CO2 emissions by 22–54%
cultures were able to remove 100% of nitrates from swine wastewater, and 43–95%, respectively. The use of immobilized Nannochloropsis sp.
as well as lipid and protein content accumulated significantly in the ratio to phycoremediate palm oil mill secondary effluents resulted in a CO2
of 59% and 34 percent, respectively. Lipid content, on the other hand, mitigation efficacy of greater than 99% (Fallahi et al., 2021; Seid et al.,
accounts for only 3% of the entire biomass composition (Peter et al., 2022; Berkani et al., 2022; Doan et al., 2021).
2021). The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere can affect the number of algal
metabolites. By exposing D. tertiolecta, C. minutissima, C. reinhardtii, and
S. obliquus to augmented CO2 concentrations, they were able to generate
5.3. Myco-algal consortia higher fatty acid content. A biomass result of 1.4 g/L for strain UMN268
has been ascertained as well as linked to nutrient intake in another
Microalgae exist in the form of lichens, which naturally coexist with study, which cultivated eight regionally isolated microalgal strains
fungi. Both partners profit from this strategy: fungi receive necessary under a CO2 feed of 20%. The carbohydrate amount of total dry cell mass
nutrients and carbohydrates from algae, while microalgae are protected was enhanced by 55–71%, when Asterarcys quadricellulare and
from abiotic stress. It is hypothesized that this organization can function C. sarokiniana were subject to significant levels of CO2. When fed with 25
independently to enhance the overall performance as well as the eco percent CO2, S. bajacalifornicus produced 25.81% lipids and 26.19%
nomics of the integrated microalgal sector on a wide scale. Furthermore, carbohydrates. Changing the CO2 concentration has been shown to alter
fungal pellets might act as natural coagulants, increasing microalgal the content as well as the composition of algal metabolites, and this
flocculation and facilitating harvesting. These pellets can also be used to manipulation can be employed to generate the correct metabolite sub
remediate wastewater by capturing sludge solids. Furthermore, lipids stance in specific microalgal strains (Vasseghian et al., 2022). It’s
make up around 30% of total fungal biomass, making them ideal can essential to bear in mind that the solubility extent structure of CO2 in
didates for biodiesel production (Paddock et al., 2020). wastewater does need to be studied in the future, as wastewater from
Phosphate and total ammonia along nitrogen (TAN) intensities in diverse sources may have various ranges of soluble CO2 due to the na
synthetic aquaculture effluent were decreased to virtually undetectable ture, location, and origin of the wastewater (Paddock et al., 2020;
levels using a mixed culture of C. vulgaris and Mucor indicus. A total of Nagarajan et al., 2019; Hariz et al., 2019; Fallahi et al., 2021).
860 mg DW of myco-algal biomass was flocculated using this method.
Algal-fungal co-cultivation was used to upgrade biogas and treat 6. Challenges
household sewage wastewater at the same time, removing 81 percent of
TP and COD. Likewise, co-cultivation of C. vulgaris along with Gano Despite having several enticing qualities for heavy metal bioreme
derma lucidum reduced COD, TP, and TN concentrations from swine diation, microalgae nevertheless confront several obstacles, including
wastewater treatment by 84%, 74%, and 79%, respectively. Further contamination by other microorganisms, nutritional fluctuation, diffi
more, for biogas up-gradation, a combination of G. lucidum along with culty in downstream processing, high TSS along with turbidity, and
P. subcapitata successfully eliminated carbon dioxide with an efficiency harvesting microalgae biomass, and others. It is shown in Table 2 how
of 84% (Nagarajan et al., 2019). These investigations have established the use of microalgae-based biosorption for heavy metal removal may be
that myco-algal relationships can improve wastewater treatment jeopardized by obstacles and possible solutions to problems that may
perspective, as well as the fact that fungal pellet can help with algal establish during deployment. Microalgal strains, as well as treatment
biomass harvesting. However, more research is needed to determine the methods, should be improved to increase the removal efficiency of
influence of myco-algal interactions on microalgal metabolite content, heavy metals and reduce the operating costs of the plant. Consequently,
as the occurrence of fungi in the culture, media might significantly alter each will be discussed in detail below.
extracellular as well as intracellular algal metabolites, and enhancing or
even lowering the amount of any desired molecule. Fungal pellets, on 7. Prospects
the other hand, may interfere with the post-harvest processing of algal
biomass for the retrieval of any organic components. As a result of all of the advantages that microalgae have for the
8
A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
bioremediation of heavy metals, the future of large-scale use looks good 8. Conclusion
if a few things are taken into account. The limitations and advantages
are shown in Fig. 5. First and foremost, in the bioremediation of heavy Microalgae have the potential to be used for both wastewater
metals-containing wastewater, screening and selecting appropriate treatment and biofuel generation at the same time. Microalgal strains
microalgae strains is critical. The microalgae should be able to: (i) store can accumulate nutrients, such as ammonia, phosphorus, and heavy
a lot of lipids as well as other valuable co-products, (ii) store CO2 as well metals, in wastewater. Microalgae strains showed a wide range of
9
A.K. Priya et al. Chemosphere 305 (2022) 135375
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Acknowledgments
microalgae for treatment of nutrient rich wastewater from agro-based industries. Sci.
Total Environ. 687, 1107–1126.
The author (S.R) acknowledges the support of ANID, Chile through Hariz, H.B., Takriff, M.S., Yasin, N.H.M., Ba-Abbad, M.M., Hakimi, N.I.N.M., 2019.
the project ANID/FONDAP/15110019. Potential of the microalgae-based integrated wastewater treatment and CO2 fixation
system to treat Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) by indigenous microalgae;
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