1 s2.0 S0959652622024490 Main

Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132855
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Exploring the integration of bioelectrochemical systems and hydroponics:

Possibilities, challenges, and innovations
Shuyao Wang a, Ademola Adekunle b, *, Vijaya Raghavan a
a
Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore Road, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, H9X 3V9, Canada
b
National Research Council of Canada, 6100 Avenue Royalmount, Montréal, QC, H4P 2R2, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Cecilia Maria Villas Bôas de Hydroponics is a modern cultivation technique that utilizes nutrient solutions instead of soil for crop production.
Almeida Currently, challenges, such as high cost, high energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission, and significant
wastewater generation are drawbacks that limit its scale up. On the other hand, bioelectrochemical systems have
Keywords: emerged as a sustainable technology that resolve some of the aforementioned drawbacks, albeit in other sce
Bioelectrochemical systems
narios. Bioelectrochemical systems applications are well documented in desalination, metal recovery, energy
Hydroponic technology
generation, contamination remediation etc. This work conceptualizes the integration of bioelectrochemical
Sustainable hydroponic agriculture
Clear energy production systems and hydroponics with a view to improving the efficiency and sustainability of hydroponics. Firstly, a
systematic review of the main challenges hindering hydroponic agriculture development is first carried out to
identify possible entry points for the proposed systems integration. Thereafter, a conceptualized point-by-point
resolution of the main identified challenges of hydroponic systems through bioelectrochemical systems inte
gration is explored. Furthermore, the feasibility, stability, and scalability of the conceptualized hydroponic-
bioelectrochemical integrated systems are discussed.
sustainable way to address the water and soil scarcity, improve the
1. Introduction productivity of various crops species and help to face the challenges of
climate change (Shafeena, 2016; Sardare and Admane, 2013) Nutrients
The growth rate of the global human population is 1.1% or around 83 used in hydroponic systems come from a wide range of sources, such as
million annually (Nations, 2017), making the optimization of land area manure, chemical fertilizers, wastewater, artificial nutrient solutions,
and the conservation of biodiversity more challenging. According to etc. (Jones Jr, 2016). According to Barbosa et al. (2015), the land re
FAO (Bruinsma, 2003), a projected net increase in the arable area of 120 quirements of the hydroponic systems can be ten times less and the
million ha (12%) will happen in developing countries by 2030 (from 956 yields can be over 11 times greater than traditional agriculture. In
to 1076 million ha). With more water, food, and living habitat needed addition, when compared with soil cultivation (0.23 kg carbon dioxide
for agricultural cultivation, emerging environmental problems (CO2) equivalent), hydroponic systems have low gas emissions (0.11 kg
including forest loss, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change CO2 equivalent) (Martinez-Mate et al., 2018). It also has significant
implications are to be expected (Ramankutty et al., 2018). Besides potential to save water as water is recycled in hydroponic set originalups
problems for human health, agriculture and decreasing crop yields are (Kumar and Cho, 2014), and as much as 33% of water was recycled in a
also to be expected to be affected (Kinnunen et al., 2020; Rohr et al., hydroponic system used for tomatoes (Grewal et al., 2011). Other ad
2019). Soil, the most favorable and available support matrix in agri vantages of hydroponic cultivation systems include that they can be
culture will be particularly affected due to increased erosion, compac grown in urban areas, are not limited by season, efficiently use fertil
tion, degradation, leading to a decline of topographical conditions, etc., izers, and the whole cultivation can be controlled (Hussain et al., 2014;
all causing limiting agricultural productivity. Liu et al., 2012; Modu et al., 2020).
In recent times, hydroponic agriculture has gained popularity as the The productivity and quality of hydroponic system crops are mark
promise of growing terrestrial plants by solely exposing their roots edly dependent on the nutrients acquired from the growing solution
exposed to a nutritious liquid removes the reliance on the soil as a (Valentinuzzi et al., 2015). It is interesting to note that the root physi
growing medium (dos Santos et al., 2013). It is an environmentally ological process is affected by both the availability levels of the nutrients
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shuyao.wang@mail.mcgill.ca (S. Wang), ademola.adekunle@mail.mcgill.ca (A. Adekunle), vijaya.raghavan@mcgill.ca (V. Raghavan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132855
Received 11 January 2022; Received in revised form 25 May 2022; Accepted 21 June 2022
Available online 23 June 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Wang et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132855
Abbreviations SS Static solution

AS Aeroponic system
Symbols Description NOx Nitrogen oxides
BES Bioelectrochemical system SO2 Sulfur dioxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide CH4 Methane
MFC Microbial fuel cell GWP Global warming potential
MDC Microbial desalination cell PMFC Plant microbial fuel cell
MES Microbial electrosythesis cell CW Constructed wetland
EBC Enzymatic biofuel cell HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography
MRC Microbial reverse-electrodialysis cell GC Gas chromatography
MSC Microbial solar cell BOD Biological oxygen demand
MEC Microbial electrolysis cell COD Chemical oxygen demand
CFS Continuous flow solution
in the medium solution and the interactions among the different nutri commercially feasible associated with PMFC, various factors (e.g., car
ents (Sambo et al., 2019). Besides, temperature, pH, allelopathy/auto bon dioxide concentration in air, light intensity, electrode materials,
toxicity phenomenon, etc. all have a huge influence on hydroponic type of plants, etc.), and the possibility of future intervention (e.g.,
systems. Environmental temperature monitoring, plant health, high application of biochar and preferable plants). Apollon et al. (2021)
initial cost, gas production, high energy consumption, a huge amount of provided the recent configuration development of PMFC and evaluated
water needed as the solvent, discharge of nutrition wastewater treat the performance of PMFC in different water conditions (including power
ment, more quickly speed of disease in solution, etc. are the main density, the requirements to generate bioelectricity, as well the
challenges associated with hydroponic systems. bioelectricity measurements and calculations). Wang et al. (2020)
Bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) are a group of biotechnologies, summarized the wastewater treatment and electricity production
which exploit the activities of microorganisms or enzymes to convert mechanism of various CWL-MFCs in terms of microorganisms, elec
chemical energy from waste (e.g. wastewater, polluted soil, sediment, trodes, substrates, and wetland plants. As can be seen, most of the pre
etc.) into sustainable bioelectricity, fuels, or generation of useable by- vious review articles are largely focused on the development of BES
products (Hoang et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2019). The major types of technologies, the application in industry, or the principle and mecha
BES include microbial fuel cell (MFC), microbial desalination cell nism of PMFC. As mentioned above, although hydroponics is very
(MDC), microbial electrosynthesis cell (MES), enzymatic biofuel cell important for agricultural production, as far as we know, there is no
(EBC), microbial reverse-electrodialysis cell (MRC), microbial solar cell detailed exploration and discussion of the potential applications of BES
(MSC), and microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) (Ivase et al., 2020). BESs for specific problems in hydroponic agriculture. Therefore, different
can also be integrated with advanced technologies such as photo from the exist review papers, our work not only limit to the development
catalysts to produce hydrogen (Patil et al., 2019), or photobioreactors to of hydroponic agriculture and BES, but also proposed the concept of
convert hydrogen to more clean energy and pure water (Sirohi et al., BES-hydroponic systems.
2022). BESs are used mostly for renewable power generation, waste This article explores the potential for the usage of renewable sus
water treatment, biosensors, nutrients recovery/removal, etc. tainable BES for resolving several problems with hydroponic agricul
(Hadiyanto et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2018b; Li et al., 2018). In 2008, ture. To date, only one study attempted to combine both systems for
this technology was first merged with plants to form a hybrid system domestic wastewater treatment and chemical removal, achieving 72 ±
consisting of biocontrol and bio-process structures, mainly involving the 2.4% COD, 83 ± 1.1% phosphate, 35 ± 4.2% ammonia removal effi
conversion of excess organic matter into bioelectricity by microbes ciencies, and the maximum power density of 31.9 mW/m2 (Yadav et al.,
living around the rhizosphere region of the plant (Schamphelaire et al., 2020). However, no study has focused on the development of BES or its
2008). As autotrophs, plants use solar energy to produce biomass with potential in the hydroponic research field. In this work, we first present
the help of chlorophyll; while 40% of the biomass will be consumed by an overview of hydroponic agriculture cultivation with the help of
itself, the remaining part will be exuded to the rhizosphere region (Strik bibliometric analysis. Thereafter, we conceptualize how problems
et al., 2008). The promising nature of these plants combined with BES identified with traditional hydroponic system cultivation can be solved
means that besides electricity generation, they can also be easily inte with BES. The possible characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of
grated into the existing indoor-based agricultural system without BES in hydroponic systems were also discussed. Based on the in-depth
competition with plants (Nitisoravut and Regmi, 2017). study and analysis of BESs in hydroponic systems, the main problems
For a period of 5 years (2017–2022), about 668 review articles of BES-hydroponic systems such as the lack of in-depth discussion and
(Scopus data) reviewed the different aspects of BESs, including waste mechanism between BESs and hydroponic systems, the monitoring
water treatment (Al-Sahari et al., 2021; Cecconet et al., 2020; Yan et al., obstacle of the chemicals in hydroponic systems, the risk of
2019), valuable products recovery (Das et al., 2019; Zou and He, 2018), over-complicate systems, etc. were reviewed. Various solutions in
fundamental principles and mechanisms (Gul and Ahmad, 2019; Ivase BES-hydroponic systems include optimizing BES-hydroponic systems,
et al., 2020; Logan et al., 2019), mathematical models for BESs (Gadkari focusing on the mechanism between BES and plant growth, exploring
et al., 2018), environmental remediation (Fernando et al., 2019; Wang the model systems and more advanced BES systems, as well as the uti
et al., 2021) and valuable chemical synthesis (e.g., CO, H2O2, etc.) lizing of decision tree were proposed.
(Barbosa et al., 2021; Q. Zhao et al., 2021). In addition, some of the The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 addresses the
previous review articles have outlined the combination of BES with problems in hydroponic systems. Section 3 proposes the concept,
plants and constructed wetland (CWL). For example, Kabutey et al. configuration, and problems advantages of BES-hydroponic systems.
(2019) comprehensively reviewed the fundamental aspects of PMFCs in Section 4 analysis the influencing factors, economic analysis, and
terms of living plants, supporting matrix, rhizosphere microorganisms, environmental impact of BES-hydroponic systems. Section 5 discusses
mechanism of substrate conversion, and electron transfer. Maddalwar the limitations and presents the potential development direction of BES-
et al. (2021) presented an extensive review of the challenges and hydroponic systems. Section 6 conclude this paper.
2
2. The overview view of hydroponic systems shortcomings are existed, such as the requirement of special knowledge,
high energy consumption, greenhouse gas emission, and the system
2.1. Hydroponic systems must be monitored (Adler et al., 2000). These problems are first dis
cussed in detail in this section, thereafter, the possible roles of BES in
Hydroponic also called soilless cultivation, is a system supplying resolving these problems will be explored.
plants with nutrients (water and minerals) with or without growing
medium (e.g., clay, rocks, peat moss, etc.) (Goddek et al., 2019; Kozai, 2.2.1. High energy consumption
2018). The term ‘Hydroponic’ literal translation means water work, Hydroponic systems require at least a pump apparatus to support the
which was derived from two Greek words, ‘hydro’ and ‘ponos’ meaning circulation of nutrient solution and an auxiliary heating system to
water and labor, respectively (Sharma et al., 2018). The timeline of maintain the optimum temperature inside the greenhouse in cold
hydroponic agriculture development is shown in Fig. 1(a). There are weather, especially at night (Benli, 2013). The temperature of the
three main culture technologies in hydroponic cultivation methods, nutrient solution has an inverse relation with dissolved oxygen. When
continuous flow solution (CFS) culture, static solution (SS) culture, and the oxygen level is below 3–4 mg/L, the roots will be inhibited growth
aeroponic system (AS) (Khan, 2018). The main difference, advantages, and change to a brown color due to the lack of oxygen (Patil et al.,
and disadvantages between these three systems are shown in Table 1. 2020). The root uptake and solubility of fertilizers are also get affected
CFS culture has two main types, nutrient film technique and deep flow by the nutrient solution temperature (Patil et al., 2020). Thus, the en
technique (Fig. 1(b) and (c)), and it utilizes a pump to collect circulate ergy consumption of the hydroponic system is very high, usually 17%
and reuse the nutrient solution in the hydroponic system (Maharana and higher than traditional land cultivation (Martinez-Mate et al., 2018).
Koul, 2011). SS culture has three main types, the root dipping system, Depending on the layout of the structure, the average energy con
the floating system, as well as capillary action system (Fig. 2(d)-(f)). sumption for the hydroponic plant can reach up to the ranges between
Unlike CFS culture, the nutrient solution in the SS culture system is not 14 and 17 kWh/m2 (Xydis et al., 2017). Of this total energy, heat con
recirculated (Maharana and Koul, 2011). AS is an advanced form of sumption corresponds to 95.3% (Vourdoubas, 2015). In the past, com
hydroponic system, which anchors the roots of plants in the air or mist bustion of natural gas, liquefied petroleum, or fossil-fuel-fired heating
environment (Lakhiar et al., 2020) (Fig. 2(g)). To date, many plants have systems has been used. However, these systems emit greenhouse gases
been successfully grown by hydroponic technology (Table 2) and the per and atmospheric pollutants (Benli, 2013). Such as in the Midwestern
area yield of the hydroponic greenhouse is more than open agriculture United States, coal-fired as the main energy source for the hydroponic
(Table 3) (Singh and Singh, 2012). Light intensity, temperature, and air system causes nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), heavy metals,
humidity are the three key environmental factors to be monitored dur particulate matter, as well as one-third of CO2 in the US (Freese et al.,
ing hydroponic cultivation. Generally, the level of these factors needs to 2008). Moreover, due to the system depends on electricity, the power
be carefully maintained as too high or too low could be very detrimental outages will lead to harm to the planted crops (Sardare and Admane,
to plant growth. Thus, monitoring and focusing on the law of action of 2013).
these environmental factors could help hydroponic greenhouse better.
2.2.2. Greenhouse gas emission
Greenhouse gases emission (especially CO2 and methane (CH4)) is a
2.2. Practical obstacles in hydroponic agriculture major problem in hydroponic system cultivation (Halbert-Howard et al.,
2021; Martinez-Mate et al., 2018). According to Martinez-Mate et al.
Despite the advantages of the hydroponic technology, several
Fig. 1. (a) The timeline of hydroponic development and diagram of hydroponic structures of continuous flow solution culture (b) nutrient film method; (c) deep flow
method hydroponic system; (d) root dipping method; (e) floating method; (f) capillary action method; (g) aeroponic method.
3
Table 1
The classification and characteristics of hydroponic culture technology (Hayden, 2006; Khan, 2018; Maharana and Koul, 2011).
Hydroponic Branches Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
culture
technology
Continuous flow Nutrient film Nutrient solution is pumped through the tube then • automatic control solution feeding • high energy consumption.
solution technique flow over the roots of plants, finally drain back to the • periodically supply a certain amount of • more greenhouse gas emission
culture reservoir. nutrient solution • easy to be affected by autotoxicity
Deep flow Nutrient solution with 2–3 cm flow through PVC • precisely control the amount of delivered • sensitive affected by the multi-
technique pipes (10 cm diameter), which have some pots and nutrient solution factors of solutions, such as nutrient
plants in them.• • precisely monitor the growth by the components, pH, electrical conduc
targeted supply of nutrient solution tivity etc.
• successfully achieve the maximizing • special machines for wastewater
water resources by recycling the nutrient treatments and monitoring
solution • constant manual management for
• easily prevent soil-borne diseases and equipments and data treatments
control insects • hard to process wastewater
• independently grow and produce crops, • high cost at large commercial scales
instead of soil type/quality of the • the electricity outages harm for the
cultivated area planted crops
• achieve vertical farming production
which increase the yield of the area unit
• achieve continuous production
throughout the year
Static solution Root dipping Nutrition solution in pots grows continuously, then • simpler constructure than continuous
culture method the bottom of pots (2–3 cm) is submerged into the flow solution culture
nutrient solution, and the roots of plants are dipped • easier than continuous flow solution
in the nutrient solution culture to use
Floating Nutrient solution is put in a shallow container (10 cm • more suitable for home use
method deep), plants are grown on a Styrofoam sheet which is • less cost than continuous flow solution
floated on the nutrient solution. culture
Capillary Nutrient solution is put in a shallow container with • more portable than continuous flow
action the covering of pots on it. Seedling/seeds are planted solution culture
method in the pots which is filled by inert medium. Nutrient • successfully achieve the maximizing
solution in shallow container reaches the inert water resources by recycling the nutrient
medium by the capillary action. solution
• easily prevent soil-borne diseases and
control insects
• higher yield production than soil-borne
crops
• independently grow and produce crops
• achieve vertical farming production
• achieve continuous production
Aeroponic – An advanced form anchors the roots of plants in air or • more easily transplant aeroponic plant,
system mist environment. without transplant shock
• avoid the disease travel though the
nutrient solution
• increase aeration of nutrient solution
delivers more oxygen to plant roots,
stimulating growth and preventing
pathogen formation
• efficient food production, higher
yielding, healthy and fresh food
products.
• more succeeds in vertical growing
arrangements and efficiently use the
space
• virtually no grow medium used
• maximum nutrient absorption by
spraying the nutrient rich solution onto
the root system
• suitable for low leafy vegetables like
lettuce, spinach, etc.
• can be designed to achieve continuous
production throughout the year.
(2018), the total area of greenhouse gas emissions from the hydroponic CH4 emission since hydroponic systems mimic the growing conditions of
system was equivalent to 25,724 kg CO2eqha− 1year− 1, more than twice rice farming - one of the main anthropogenic sources of methane
as high as the soil cultivation production (11,760 kg CO2eqha− 1year− 1). emission (between 9 and 19%).
The estimates of global CH4 emission rates from rice fields range from 20 In brief, the anoxic environment caused by a waterlogged condition
to 100 Tg year− 1 (1 Tg = 1 million tons) (Camilia et al., 2018). The CH4 (e.g., in rice fields and hydroponic systems) is conducive to CH4 pro
potential of crops varied from 0.17 to 0.49 m3 CH4 kg− 1 VSadded (volatile duction by the anaerobic methanogenic bacteria (Akhtar et al., 2022).
solids added) and from 25 to 260 m3 CH4 t− 1 ww (tons of wet weight) These methanogens metabolically reduce organic carbon to produce
(Lehtomäki, 2006). In particular, CH4 with 25 times higher global methane in a process referred to as methanogenesis (Lyu et al., 2018).
warming potential (GWP) than CO2 constitutes a major part of these Different types of conditions that can be found in the hydroponic system
emissions (Paul et al., 2020). Careful attention needs to be paid to the such as neutral pH level, the application of organic manure or fertilizers,
4
Fig. 2. Model of a hydroponic microbial fuel cell including the basic principles.
as well as roots submergence in deep water increase the population and now, the major way to clean the nutrient solution is exclusion or
activities of methanogenic bacteria. Until now, not too many studies detoxification, such as activated charcoal (Asaduzzaman and Asao,
reported hydroponic greenhouse gas emissions control technology. 2020), application of amino acids (Mondal et al., 2015), and
electro-degradation, etc. in nutrient solution (Talukder et al., 2019).
2.2.3. Autotoxicity However, the activated charcoal and amino acids methods are not sus
Autotoxicity is also a major drawback in closed-loop hydroponic tainable, and probably have some influence on some specific crops, and
cropping systems, which would reduce the growth and yield of crops. the amount of them needs to be calculated carefully. Advanced tech
Autotoxicity is a form of allelopathy that happens within plants by the nology such as electro-degradation required more energy consumption,
release of a variety of phytotoxic chemicals (Singh et al., 1999). Several and the cost of the machine is normally high.
studies have demonstrated the adverse effect of autotoxicity on plant
performance during cultivation in closed hydroponic cropping systems 2.2.4. Nutrient solution related toxicity
(Hosseinzadeh et al., 2017). The influence of autotoxicity becomes more The productivity and quality of hydroponic crops are markedly
pronounced when crops are cultivated on the same soil for years or dependent on the extent of plant nutrients uptake from the growing
grown in recycled hydroponic solutions for several cultures (Zhao et al., solution medium (Valentinuzzi et al., 2015). Therefore, the fertilizer
2015). This condition is caused by toxic exudate accumulation in the salts required high solubility and must remain in the solution to be
media solution due to the continuous recycling of hydroponic nutrient available to the plants (Richa et al., 2020). The macro (e.g., N, P, K, Ca,
solution (Hosseinzadeh et al., 2017; Yu and Matsui, 1993). These Mg, S, etc.) and micro/trace (Fe, Mn, B, Cu, Zn, Mo, etc.) elements are
chemical substances can delay/inhibit germination and/or growth of the the mineral element composition of nutrient solution (Mohammed,
plant being cultivated (Mondal et al., 2015; Singh, H.P. et al., 1999). The 2018). Plants can acquire ions at very low concentrations when the
chemical substances, without fixed concentration, consist of mainly nutrient is continuously supplied in solution in the right equilibria
carbon, although concentrations are not fixed. Altogether, more than conditions (Steiner, 1961). However, a change in these conditions can
200 various carbon-based molecules have been found as part of root lead to excessive nutrient acquisition and plant toxicity (Asao, 2012).
exudates (Curl and Truelove, 2012). Several organic acids, such as lactic, The pH and electrical conductivity (EC) of the nutrient solution have
vanillic, succinic, salicylic, palmitic, benzoic, etc., have been proved in paramount importance in the formulation of the hydroponic nutrition
the reused nutrient solution (Hosseinzadeh et al., 2017). solution. In terms of the balance of anions over cations, the changes in
Plants’ age, species, cultivar, as well as environmental factors decide the pH depend on the difference in the magnitude of nutrient uptake by
the exudation profiles (Mimmo et al., 2011). Plants’ roots are first the plants (Suazo-López et al., 2014). The nutrient composition also
affected by phytotoxic chemicals in their rhizosphere, then water and determines the EC of the solution. The higher EC impedes the nutrient
nutrient element uptake are most affected (Blum and Gerig, 2005). Until uptake by increasing the osmotic pressure, while lower EC may severely
5
Table 2 Table 3
Plants are grown for the hydroponic system (Sharma et al., 2018; Singh and Yield comparisons between hydroponic and open field cultivation (Singh and
Singh, 2012). Singh, 2012).
Type of Name of crops Reference Type of Name of Open agriculture yield Hydroponic yield (kg
crops Common name Botanical name crops crops (kg per ha) per ha)
Cereals Rice Oryza sativa Liu et al. (2022)
Cereals Maize 1682.07 8971.0
Maize Zea mays Urbina et al. (2020)
Oat 953.18 3364.14
Wheat Triticum aestivum Yurina et al. (2019)
Peas 2242.76 15,699.32
Oat Avena sativa (Portero A et al., 2020)
Rice 841.03-1009.25 13,456.56
Soybean Glycin max Lebreton et al. (2018)
Soybean 672.83 1682.07
Peas Pisum sativum (Contreras P et al.,
Wheat 672.83 5606.9
2015)
Vegetables Beet 10,092.42 22,427.6
Vegetables Tomato Lycopersicon Yang and Kim (2020)
Cabbage 14,577.94 20,184.84
lycopersicum
Cauliflower 11,213.8-16,820.7 33,641.4
Chilli Capsicum Aji et al. (2020)
Cucumber 7849.66 31,398.64
frutescens
French bean – 47,097.96
Brinjal Solanum Chaudhary and Patel
Lady’s finger 5606.9-8971.04 21,306.22
melongena (2016)
Lettuce 10,092.42 23,548.98
Green bean Phaseolus vulgaris Latique et al. (2013)
Potato 17,925.98 156,852.29
Bell pepper Capsicum annum Khan et al. (2018)
Tomato 11,203.75-22,407.47 403,335.81
Beet Beta vulgaris crassa Sagardoy et al. (2009)
Potato Solanum tuberosum Asadi et al. (2018)
Swiss chard Beta vulgaris L. Singh et al. (2019)
Atriplex Atriplex patens Lomonte et al. (2010) L) and phosphate (P: 30–100 mg/L) (Richa et al., 2020; Park et al., 2005;
Cabbage Brassica oleracea Lira et al. (2020) Saxena and Bassi, 2013). Nitrate and phosphate discharge can induce
var. eutrophication in the receiving waters leading to algal blooms, depleting
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea Soares et al. (2020) O2 in the receiving water, and releasing toxins (Kumar and Cho, 2014).
Cucumber Cucumis sativus Pramanik et al. (2000)
Onion Allium cepa Pascual et al. (2018)
Besides, nitrate discharge is the origin of the loss of calcium and moving
Radish Raphanus sativus Sakamoto et al. (2021) into groundwater (Prystay and Lo, 2001). Other characteristics of hy
Spinach Spinacia oleracea L. Gao et al. (2020) droponic wastewater also include high salinity and low content of
Lettuce Latuca sativa Yang and Kim (2020) organic matter which may be unsuitable for some freshwater inhabitants
Fruits Strawberry Fragaria ananassa Zheng et al. (2019)
(Mielcarek et al., 2019).
Melons Cucumis melo (Jun and Jo, 2002)
Fodder crops Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Dominguez et al. The traditional hydroponic wastewater treatment way is recycling
(2020) the drainage water; however, the efficiency is low between 35 and 45%
Alfalfa Medicago sativa Zhao et al. (2021) (Rufí-Salís et al., 2020). Then, more effective include ultraviolet treat
Barley Hordeum vulgare Abd Elsallam et al. ment, denitrification-based treatment, constructed wetlands-based
(2021)
Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon Xie et al. (2014)
treatment, and microalgae-based treatment is developed (Richa et al.,
Carpet grass Axonopus Hassan et al. (2020) 2020). Although the wastewater treatment efficiency enhances to
compressus >90%, the cost of equipment and labor, and the consumption of energy
Flower Marigold Tagetes patula Bardiya-Bhurat et al. are also increased. Despite the microalgae-based treatment being the
(2017)
renewable and environmentally friendly way, the follow-up treatment
Roses Rosa berberifolia Alvarado-Camarillo
et al. (2018) and recovery of algae need further consideration and exploration.
Carnations Dianthus Medina (1991)
caryophyllus 2.2.6. High cost
Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum Bharti et al. (2019) Hydroponics has less impact on the environment than the soil agri
indicum
Condiments Parsley Petroselinum Martins et al. (2019)
cultural system causes almost all of them are located in the greenhouse
crispum (Lopez-Galvez et al., 2014). The selection and design of hydroponic
Mints Mentha spicata Bovi et al. (2001) greenhouses mainly depend on the environmental factors of the loca
Sweet basil Ocimum basilicum Yang and Kim (2020) tion, climate, and technology development accessibility. For example, in
Coriander leaves Coriandrum Silva et al. (2018)
the cold/hot climatic conditions, the hydroponic system will incur extra
sativum L.
Oregano Origanum vulgare Yeritsyan and costs for heating/cooling the growth environment. There are also min
Economakis (2001) imal design requirements, such as a minimum of 40 large plants or 72
Medicinal Aloe Aloe vera Salighehdar et al. small plants, e.g., banana peppers, bell peppers, lettuce, spinach, etc.
crops (2016) (Hochmuth et al., 2004). These design costs, other upfront costs (such as
Coleus Solenostemon Sundar et al. (2021)
pumps, pipes, and tanks greater), as well as running, monitoring, con
scutellarioides
trolling, and maintenance costs increase the cost of hydroponic systems
in comparison to conventional cultivation (Kozai et al., 2019; Sardare
affect plant health and yield (Signore et al., 2016; Sonneveld and Voogt, and Admane, 2013). In addition, high-level skills (e.g., crops’ produc
2009). The optimal pH and EC levels are between 5-7 and 0.8–2.5 dS/m, tion knowledge, adequate experience, technical skills) are always a
respectively (Hosseinzadeh et al., 2017). requirement for hydroponic systems management which shows a posi
Further, the management and control of diseases easily spread tive correlation with the complexity of the system (Khan, 2018; He and
through solutions are also major challenges for the hydroponic green Ma, 2010; Higashide et al., 2013).
house system (Geilfus, 2019). For example, a mold infection will spread
to all pant in a circulating hydroponic system (Silkova et al., 2011). 3. Hydroponic bioelectrochemical system: the quest for the
ideal setup
2.2.5. Wastewater management
Hydroponic wastewater could cause pollution and pose a significant 3.1. Bioelectrochemical systems
environmental concern to the environment when discharged directly
into the environment as it has a high amount of nitrate (N: 150–600 mg/ Bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) also called microbial
6
electrochemical systems, convert chemical energy into electrical energy which charged at a faster rate to the supercapacitor from 2.76 V to 4.5 V
by employing microbes as catalysts. BES has been employed in various in 30 min. When six sediment MFC modules were connected to charge
ways (biosensing, renewable energy production, wastewater treatment, the battery to 100%, the battery could be used for LED bulb lighting (7
nutrients recovery, etc.) to achieve many goals. Specifically, the com W, 230 V, 50 Hz). In addition, capacitor-MFC, charge pump-MFC, boost
mon types include: MFC, generating electrical energy via degrading converter-MFC, and maximum power point tracking-MFC systems are
organic matters (Santoro et al., 2017); MDC, providing desalinated all been proven to efficiently harvest the energy generated by MFC (Gul
water from seawater/brackish water (Brastad and He, 2013); MEC, et al., 2021). Based on the above, the renewable sustainable energy
synthesizing value-added chemicals and commodities by a poised bio recovered from PMFC bioelectricity generation can be used for lighting
cathode (Wang and Ren, 2013); EBC, relying on purified redox enzymes LED, heating, monitoring, pumping, recycling, and wastewater treat
(e.g., glucose oxidase, laccase, etc.) to achieve electrocatalytic reactions ment, vital to the hydroponic system, overall reducing the energy
(Le Goff et al., 2015); MRC, capturing energy from salinity gradients requirements.
between salt and fresh water. With the help of bacterial oxidation of
organic matter/oxygen reduction, MRC effectively captures energy, 3.3. Gas emission
generates hydrogen, or produces chemicals for the carbon dioxide cap
ture from the salinity gradients (Kim and Logan, 2011; Nam et al., 2012; As discussed in the previous subsection, under waterlogged condi
Zhu et al., 2014); MSC, utilizing photoautotrophic microorganisms or tions, the main pathway of gas exchange with the rhizosphere is through
higher plants to harvest solar energy to generate electricity or chemicals the aerenchyma of plants (90%) leading to the formation of CH4 (Aulakh
(e.g., hydrogen, methane, ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, etc.) (Fischer, et al., 2000; Bazhin, 2010). Firstly, plants release available organic
2018; Pagnoncelli et al., 2018; Z. Zhao et al., 2021); MEC, generating compounds for methanogens through root exudates to enhance methane
hydrogen by a microbial electrical supply along with an externally production. Meanwhile, plants deliver oxygen into the rhizosphere and
applied voltage (Jafary et al., 2015). As a result of the versatility of BESs, accentuate methane oxidation. More important, plants could serve as a
they can, therefore, be integrated with other technologies, e.g., algal conduit for methane to bypass the aerobic zones and thus strongly
photobioreactors, capacitive deionization, membrane bioreactors, increasing methane emission fluxes (Liu et al., 2017). Therefore, a
MFC-driven-MEC, etc. in hybrid system configurations to enhance the promising route for mitigation of CH4 emission is to prevent the for
overall performance (energy consumption/generation, contaminant mation or in some cases utilization of formed CH4 in the rhizosphere
removal, metal removal/recovery) (Xiao et al., 2012; Yuan et al., 2012) area. Electrochemically active microorganisms are founded in BES and
can be used in this case as shown in several studies (Md Khudzari et al.,
3.2. Energy savings in hydroponic agriculture 2019; Moreno et al., 2016; Rizzo et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2020). Spe
cifically, it has been shown that a closed circuit PMFC was able to
More attention is now being paid to renewable energy sources (wind, decrease ten times less CH4 than an open circuit PMFC (Ishii et al.,
solar, biogas, etc.) for the reduction of the energy requirement for 2008), and in sediment-PMFC, the CH4 emissions could be reduced by
greenhouses acclimatization and heating. So far, biogas, solar, and 47% (da Rosa, 2010) to 50% (da Rosa, 2010). Further, the CH4 pro
ground source heat pump integration with greenhouse heating systems duction from constructed wetlands (CW) could also be controlled by
have been used successfully to support heating energy requirements for operating MFC (Xu et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020). All studies
greenhouses (Esen and Yuksel, 2013). However, as natural energy confirmed the abundance of exoelectrogenic bacteria and the correla
sources like wind and solar etc. are intermittent in nature and not tion of voltage signals with CH4 emission flux in paddy fields (Risma
available all the time, searching for a suitable device to store thermal ni-Yazdi et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2019; Xiao et al., 2014).
energy becomes another challenge. Energy savings, therefore, could be a Compared to traditional mitigation strategies (e.g., aeration and
more pragmatic approach to reducing energy demand. microporous aeration, redox potential control, water-level control, and
MFC, a bioelectrochemical system, is a promising option to achieve the addition of iron/other chemicals, etc. (Cattani et al., 2016)) of CH4
energy savings in hydroponic systems. In principle, the organic matter emission from plants, MFC possesses four main advantages: no chem
present in the exudates of hydroponically grown plants can be used for ical/extra energy is involved, decreases the autotoxicity influence by
bioelectricity production. The basic working of such a configuration is utilizing the rhizodeposition of plants, a certain amount of electrical
represented in Fig. 2. Such a configuration for a hydroponic system will energy can be harvested, real-time monitoring and real-time control of
be similar to plant microbial fuel cell (PMFC) which has been exten the CH4 production. Therefore, MFCs provide a green and sustainable
sively studied (Kabutey et al., 2019). In PMFCs, 20–40% of carbon-rich option for CH4 abatement. Fig. 3(a) is an illustration of how this can be
biomass produced by the plants can be found in the form of rhizode integrated into hydroponic systems for CH4 abatement, where the CH4
posits (sugars, organic acids, polymeric carbohydrates, enzymes, and emission is controlled by the external resistance and monitored by the
dead cells) around plant roots. Previous studies have shown that the electricity production from PMFCs.
level of electricity production can match up to traditional biomass
electricity generation systems (e.g., 2.8–70 GJ ha− 1 year− 1 of energy 3.4. Nutrient composition monitoring
crops digestion, 27–91 GJ ha− 1 year− 1 of biomass combustion) (Strik
et al., 2008, 2011). Traditional nutrient composition sensors or monitors such as liquid
The direct outputs of a single PMFC are primarily at the level of chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC),
100–5500 mW/m2 (Wang et al., 2021; Zafar et al., 2019), which and gas chromatography (GC) are time-consuming, tedious, expensive,
generally cannot directly power common electronics. Such as, a single complex, huge, and not portable. This opens the chance to integrate BES-
light-emitting diode needs a minimum voltage of 2 V and requires 30 based biosensors for online monitoring. A conventional biosensor
mW, and wireless sensors need a voltage of 3.3 V for temperature, combines biological molecules with a physical transducer to convert the
chemical concentration, humidity, and pressure monitoring (Gul et al., output into an electrical signal (Su et al., 2011). However, compared
2021). Thus, the energy harvesting systems were developed. For with traditional biosensors, BES biosensors do not need transducers,
example, Yamashita et al. (2019) explored an ultra-low-power energy time-saving, low cost, maintenance-free, wide applications (from
harvester specially designed for MFCs, which can charge a super monitoring the anaerobic digestion process to detection of water qual
capacitor to 3.3 V, and this value can be utilized in any real-time mea ity), as well as the fact that they operate for a long time by local re
surements of humidity, long-range wireless data transmission, gas sources (Chouler and Di Lorenzo, 2015) are all attractive.
sensing, and temperature. Prasad and Tripathi (2020) utilized a boost Either an MFC or MEC biosensor can be exploited. In an MFC
converter and a supercapacitor to increase the voltage level of MFC, biosensor, the current produced by continuous feeding of a part of the
7
Fig. 3. (a) The nutrition circulation hydroponic-MFC integrated system for methane control; (b) the blocking scheme of the hydroponic BES sensor.
wastewater can be correlated with the nutrient composition. The proved that some electro-active microorganisms could survive in fresh
composition can be measured either in terms of the biological oxygen tap water for at least 8 months without extra substances. MEC biosensor
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen, has a similar working mechanism to MFC, except for an external power
volatile fatty acids, toxicants (e.g., mixed metal, formaldehyde, etc.), as supply, which enhances the rate of migration of charged molecules and
well as water content (Feng and Harper Jr, 2013; Peixoto et al., 2011; the consumption of organic molecules (Jin et al., 2017). The energy
Wang et al., 2013). For example, Naik and Jujjavarapu (2021) devel consumption of MEC is very small and can be compensated by the
oped a self-powered and reusable single-chambered cylindrical (MFC) hydrogen produced by MEC. Jin et al. (2017) reported a MEC-based
for toxicity detection in water containing heavy metal ions, which biosensor for rapid monitoring of volatile fatty acids. The current den
showed sensitivity towards the Cu2+, Cr6+, Zn2+, and Ni2+ at concen sity increased with the increase of volatile fatty acids (in a range of
trations above 10 mg/L. Prévoteau et al. (2019) successfully designed an 5–100 mM) and vice versa, which indicated good reproducibility of the
O2 reducing microbial cathode-based MFC sensor for the measurement MEC-based biosensor.
of Hg2+, Cr6+, and Pb2+ in tap water, and the detection limits for these To integrate BES-based biosensors to monitor nutrient composition
metal ions was a range from 1 mg/L to 10 mg/L. Besides, this research in real-time, the following criteria must be met, such as calibration,
8
maximum detection range, sensing time, power management, and data

transmission steps (Fig. 3(b)). Four different kinds of MFC/MEC
biosensor systems can be envisaged for monitoring changes in the
composition of the nutrient solution in the hydroponic systems. Firstly,
feed MFC/MEC directly by hydroponic wastewater, then monitor the
nutrition/toxicants in wastewater through the voltage fluctuation.
Monitoring data can be integrated with wireless infrastructure for
remote access using the bioelectricity generated in the monitoring
process. Another configuration where no pumping is involved can also
be envisaged where the electrodes are integrated into the hydroponic
system (Fig. 4(a)). Besides, a combination of MFC-MEC biosensor sys
tems can be envisaged where the integrated MFC provides the operating
voltage for a MEC. Both MFC and MEC could be combined with the
hydroponic system (Fig. 4(c)), or one of them could be used to treat
wastewater (Fig. 4(d)). Finally, a simpler chamber MFC-MEC system
from two to one could be explored (Fig. 4(b)). Initially, MFC-MEC could
be run in MFC mode for nutrition solutions monitoring and electricity
generation (collected by a capacitor). Then shift to MEC mode for
different kinds of nutrition composition monitoring. Earlier studies have
shown that there is enough energy from MFCs for achieving an energy-
neutral smart sensor that samples and sends data or for operating a MEC
(Adekunle et al., 2021; Koffi and Okabe, 2021). PMFC has also been used
to monitor the status of plant health (Brunelli et al., 2016). It should be
mentioned that although BES biosensors utilize mixed microbes to
detect the components of media solution, specific analyte monitoring
can be achieved using engineered strains (Atci et al., 2016; Zhao et al.,
2017).
3.5. Wastewater treatment/management
The wastewater from the hydroponic system can also be treated by

BES. MFC and MEC are the most common BES used for wastewater
treatment (Katuri et al., 2019; Mohyudin et al., 2022; Nguyen and Babel,
2022). The configuration of MFC and MEC used in nutrition solution
monitoring can also be used in wastewater treatment/management. In
addition, the photobioreactors MSC can also be used to process waste
water from hydroponics. Algae residue and dry algae biomass are used
as a “solar converter” (substrates) in MSCs for removing nitrogen con
taminants from wastewater (Kondaveeti et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2012).
Algae are used in these MSCs either at the anode as the substrate for
bacteria grown or cathode as the catalyst to provide oxygen (Hou et al.,
2016; Kakarla et al., 2015; Kumar et al., 2018). Up to a maximum of 99%
COD removal efficiency has been recorded in wastewater treatment
using algae (Bolognesi et al., 2021). In addition to algae, other plants
such as saltwater grass, Milano-Nosedo, etc. have been successfully used
in MSCs to process wastewater and generate electricity (Martinucci
et al., 2015; Wetser et al., 2015). Another promising wastewater treat
ment BES technology that could be adapted for treating hydroponic
wastewater is MDC. MDCs are the modified form of MFCs powered by
the bioenergy generated via the microbial degradation of organic matter
(Baawain et al., 2020). MDC is regarded as a cost-effective approach for
simultaneous wastewater treatment and recovery/removal of Fig. 4. Some types of MFC/MEC biosensors that can be used in the hydroponic
value-added products/targeted pollutants, such as HCl, H2, H2O2, system, (a) MFC/MEC electrodes are integrated into the hydroponic system; (b)
NaOH, Cu, Pb, Cr, and As, etc. (Rahman et al., 2021), all of which can be switch-mode MFC and MEC; (c) MFC driven MEC, both integrated with the
found in hydroponic wastewater. hydroponic system; (d) MFC driven MEC, one integrated with a hydroponic
In summary, the following configurations in addition to the common system, one process wastewater.
MFC/MEC systems configuration, for hydroponic wastewater are sug
gested. A hydroponic configuration incorporating a photobioreactor and reduce operating costs synchronously. Fig. 5 is a conceptualization
MSC for simultaneous or sequential treatment of the wastewater could of such use of either an MSC or MDC for hydroponic wastewater
be a good option. This algae-based configuration will remove green treatment.
house gases concurrently, with the potential of the algae use as a fer
tilizer in later stages. Another configuration where an MDC is
incorporated into the circulatory system of the hydroponic system can 3.6. Other potential advantages
also be envisaged. Target contaminants can be removed from the
wastewater in real-time and returned to the nutrient reservoir in real- The combination of BES and hydroponic systems is a way that could
time. This configuration is expected to achieve wastewater treatment help to reduce the costs of energy, monitoring, and wastewater
9
Fig. 5. Diagram (a) MSC-hydroponic and (b) MDC-hydroponic structures for wastewater treatment.
treatment of traditional hydroponic agriculture. In comparison with the according to various types of hydroponic systems. Interestingly, BES
conventional hydroponic related problems solving technologies, BES is could share some configurations with hydroponic systems, which also
more multifunctional and could solve several problems at a time with could save the overall cost. The price and scale of BES are very flexible,
one system as shown in Table 4. Some conventional technologies such as which is decided by the materials and structure of configurations. Thus,
mentioned electro-degradation and ultraviolet treatment could have a the overall price of the hydroponic system can also be revamped.
negative influence on plant growth, while BES has no related concern. Moreover, the BES-hydroponic is a good idea for soilless areas,
Furthermore, BES saves more time, which could treat wastewater while especially outer space. Plants in BES-hydroponic systems will absorb
plants are growing. Some types of BES not only do not require extra carbon dioxide and stale air, then provide renewed oxygen and energy
input energy but also could combine with renewable clean nature en through the plants’ natural growing process. This is important for long-
ergy, such as solar energy (Kabutey et al., 2019), tidal energy (Saeed range habitation of both the space stations and other planets (Singh and
et al., 2022), etc., thus, BES is more suitable to use in energy scarcity Singh, 2012). Bioelectricity generated by BES-hydroponics can be used
countries. Besides, the conventional machines are normally big, hard to to maintain systems operation as well as provide unobtrusive
combine with hydroponic, and need extra space to place. While the basic energy-neutral monitoring to address the needs of future smart agri
components of BES are very simple, the scale and size could be adjusted culture applications.
Table 4
The obstacles to hydroponic and innovations of hydroponic-BES technology.
Obstacles in Bioelectrochemical system Innovations
hydroponic
MFC MEC MSC MDC Integrated
system
High energy ✓ • Recovering the renewable sustainable energy from BES bioelectricity generation
consumption • Reducing the extra energy requirement of hydroponic system, such as lighting LED, heating,
monitoring, pumping, recycling, wastewater treatment
Greenhouse gas ✓ • No chemical/extra energy is involved;
emission • Real-time monitoring of the CH4 production;
Autotoxicity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ • Decreasing the CH4 production;
• Decreasing the autotoxicity influence by utilizing the rhizodeposition of plants.
Solution toxicity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ • Simple biosensor configuration. BES biosensors not needing transducers and can be operate for a long
time by local resources;
• The wide range of measured composition, such as BOD, COD, dissolved oxygen, volatile fatty acids,
toxicants (e.g. mixed metal, and formaldehyde, etc.), as well as water content.
Wastewater ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ • Simultaneous achieving wastewater treatment and removal of value-added products/targeted
pollutants;
• Recovering valuable products in wastewater, such as metals.
High cost ✓ ✓ ✓ • Reducing the costs of energy, monitoring, and wastewater treatment of traditional hydroponic
agriculture;
• Recovering the valuable products and reusing treatment wastewater;
• flexible price, according to its materials of configuration, thus the overall price of the hydroponic
system can also be revamped;
• Easy to operate, and free-maintenance.
10
4. Techno-economic analysis influence of BES on crop growth (e.g., biomass production, height,
root length, etc.) and yield are rarely reported.
One main advantage of BESs combined with hydroponic systems is • The high cost of hydroponic systems compared with the traditional
their capability to directly extract electric energy from the hydroponic agricultural is still a challenge that BES integration cannot resolve
substrate. Unlike the traditional power, electricity generates from BESs entirely, such as the initial capital investment and labor cost.
is a cleaner and more widely useable form of energy. Besides, BESs can • Monitoring of nutrient composition can only be done on a general
run well at a wide temperature range (Larrosa-Guerrero et al., 2010), basis. Most of the research focused on the enhance the range of
therefore, they are more flexible in the hydroponic system. From the detection of BES-based sensors and lowering the detection limit to
environmental sustainability of the hydroponic agricultural point of enhance the sensitivity of the sensor. However, the detection limit of
view, the combination of BESs need to ensure that the crop yield meets BES sensors is limited by the mass transfer barrier formed by the
the standards of traditional hydroponic cultivation. According to the microbial biofilms and the electrogenic microbes, which leads the
report of Khudzari et al. (2019), the highest shoots and biomass pro BES sensors less sensitive to the exposure of the sensing elements
duction of PMFCs were similar to soil cultivation plants. Therefore, in (Alatraktchi et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2021). Besides, when various
theory, BES has no significant effect on crop yield. The major obstacle components in the nutrient solution simultaneously surge, signal
for BES-hydroponic technology moving into the real world is its suit interference may occur. Thus, a more precise and specific component
ability for manufacturing, which in turn drives economies of scale. The monitoring will require a lot more innovation of the BES technolo
main cost of BES-hydroponic consists of the initial investment and the gies on their own.
operating/maintenance associated costs with materials consumption, • There is a risk of over-complicate a relatively complex system (when
chemicals, and energy (Kumar et al., 2021). Most of the core parts compared to traditional agriculture). With the addition of the BES,
components should be bespoke (e.g., electrodes, ion exchange mem the attractiveness of the integration can be challenged. If the tech
brane, BES chambers, etc.) and therefore expensive. Therefore, it is nical know-how requirement of a hydroponic system is compounded
important to identify alternatives that should be inexpensive and widely with that of BES, it is hard to argue for its merits.
available. Stoll et al. (2016) found that compare with carbon foam • Control might be difficult. BES are microorganisms driven and the
($1995) and hard felt ($220), the cost of a 1 m3 laboratory-scale MFC complex interaction between these drivers, the chemical composi
electrode assembly equipped with graphite brush anode could be the tion of the nutrients, and the plants being grown under hydroponic
cheapest ($503) with a capital cost of $9.09. Christwardana et al. systems is something to carefully study. Factors that influence both
(Christwardana and Yoshi, 2020) demonstrated that the capital cost of hydroponic systems (temperatures, humidity, pH, etc.) and BES
Large Yeast MFC is approximately $234.22, which is 2.57 times higher (plant types, anode/cathode materials, configuration, carbon source
than Small Yeast MFC. substrates, etc.) could create a control nightmare.
The availability of BES-hydroponic system components (e.g., wiring,
membranes, electrodes, resistances, etc.) needs to be explored, in order To overcome these limitations, new studies could explore optimizing
to assemble and implement the systems on a larger scale. Some materials several BES-hydroponic configurations or propositions by:
used in BES-hydroponic systems such as electrodes, substrates, and ion-
exchange membranes might have negative environmental impacts. i. Optimizing BES and hydroponic structural components (e.g.,
Thus, the viability of the BES technology in a real hydroponic environ reactor design, electrode modification, electrolyte, substrate
ment under various environmental conditions (e.g., light, temperature, choice, catalyst, enzymes coating, external resistance, bacteria
pH, humidity, subtract, etc.) and under operation variables (e.g., light species) to improve the efficiency and lower the overall cost. For
intensity, batch/continuous flow, flow rate, etc.), as well as the overall example, Gajda et al. (2018) proved that 250 L MFC module size
environmental impacts need to be evaluated. can generate as low as 0.47 W/m3 of power density and MFCs
stacking could enhance their performance. Besides, the substrate
5. Further perspective nature has the main influence on BES performance and hydro
ponic plant growth. From chemical properties aspect, the amount
Hydroponic agriculture has the potential to supplement agriculture of substrate consumed by bacteria during aerobic or anaerobic
in many areas worldwide (Sardare and Admane, 2013), and thinking respiration affects electron donation rates in BESs and rhizo
forward on challenges that may thwart its sustainability is paramount. sphere deposition of plants (Tang et al., 2020).
As shown in Table 4, the selection of proper BESs is very important, ii. Paying more attention to studying the mechanism between BES
which relies on several factors and main problems. Under the synergy of and plants’ growth. For example, the relationship between the
BES innovations, the main problems of hydroponics could be solved. The plant health (e.g., height, greenness, roots length, etc.) and
integration proposed in this paper needs further consideration if electricity production from the BES; the influence of microbes (e.
commercial-scale adaptation is to be realized. Notably, the following g., species, quantity, reproductive speed, etc.) in BES on plants’
non-exhaustive points need to be acknowledged: crop production; the influence of greenhouse environmental
conditions (e.g., illumination, temperature, humidity, water
• Lack of in-depth discussion on the specific obstacle of hydroponics evaporation rate from the hydroponic system, the circulation
and solving mechanism of BES. Some researchers reviewed the speed of nutrient solution, etc.) on BES efficiency (e.g., electricity
obstacle of hydroponic agriculture, such as Sambo et al. (2019) and production, wastewater treatment efficiency, biosensor moni
Riggio et al. (2019), however, they only focus on the traditional toring accuracy, etc.); the influence of plant growth cycle on BES
methods’ mechanism to solve these problems (e.g., nanoparticles, performance (e.g., energy generation stability, the monitoring
plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, sensor monitoring). None of system stability, the flora metabolism, etc.).
them focus on the mechanism of cleaner and sustainable BES iii. Exploring more advanced BES to develop its potential function
technology. and improve its precision by combining some existing renewable
• Lack of the in-depth study of the mechanism between BES and the energy technologies, such as nanophotocatalysis and photo
hydroponic crop yield. Until now, most BES studies mainly focus on catalytic semiconductor thin films. Nanophotocatalysis is a pro
the performance of BES electricity production, biosensor, or waste ficient technology for the reduction of heavy metals to a non-
treatment efficiency (Ahmad et al., 2022; Sevda et al., 2020). Plants toxic state, which can be used as the photocatalyst in BES (Ina
in BES are only used as an auxiliary tool to improve the mentioned muddin et al., 2020; Jyothi et al., 2019; Sharma et al.,). The
properties (Brunelli et al., 2016; Regmi et al., 2018). However, the photocatalytic semiconductor thin film materials allow easy
11
incorporation into various devices through changing the prop as the pretreatment methods to process the substrate of BES
erties of materials and reducing the size, which can reduce the systems.
cost and improve the efficiency of devices (Shwetharani et al., iv. Exploring model systems for BES-hydroponic to optimize the
2020), therefore, it can be used as the ion exchange membrane in overall system performance. Modeling could simplify the com
BES. Or innovation technologies, for example, the hydrogen plex BES-hydroponic system and related mechanism into a
production technology (pyrolysis, hydrocarbon reforming, simpler form for better understanding as well as representation of
plasma technology, etc.) (Sampath et al., 2020), which can the whole system. Until now, considerable modeling efforts and
improve the hydrogen generation from BES systems and be used experimental validation have been carried out to improve the
performance of BESs for practical applications. For example,
Fig. 6. The decision tree for use of BES in the hydroponic system.
12
Buckingham’s Pi theorem describes the trend of experimental Scholarship Council (CSC).

results by constructing groups of dimensionless variables and can
simplify the experimental quantity (Tang et al., 2020). Besides, References
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Journal of Cleaner Production 366 (2022) 132855

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Exploring the integration of bioelectrochemical systems and hydroponics:

Abbreviations SS Static solution

maximum detection range, sensing time, power management, and data

3.5. Wastewater treatment/management

The wastewater from the hydroponic system can also be treated by

Buckingham’s Pi theorem describes the trend of experimental Scholarship Council (CSC).

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