Module 4 - BIOLOGY

SUB CODE: 21BE45 SUB: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE-4 FACULTY: D.
SUJITHA
Module - 4
NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS
(QUALITATIVE)
Echolocation (ultrasonography, sonars), Photosynthesis (photovoltaic cells, bionic leaf). Bird
flying (GPS and aircrafts), Lotus leaf effect (Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces),
Plant burrs (Velcro), Shark skin (Friction reducing swim suits), Kingfisher beak (Bullet train).
Human Blood substitutes - hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and Perflourocarbons
(PFCs).
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SUB CODE: 21BE45 SUB: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE-4 FACULTY: D. SUJITHA
4.1 Echolocation:
Echolocation is a biological or technological process that involves emitting sound
waves and listening to the echoes that bounce back off of objects in the environment to
determine their location, distance, and shape.
In nature‟s sonar system, echolocation occurs when an animal emits a sound wave that
bounces off an object, returning an echo that provides information about the object‟s
distance and size. Over a thousand species echolocate, including most bats, all-toothed
whales and small mammals. Human echolocation is the ability of humans to detect
objects in their environment by sensing echoes from those objects, and by actively
creating sounds: for example, by tapping their canes, lightly stomping their feet,
snapping their fingers, or making clicking noises with their mouths. People trained to
orient by echolocation can interpret the sound waves reflected by nearby objects,
accurately identifying their location and size.
Biological Echolocation
 Found in various animals such as bats, dolphins, and some species of whales.
 Relies on the emission of sound waves, usually in the form of clicks or vocalizations.
 Animals emit sound waves and listen for the echoes produced when the sound
wavesbounce off objects in their environment.
 By analyzing the echoes, animals can determine the location, distance, and even
theshape of objects around them.
 This ability is mainly used for navigation, hunting, and communication in the
animalkingdom.
 Biological echolocation is a natural adaptation that has evolved over millions of years.
Technological Echolocation
 Replicates the concept of biological echolocation using technological devices.
 Utilizes sound waves, typically generated by artificial sources such as sonar or
ultrasonicsensors.
 These devices emit sound waves and analyze the echoes that bounce back from
objects.
 The information from the echoes is processed and interpreted by the technology to
generate useful data, such as distance, location, and object recognition.
 Technological echolocation has applications in various fields, including
navigation,robotics, obstacle detection, and medical imaging.
 It is a human-engineered solution inspired by the natural abilities of animals.
Principle of Echolocation
Both biological and technological echolocation rely on the same basic principles
and have the same underlying purpose: to determine the location, distance, and shape of
objects inthe environment using sound waves and their echoes.
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Figure: Representing echolocation in bats and dolphins

A concise explanation of the principle of echolocation is given below:
 Sound Emission: The echolocating organism, whether biological or technological,

emits sound waves into its surroundings. In biological echolocation, this is typically
achieved through vocalizations or clicks, while in technological echolocation, it is
usually done using artificial sources such as sonar or ultrasonic sensors.
 Propagation of Sound Waves: The emitted sound waves travel through the
environment, spreading out in all directions.
 Object Interaction: When the sound waves encounter objects in the environment,
such as obstacles or prey, they interact with these objects. The interaction can
involve reflection, scattering, or absorption of the sound waves.
 Echo Reception: Some of the sound waves that interact with objects bounce back or
echo off them. These echoes carry information about the objects' distance, shape,
composition, and other characteristics.
 Sensory Reception: The echolocating organism, whether biological or
technological, has sensory receptors capable of detecting and processing the
returning echoes. In biological echolocation, this is typically specialized organs or
structures, such as bat ears or dolphin melon, while in technological echolocation, it
is achieved through sensors and receivers.
 Echo Interpretation: The information contained in the echoes is analyzed and
interpreted by the organism or technology. This interpretation involves extracting
relevant features from the echoes and making sense of the spatial and temporal
patterns present.
 Perception and Response: Based on the interpretation of the echoes, the organism
or technology can perceive and understand the surrounding environment. This
perception enables the organism to navigate, locate objects, detect obstacles, or
perform other relevant tasks.
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4.1.1 Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is a medical imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to
produce images of the internal organs and tissues of the body. It is also known as ultrasound
imaging or sonography.
The ultrasound machine emits high-frequency sound waves (usually in the range of 2 to
18 MHz) that travel through the body and bounce back off of the internal organs and tissues.
The returning echoes are captured by the ultrasound machine and used to create images of
the internal structures.
Figure: Representing working principle of ultrasonography

Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, safe, and painless imaging method that can be
used to visualize a wide range of structures within the body, including the organs of the
abdomen, pelvis, and chest, as well as the uterus, fetus, and other soft tissues. It is
commonly used in prenatal careto monitor the growth and development of the fetus and to
diagnose any potential problems.
Ultrasonography has several advantages over other imaging methods, including its
low cost, ease of use, and lack of ionizing radiation. It is also portable and can be used in a
variety of settings, making it a valuable tool for medical professionals.
Uses of Ultrasonography
Ultrasonography is a versatile imaging method that is used in a wide range of
medical applications.
Some of the most common uses of ultrasonography include:
 Obstetrics and gynecology: Ultrasonography is commonly used to monitor the
growth and development of a fetus during pregnancy, as well as to evaluate the
reproductive organs and female pelvic organs for conditions such as ovarian cysts,
fibroids, and endometrial cancer.
 Abdominal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the organs of the
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abdomen, such as the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys, to diagnose
conditions such as liver disease, gallstones, pancreatitis, and kidney stones.
 Musculoskeletal imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the muscles, tendons,
and ligaments to diagnose conditions such as muscle strains, tendonitis, and
ligament sprains.
 Vascular imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image blood vessels, such as the
arteries and veins, to diagnose conditions such as blood clots, blockages, and
aneurysms.
 Eye and neck imaging: Ultrasonography is used to image the eyes and neck to
diagnose conditions such as cataracts, glaucoma, and thyroid nodules.
 Emergency medicine: Ultrasonography is often used in emergency medicine to
quickly and accurately diagnose conditions such as appendicitis, pneumothorax, and
fluid buildup in the abdomen or chest.
Working Principle of Ultrasonography
The working principle of ultrasonography is based on the reflection of high-
frequency sound waves.
 Transducer: An ultrasonography machine consists of a transducer that is used to
emit and receive high-frequency sound waves. The transducer is placed in direct
contact with the skin or inserted into the body through a gel.
 Emission of sound waves: The transducer emits high-frequency sound waves
(usually in the range of 2 to 18 MHz) into the body. These sound waves travel
through the body and encounter different tissues and organs, which have different
acoustic properties.
 Reflection of sound waves: The sound waves encounter boundaries between
different tissues and organs and bounce back, creating echoes. The strength of the
echoes depends on the acoustic properties of the tissues and organs, such as density
and stiffness.
 Reception of echoes: The transducer in the ultrasonography machine receives the
echoes and sends the information to a computer, which processes the data to create
images.
 Image formation: The computer uses the information from the echoes to create
images of the internal organs and tissues of the body. The images are displayed on a
screen, allowing the operator to see the structure and movement of the internal
organs and tissues.
Advantages of Ultrasonography
 Non-invasive: Ultrasonography does not involve any incisions or injections, making
it a safe and convenient imaging method.
 No ionizing radiation: Ultrasonography does not use ionizing radiation, making it a
safer option for patients, especially pregnant women and children.
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 Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real-time images that can be used to

monitor the movement and function of internal organs and tissues in real-time.
 Portable: Ultrasonography machines are portable and can be used in a variety of
settings, making it a valuable tool for emergency and rural medicine.
 Cost-effective: Ultrasonography is a cost-effective imaging method that does not
require any special preparation or recovery time.
 Versatile: Ultrasonography can be used to image a wide range of structures within
the body, including the organs of the abdomen, pelvis, and chest, as well as the
uterus, fetus, and other soft tissues.
Limitations of Ultrasonography
 Limited depth: Ultrasonography has limited depth and is not as effective at imaging
deep structures or those obscured by bones or gas.
 Operator dependence: The quality of the images produced by ultrasonography
depends heavily on the skills and experience of the operator.
 Limited resolution: Ultrasonography has limited resolution compared to other
imaging methods, making it less effective at visualizing small structures or
detecting small changes in tissue.
 Limitations in overweight patients: Ultrasonography may have limited usefulness
in overweight patients due to the difficulty in obtaining clear images through the
layers of fat.
 Limitations in detecting some types of cancer: Ultrasonography may not be as
effective at detecting certain types of cancer, such as pancreatic cancer, due to the
lack of characteristic signs on ultrasound images.
4.1.2 Sonars
Sonar, which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging, is a technology that uses
soundwaves to detect and locate underwater objects.
"Sonar" can refer to one of two types of technology:
 passive sonar means listening for the sound made by vessels;
 active sonar means emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes.
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Uses of Sonars
Sonars are commonly used for a variety of purposes, including:
 Naval applications: Sonars are used by naval vessels to detect and locate other ships,
submarines, and underwater obstacles, allowing them to navigate safely and avoid
potential collisions.
 Fishery: Sonars are used in the fishing industry to locate schools of fish and
determine the depth of the water, allowing fishermen to more efficiently target their
catch.
 Oceanography: Sonars are used in oceanography to study the physical and biological
properties of the ocean, including the structure of the ocean floor, the movement of
currents, and the distribution of marine life.
 Environmental monitoring: Sonars are used to monitor the health of marine
ecosystems, track the migration patterns of whales and other marine mammals, and
assess the impactof human activities on the ocean environment.
 Sonar technology works by emitting a series of sound pulses and listening for the
echoes that bounce back from underwater objects. The time it takes for the echoes to
return is used to calculate the distance to the objects, and the frequency and
pattern of the echoes are used to determine their size and shape.
Working Principle of Sonars
The working principle of sonar technology is based on the reflection of sound
waves. Here's how it works:
 Transmitter: A sonar system consists of a transmitter that produces and emits a
series of sound pulses into the water. These sound pulses are typically in the form of
high- frequency, low-power acoustic signals, known as "ping."
Figure: Representing working principle of sonar
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 Propagation of sound waves: The sound pulses propagate through the water,
traveling to the target object and bouncing back as echoes. The speed of sound in
water is slower than in air, and it depends on the temperature, pressure, and salinity
of the water.
 Receiver: The sonar system also includes a receiver that listens for the returning
echoes. The receiver is typically placed far away from the transmitter to minimize
interference from the transmitted signals.
 Calculation of range: The time it takes for the echoes to return to the receiver is
used to calculate the range to the target object. The range is simply the product of the
speed of sound in water and the time it takes for the echoes to return.
 Determination of target properties: The frequency and pattern of the echoes are
used to determine the properties of the target object, such as its size, shape, and
composition. For example, a large, solid object will produce a strong, low-frequency
echo, while a small, porous object will produce a weaker, high-frequency echo.
 Display of results: The results of the sonar measurement are typically displayed on
a screen or other output device, allowing the operator to visualize the target object
and its location.
Advantages of Sonar Technology
 Versatility: Sonar technology is versatile and can be used in a variety of
applications, such as underwater navigation, mapping, and imaging, as well as for
military and scientific purposes.
 Cost-effective: Compared to other underwater imaging technologies, sonar is
relatively cost-effective and affordable.
 Non-invasive: Unlike other imaging technologies, such as diving and remote-
operated vehicles, sonar does not physically disturb the underwater environment,
making it an ideal choice for environmental monitoring and scientific research.
 Real-time imaging: Sonar provides real-time imaging, allowing operators to quickly
and easily assess the underwater environment.
 High resolution: Modern sonar systems have high-resolution capabilities, allowing
for detailed images of underwater objects and structures.
Limitations of Sonar Technology
 Limited visibility: Sonar imaging is limited by the visibility of the water, which can
be affected by factors such as sediment, algae, and water temperature. This can make
it difficult to obtain clear and accurate images.
 Interference: Sonar signals can be affected by interference from other underwater
sources, such as ships, submarines, and natural underwater features, which can lead
to false readings and reduced accuracy.
 Short range: Sonar signals have a limited range, which can make it difficult to
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image larger underwater structures or objects that are located far away from the
sonar system.
 Limited depth: The depth to which sonar can effectively penetrate is limited, making
it unsuitable for imaging objects or structures that are located at great depths.
 Acoustic noise: The use of sonar technology can also generate acoustic noise, which
can disturb marine life and harm marine ecosystems. This is particularly a concern
for high- power, military-grade sonar systems, which have the potential to cause
serious harm to marine life.
 Complex technology: Sonar technology can be complex, requiring specialized skills
and equipment to operate and maintain. This can limit its accessibility and increase
the cost of implementation.
 Inaccurate readings: Sonar readings can be inaccurate due to factors such as
reflection, refraction, and absorption of sound waves, which can result in incorrect
measurements and false readings.
4.2 Photosynthesis:
Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis. The process is carried out by plants,
algae, and some types of bacteria, which capture energy from sunlight to produce
oxygen (O2) and chemical energy stored in glucose (a sugar). Herbivores then obtain
this energy by eating plants, and carnivores obtain it by eating herbivores.
The Process of Photosynthesis in Plants and in Some Animals

The process of photosynthesis in plants and some animals differs in terms of the type
of organisms involved and the specific details of the process. However, the basic principle
of converting light energy into usable forms of energy is the same in both.
In plants, photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of the cells located in the
leaves. The process starts with the absorption of light energy by pigments such as
chlorophyll, which then excites electrons. These excited electrons are used to power the
transfer of carbon dioxide into organic molecules, such as sugars and starches, through a
series of chemical reactions. The end product of photosynthesis in plants is stored chemical
energy in the form of organic compounds.
In some animals, such as algae, photosynthesis also takes place in chloroplasts. The
process is essentially the same as in plants, with the absorption of light energy and the
conversion of carbon dioxide into organic molecules.
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In contrast, some animals, such as jellyfish, have a symbiotic relationship with

photosynthetic organisms, such as algae. In this relationship, the animal provides a safe
and stable environment for the photosynthetic organism, while the photosynthetic organism
provides energy in the form of organic compounds produced through photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare their food in the
presence of sunlight, water, chlorophyll, and carbon dioxide. The complete process bears
two reactions in which one occurs in the presence of sunlight whereas the other one occurs
in the absence of sunlight.
Light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions (also known as the
Calvin cycle) are two interconnected processes that occur in the chloroplasts of plants and
algae during photosynthesis.
Light-dependent photosynthesis Light-independent photosynthesis

It is called light-dependent photosynthesis
It is called light-independent photosynthesis because
because it needs light or depends on light to
no light is required here to reduce carbon dioxide and
produce organic energy molecules ATP and
glucose by the use of ATP and NADPH.
NADPH.
It occurs in the grana or thylakoid of the
It occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
chloroplast.
During light-independent photosynthesis reduction of
During light-dependent photosynthesis
carbon dioxide into glucose, molecules take place
photolysis or splitting of molecules of
through a series of reactions constituting the Calvin
water take place into hydrogen and oxygen.
cycle.
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It is also called the photochemical phase of It is also called the biochemical phase of
photosynthesis. photosynthesis.
Photolysis occurs in light-dependent Photolysis does not occur in light-independent
photosynthesis. photosynthesis.
The end product of this reaction is ATP and
The end product of this reaction is glucose.
NADPH.
4.2.1 Photovoltaic Cells

The connection between photosynthesis and photovoltaics lies in the conversion of
light energy into usable forms of energy. In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is
converted into chemical energy stored in organic molecules, such as sugars and starches. In
photovoltaics, light energy is converted into electrical energy.
Both photosynthesis and photovoltaics use the same basic principle of converting
light energy into usable forms of energy, but the end products are different. In
photosynthesis, the end product is stored chemical energy, while in photovoltaics, the end
product is electrical energy.
However, the similarities between photosynthesis and photovoltaics go beyond just
the conversion of light energy. Both processes also involve the use of specialized
components and materials, such as chlorophyll in photosynthesis and silicon in
photovoltaics, to absorb and convert light energy into usable forms of energy.
The development of photovoltaics has been heavily influenced by the natural process
of photosynthesis, and many researchers have sought to mimic and improve upon the
efficiency and effectiveness of photosynthesis in order to develop more advanced and
efficient photovoltaic systems.
Figure: solar cell
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electronic device that converts the energy of
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light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and
chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose
electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to
light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of
photovoltaic modules, known colloquially as solar panels. The common single-
junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 volts to 0.6 volts.
New Technology Photovoltaic Cells

Photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells, are devices that convert light energy
from the sun into electrical energy. The technology behind photovoltaic cells has advanced
significantly in recent years, leading to the development of new and improved photovoltaic
cell designs and materials.
Some of the new technologies in photovoltaic cells include:
 Perovskite solar cells: Perovskite solar cells are a new type of photovoltaic cell that
use a crystalline material made of perovskite to convert light energy into electrical
energy. They are highly efficient and have the potential to be more affordable than
traditional silicon-based photovoltaic cells.
 Thin-film photovoltaic cells: Thin-film photovoltaic cells are a type of photovoltaic
cell that uses a thin layer of material, such as silicon or cadmium telluride, to convert
light energy into electrical energy. They are lighter and more flexible than traditional
silicon- based photovoltaic cells and are ideal for use in portable and flexible solar
panels.
 Concentrator photovoltaic cells: Concentrator photovoltaic cells are a type of
photovoltaic cell that uses a lens or mirror to concentrate sunlight onto a small area,
increasing the amount of light energy that can be captured and converted into
electrical energy.
 Multi-junction photovoltaic cells: Multi-junction photovoltaic cells are a type of
photovoltaic cell that uses multiple layers of different materials, each optimized for
different wavelengths of light, to convert light energy into electrical energy. They are
highly efficient and ideal for use in concentrated solar power systems.
Applications:
 Remote Locations
 Stand-Alone Power.
 Power in Space.
 Building-Related Needs.
 Military Uses.
 Transportation.
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4.2.2 Bionic Leaf

A bionic leaf is a system that uses artificial photosynthesis to convert sunlight into
usable forms of energy, such as hydrogen or other biofuels. The bionic leaf is designed to
mimic the process of photosynthesis in plants, where light energy is used to split water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, and the hydrogen can then be used as a source of
energy.
The bionic leaf consists of a photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it
into electrical energy, and a catalyst, such as a bacteria, that uses the electrical energy to
split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf
can then be stored and used as a source of energy for a variety of applications, such as
powering vehicles or generating electricity.
The bionic leaf has the potential to be a highly sustainable and environmentally
friendly energy source, as it uses renewable resources, such as sunlight and water, to
produce energy. Additionally, the bionic leaf can be used in remote locations where there is
limited access to electricity, and it can help to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and
mitigate the effects of climate change. The Bionic Leaf has the potential to be implemented
in communities, such as urbanizedareas to provide clean air as well as providing needed
clean energy.
Working principle
The working principle of a bionic leaf is based on artificial photosynthesis, which
aims to mimic the process of photosynthesis in plants. The bionic leaf typically consists of a
photovoltaic cell that captures sunlight and converts it into electrical energy, and a catalyst,
such as a bacterium, that uses the electrical energy to split water molecules into hydrogen
and oxygen.
The photovoltaic cell is used to convert sunlight into electrical energy, which is then
passed to the catalyst. The catalyst, in turn, uses the electrical energy to power the process
of water splitting, where water molecules are separated into hydrogen and oxygen. This
process is facilitated by the presence of enzymes or other catalysts that act as a bridge
between the electrical energy and the water splitting reaction.
The hydrogen produced by the bionic leaf can then be stored and used as a source of
energy for a variety of applications, such as powering vehicles or generating electricity.
Additionally, the oxygen produced by the bionic leaf can be released into the atmosphere,
whereit can help to mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
A flow chart of the working principle of bionic leaf is given below:
Sunlight is captured and directed to the bionic leaf.
↓
The bionic leaf contains a catalyst (typically a special type of bacteria or an artificial
catalyst)and a water-splitting enzyme.
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↓
Sunlight energy is used to split water molecules (H2O) into hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen
(O2)through a process called photolysis.
↓
+
The hydrogen ions (H ) generated from water splitting combine with electrons from an
externalsource (e.g., a wire) to form hydrogen gas (H2).
↓
The oxygen gas (O2) produced during water splitting is released into the atmosphere.
↓
The generated hydrogen gas (H2) can be collected and stored for later use as a clean and
renewable energy source.
↓
The bionic leaf also absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or a supplied source.
↓
The absorbed carbon dioxide (CO2) is converted into carbon-based compounds, such as
formicacid or methane, through a reduction reaction.
↓
The carbon-based compounds can be used as a fuel or converted into other useful
chemicals.
↓
The bionic leaf operates in a closed-loop system, where the produced oxygen (O2) during
watersplitting is reused by the catalyst in subsequent cycles.
Applications of Bionic Leaf Technology

Here are some applications of bionic leaf technology:
 Renewable Energy Production: One of the primary applications of bionic leaf
technology is in the production of renewable energy. Bionic leaf systems can
harness solar energy and convert it into chemical energy in the form of hydrogen gas
or other carbon-based fuels. These fuels can be used as clean energy sources for
various applications, including transportation, electricity generation, and heating.
 Carbon Dioxide Reduction: Bionic leaf technology offers a promising solution for
mitigating the rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. By capturing and
utilizing carbon dioxide as a feedstock, bionic leaf systems can potentially help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. This application holds
significant potential for carbon capture and utilization (CCU) strategies.
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 Sustainable Chemical Production: Bionic leaf systems can be utilized for

sustainable chemical production. By utilizing carbon dioxide and renewable energy,
these systems can produce a wide range of valuable chemicals, such as fertilizers,
plastics, and pharmaceuticals. This application offers a more environmentally
friendly and resource- efficient approach to chemical synthesis.
 Agriculture and Food Production: Bionic leaf technology can have applications in
agriculture and food production. By utilizing sunlight and carbon dioxide, bionic leaf
systems can generate oxygen and energy-rich compounds that can enhance plant
growth and improve crop yields. This technology can potentially contribute to
sustainable agriculture practices and help address global food security challenges.
 Remote and Off-Grid Areas: Bionic leaf systems can provide a decentralized and
off-grid energy solution for remote or underdeveloped areas. By harnessing solar
energy and producing clean fuels, these systems can offer sustainable power sources
for communities without access to conventional energy infrastructure, enabling them
to meet their energy needs and improve their quality of life.
 Environmental Remediation: Bionic leaf technology has the potential to aid in

environmental remediation efforts. By utilizing the energy generated from sunlight,
bionic leaf systems can power processes that remove pollutants or contaminants from
air, water, or soil, contributing to the restoration and preservation of ecosystems.
4.3 Bird Flying:

Bird flight is the primary mode of locomotion used by most bird species in
which birds take off and fly. Flight assists birds with feeding, breeding, avoiding
predators, and migrating.
Bird flight is one of the most complex forms of locomotion in the animal
kingdom. Each facet of this type of motion, including hovering, taking off, and
landing, involves many complex movements. As different bird species adapted
over millions of years through evolution for specific environments, prey,
predators, and other needs, they developed specializations in their wings and
acquired different forms of flight.
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Figure: Representing Bernoulli‟s Principle
The science behind the birds flies using its wings and holding their body weight in air
The ability of birds to fly and support their body weight in the air is a result of
various anatomical and physiological adaptations. Here's a simplified explanation of the
science behind bird flight:
 Wing Shape: Birds have specialized wings with a unique shape that generates lift.
The wings are curved on the upper surface and flatter on the bottom, creating a
pressure difference known as Bernoulli's principle. This pressure difference
generates lift, allowing birds to stay airborne.
 Wing Muscles: Birds have strong flight muscles attached to their wings, allowing
them to flap their wings vigorously. The upstroke and downstroke motion of the
wings generates thrust, propelling the bird forward through the air.
 Hollow Bones: Birds have lightweight bones that are hollow and filled with air sacs,
reducing their overall weight. This makes it easier for them to stay aloft.
 Feathers: Feathers play a crucial role in flight. They provide both lift and control.
The primary feathers at the tips of the wings help generate lift, while the tail feathers
assist in maneuvering and stabilizing during flight.
 Respiratory System: Birds have a unique respiratory system that allows for efficient
oxygen exchange. Air flows unidirectionally through their lungs, as well as through a
system of air sacs located throughout their body. This constant supply of oxygen
fuels their high metabolic demands during flight.
 Efficient Circulatory System: Birds have a highly efficient circulatory system that
delivers oxygen-rich blood to their muscles and organs. Their heart rate increases
during flight, ensuring a steady supply of oxygen to meet the demands of their active
muscles.
 Flight Control: Birds have remarkable coordination and control over their flight.
They can adjust the angle and shape of their wings, control their speed and direction,
and perform intricate aerial maneuvers using their tail, wings, and body movements
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4.3.1 GPS Technology

GPS (Global Positioning System) is a technology that uses a network of satellites to provide
location and time information to users. GPS is a system. It‟s made up of three parts: satellites,
ground stations, and receivers. Satellites act like stars in constellations—we know where they are
supposed to be at any given time. The ground stations use radar to make sure they are actually
where we think they are. A receiver, as you might find in your phone or your car, is constantly
listening for a signal from these satellites.The receiver figures out how far away they are from
some of them.
Figure:
Representing GPS
GPS AND BIRD FLIGHT:
Scientists have long known that birds navigate using the earth‟s magnetic field. Now, a
new study has found subtle mechanics in the brain of pigeons that allow them to find
their way.
A team at Baylor College of Medicine in the U.S. identified a group of 53 cells in a
pigeon‟s brain that record detailed information on the Earth‟s magnetic field, a kind of
internal global positioningsystem (GPS).
Experiment:
Prof. Dickman and his colleague Le-Qing Wu set up an experiment in which pigeons
were held in a dark room and used a 3D coil system to cancel out the planet‟s natural
geomagnetic field and generate a tunable, artificial magnetic field inside the room.
While they adjusted the elevation angles and magnitude of their artificial magnetic
field, they simultaneously recorded the activity of the 53 neurons in the pigeons‟
brains which had already been identified as candidates for such sensors.
So, they measured the electrical signals from each one as the field was changed and
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found that every neuron had its characteristic response to the magnetic field, each
giving a sort of 3-D compass reading along the familiar north-south directions as well
as pointing directly upward or downward. In life, this could help the bird determine
not only it's heading just as a compass does, but would also reveal its approximate
position, the researchers said.
Each cell also showed a sensitivity to field strength, with the maximum sensitivity
corresponding to the strength of the Earth‟s natural field, they added. And like a
compass, the neurons had opposite responses to different field “polarity”, the magnetic
north and south of a field, which surprised the researchers most of all.
Importance of GPS Technology in Aircrafts

GPS technology is essential for aircraft navigation and guidance. Here's how it is used:
 Positioning and Navigation: GPS helps aircraft accurately determine their position
and follow precise routes. Signals from satellites are received by GPS receivers
onboard, allowing the system to calculate the aircraft's position.
 Flight Planning: GPS assists pilots and planners in creating optimal flight plans,
considering waypoints, altitudes, and current information on navigation aids,
weather, and airspace restrictions.
 Approach and Landing: GPS-based navigation systems provide precise guidance
during approach and landing, even in low visibility. This enhances safety and
reduces reliance on ground-based navigation aids.
 Air Traffic Management: GPS is integrated into air traffic management systems,
improving airspace efficiency, reducing congestion, optimizing routing, and
enhancing aircraft tracking and situational awareness for controllers.
 Collision Avoidance: GPS contributes to collision avoidance systems like TCAS and
ADS-B. These systems use GPS data to track nearby aircraft, provide alerts, and
ensure safe separation.
 Flight Data Recording: GPS data is often recorded by flight data recording
systems, aiding post-flight analysis, accident investigation, and overall flight safety
improvements.GPS technology has revolutionized aircraft navigation and has
become an integral part of modern aviation. It provides accurate positioning,
enhances safety, improves operational efficiency, and contributes to the overall
advancement of the aviation industry.
4.3.2 Aircraft Technology

Aircraft technology has advanced significantly since the first powered flight by the
Wright brothers in 1903. Here are some key components of modern aircraft technology:
 Aerodynamics: Modern aircraft are designed to be more aerodynamic, with wing shapes
optimized for lift and efficiency. Advanced materials and manufacturing techniques
have also been developed to reduce weight and improve durability.
 Jet engines: Jet engines, which use the principles of Newton's third law of motion to
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produce thrust, have replaced propeller engines in most modern aircraft. These engines
are more powerful, fuel-efficient, and reliable.
 Avionics: Avionics, or aviation electronics, have advanced significantly with the
development of digital technology. Flight instruments, navigation systems, and
communication systems have become more precise, reliable, and sophisticated.
 Safety systems: Aircraft safety systems have been developed to reduce the risk of
accidents and improve passenger safety. These include systems for collision avoidance,
weather detection, and emergency response.
 Automation: Aircraft automation has increased significantly in recent years, with the
development of advanced autopilot systems and computerized flight control systems.
This technology has made flying safer and more efficient, but has also raised concerns
about pilot training and the potential for overreliance on automation .
Bio Mimicking Birds Fly for Aircraft Technology
Biomimicry, or the practice of using designs and processes found in nature to solve
human problems, has led to the development of various technologies inspired by birds'
flight. Some examples include:
 Wing design: The shape of bird wings has inspired the design of aircraft wings,
which have evolved to be more aerodynamic and fuel-efficient as a result. The
study of bird flight has also led to the development of winglets, small structures at
the tip of wings that reduce drag and increase lift.
Figure: Comparing the wing design of bird and aircraft

 Flapping-wing drones: Researchers have developed drones that use flapping wings to
fly, mimicking the way birds and insects fly. These drones can be used for various
applications, such as monitoring crops and wildlife, inspecting buildings and
infrastructure, and search and rescue operations.
 Landing gear: The legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for
aircraft, with shock-absorbing and retractable structures that help absorb impact upon
landing.
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The future of transportation through the air

The future of transportation through the air holds exciting possibilities with the
emergence of new technologies and concepts. Here are some potential modes of air
transportation that could shape the future:
 Electric Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) Aircraft: These are electric-
powered aircraft that can take off and land vertically, similar to helicopters. They
are being designed for urban air mobility and short-distance transportation, offering
a more efficient and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional helicopters.
 Autonomous Flying Vehicles: Autonomous drones and flying taxis are being
developed for various applications, including transportation of people and goods.
These vehicles would operate without a pilot and rely on advanced sensors, artificial
intelligence, and automation to navigate safely.
 High-Speed Air Travel: Supersonic and hypersonic aircraft are being explored to
revolutionize long-distance travel. These aircraft would travel at extremely high
speeds, significantly reducing travel times and opening up new possibilities for
global connectivity.
 Personal Air Vehicles (PAVs): PAVs are compact flying vehicles designed for
individual use. They could potentially serve as a convenient mode of transportation
for short- distance travel within cities, similar to personal cars but in the air.
 Hyperloop Transportation: While not strictly an air-based mode of transportation,
the Hyperloop concept involves high-speed capsules traveling through low-pressure
tubes, offering near-supersonic speeds. This mode of transportation could connect
distant cities and regions in a fast, energy-efficient manner.
4.4 Lotus Leaf Effect:

Introduction
The lotus leaf effect, also known as the "lotus effect," refers to the ability of lotus
leaves to repel water and self-clean through their unique surface structure. This effect has
inspired the development of super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces, which have a
wide range of applications in various industries.
The lotus leaf surface has a microscale and nanoscale structure that consists of
numerous small bumps and wax-coated hairs. This structure creates a high contact angle
between the water droplets and the surface, causing the droplets to roll off and carry away
any dirt or debris. This self-cleaning property is due to the lotus leaf's ability to repel water
and resist adhesion.
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Figure: Representing the surface of lotus leaf

Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces have applications in industries such as
aerospace, automotive, building materials, and medical devices. For example, self-cleaning
coatings can be used on the exterior of buildings to reduce the need for cleaning and
maintenance, while super hydrophobic coatings can be used to prevent icing on aircraft
wings.
4.4.1 Super Hydrophobic Effect

The Principle of Super hydrophobic Surfaces
The super hydrophobic effect refers to the ability of certain surfaces to repel water
and resist wetting. Super hydrophobic surfaces are characterized by a high contact angle
between water droplets and the surface, typically over 150 degrees, and a low contact angle
hysteresis, meaning that the droplets roll off the surface with ease.
Figure: Representing super hydrophobic and super hydrophilic effects

The super hydrophobic effect is achieved through the use of various techniques.
These techniques create a surface structure that traps air between the surface and the water
droplets, reducing the contact area between them and making it more difficult for the
droplets to wet the surface.
Materials and Examples
Several materials and coating techniques are used to prepare super hydrophobic
surfaces. Here are some commonly used materials and examples:
 Fluoropolymers: Fluoropolymer-based coatings are widely used for super
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hydrophobic surfaces due to their low surface energy and water-repellent properties.
Examples include polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and fluorinated ethylene
propylene (FEP) coatings.
 Silica-based Nanoparticles: Silica nanoparticles can be functionalized and applied
to surfaces to create super hydrophobicity. These nanoparticles create a rough
surface structure that traps air pockets, preventing water from wetting the surface.
Additionally, the surface can be modified with hydrophobic molecules. Examples
include silica nanoparticles coated with hydrophobic agents like alkylsilanes.
 Carbon-based Materials: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and carbon
nanofibers are used to create super hydrophobic surfaces. These materials can be
aligned or randomly distributed to form a rough surface with hydrophobic properties.
The combination of their unique structures and hydrophobic coatings contributes to
water repellency.
 Metal-based Materials: Various metals and metal oxides can be used to create
super hydrophobic surfaces. One approach involves creating micro/nanostructured
surfaces using etching techniques, such as chemical etching or electrochemical
etching, on metals like aluminum, copper, or stainless steel. These structures,
combined with appropriate surface treatments, enhance water repellency.
 Polymer-based Materials: Some polymers, when processed and structured
appropriately, can exhibit super hydrophobic properties. For example,
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) can be modified and structured to create rough
surfaces with low surface energy, resulting in super hydrophobic behavior.
 Natural Materials: Certain natural materials, such as lotus leaves and butterfly
wings, have inherently super hydrophobic properties. Researchers have studied the
surface structures and chemical composition of these natural surfaces to replicate
them artificially. Mimicking the hierarchical structures and utilizing hydrophobic
coatings can create super hydrophobic surfaces.
 Hybrid Materials: Combinations of different materials are often used to create
super hydrophobic surfaces. For instance, hybrid coatings can be formed by
combining nanoparticles, polymers, and other materials to achieve synergistic effects
and optimize super hydrophobic properties.
Techniques used to prepare super hydrophobic surfaces
To prepare super hydrophobic surfaces, various techniques are employed to modify
the surface structure and chemistry of materials. These techniques aim to create roughness
and reduce surface energy, leading to high water repellency. Some commonly used
techniques are Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), Sol-Gel Method, Electrochemical
Methods, Plasma Treatment, Micro/Nanostructuring Techniques, Chemical Modification
etc., These are just a few examples of the techniques used to prepare super hydrophobic
surfaces. Each technique has its advantages, and the choice depends on the specific material,
substrate, and desired surface characteristics. Often, a combination of techniques is used to
achieve optimal super hydrophobic properties.
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Engineering Applications of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces

Super hydrophobic surfaces have potential applications in the electronics,
automobile, and aerospace industries, offering several benefits in these sectors. Here are
some specific applications:
Electronics Industry:
 Waterproofing Electronics: Super hydrophobic coatings can protect electronic
components from water damage. By applying super hydrophobic coatings on circuit
boards, connectors, and other sensitive electronic parts, water ingress can be
minimized, improving the reliability and durability of electronic devices.
 Moisture Resistance: Electronic devices exposed to humid environments or
moisture- prone conditions can benefit from super hydrophobic coatings. These
coatings prevent moisture from reaching critical electronic components, reducing the
risk of short circuits, corrosion, and malfunction.
 Self-Cleaning Displays: Super hydrophobic coatings applied to displays and touch
screens repel water, oils, and fingerprints, making them easier to clean and maintain.
This improves the visibility and functionality of electronic displays, especially in
outdoor or high-touch applications.
Automobile Industry:
 Anti-Fogging Windows and Mirrors: Super hydrophobic coatings can be used on
automobile windows and mirrors to prevent fogging or condensation formation. The
water-repellent property helps maintain clear visibility, enhancing driver safety and
comfort in humid or cold weather conditions.
 Self-Cleaning Surfaces: Applying super hydrophobic coatings to the exterior
surfaces of vehicles can facilitate self-cleaning by repelling water, dirt, and
contaminants. This reduces the need for frequent washing and maintenance, keeping
the vehicle cleaner and improving its appearance.
 Fuel Efficiency: Super hydrophobic coatings can reduce drag and frictional
resistance on vehicle surfaces, leading to improved aerodynamics and fuel
efficiency. By minimizing water adhesion, the coatings help reduce the
accumulation of water droplets on the vehicle's exterior, decreasing drag and
optimizing performance.
Aerospace Industry:
 Anti-Icing and Deicing: Super hydrophobic coatings applied to aircraft surfaces can
prevent ice formation or facilitate ice removal. This is particularly important for
critical areas such as wings, engine components, and sensors, helping to ensure safe
operations and reducing the risk of ice-related incidents.
 Drag Reduction: Super hydrophobic coatings on aircraft surfaces can minimize
frictional drag during flight, leading to improved fuel efficiency and reduced
emissions. The water- repellent property helps maintain a smooth airflow over the
surface, optimizing aerodynamic performance.
 Corrosion Resistance: Super hydrophobic coatings can protect aerospace
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components from corrosion caused by exposure to moisture, rain, or harsh

environments. By repelling water and reducing surface contact with corrosive agents,
these coatings help preserve the structural integrity and lifespan of aerospace
equipment.
4.4.2 Self-Cleaning Surfaces

Self-cleaning surfaces are surfaces that are able to clean themselves without the need
for manual cleaning. These surfaces are typically super hydrophobic and have a high contact
angle with water, which causes water droplets to bead up and roll off the surface,
carrying away anydirt or debris.
Principle of Self Cleaning Surfaces

The principle of self-cleaning surfaces is based on two main mechanisms: the
reduction of surface energy and the modification of surface texture. These mechanisms
work together to minimize the adhesion of dirt, water, and other contaminants, enabling the
self-cleaning effect. Here's a breakdown of the principle:
 Low Surface Energy: Self-cleaning surfaces often have low surface energy, which
means they have a reduced affinity for liquid and solid particles. Materials with low
surface energy repel water, oils, and other substances, preventing them from
adhering to the surface. This property is typically achieved through the application of
hydrophobic or oleophobic coatings, such as fluoropolymers or other low-surface-
energy materials.
 Lotus Effect: The Lotus Effect is a phenomenon observed in nature on the leaves of
lotus plants. It is a classic example of self-cleaning surfaces. Lotus leaves have a
unique micro/nanostructured surface covered with hydrophobic wax crystals. When
water droplets come into contact with the leaf surface, they form near-perfect spheres
and roll off, collecting dirt and contaminants along the way. This is due to the
combination of the surface's low surface energy and the presence of
micro/nanostructures, which reduce the contact area and enable easy droplet
mobility.
 Micro/Nanostructured Surfaces: Surface texture plays a crucial role in self-
cleaning surfaces. Microscopic or nanoscopic structures can be engineered or
naturally occurring on a surface to create a roughness that limits the contact between
the surface and contaminants. These structures can trap air pockets, causing liquids
to form droplets with in the easy removal of particles.
 External Factors: While the surface properties contribute to self-cleaning, external
factors like water, wind, or light often play a role in activating the self-cleaning
process. For example, the presence of water, either through rainfall or manual
washing, can help remove loosely adhered particles from the surface. Sunlight or
UV radiation can activate photocatalytic reactions on certain surfaces, breaking down
organic matter and enhancing self-cleaning capabilities.
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Applications of self cleaning surfaces and coatings

 Architecture and Building Materials: Self-cleaning surfaces find applications in
architectural structures and building materials, such as self-cleaning glass for
windows and facades. These surfaces repel dirt, dust, and pollutants, reducing the
need for frequent cleaning and maintenance.
 Solar Panels: Self-cleaning coatings on solar panels prevent the accumulation of dust
and dirt on the surface, ensuring optimal energy efficiency. By repelling
contaminants, self- cleaning surfaces help maintain the transparency and
effectiveness of solar panels.
 Automotive Industry: Self-cleaning surfaces can be applied to vehicle exteriors,
including car windows and windshields. These surfaces repel water, oil, and dirt,
improving visibility and reducing the need for frequent cleaning.
 Electronics: Self-cleaning coatings can be used on electronic displays, touchscreens,
and optical lenses. These surfaces resist fingerprints, oils, and smudges, ensuring
clear visibility and enhancing device performance.
 Textiles: Self-cleaning coatings can be applied to fabrics used in outdoor clothing,
upholstery, and carpets. These coatings repel liquids, stains, and dirt, making the
textiles easier to clean and maintain.
 Medical Equipment: Self-cleaning surfaces can be utilized in medical equipment,
such as hospital furniture, beds, and surfaces prone to contamination. These
surfaces minimize the adhesion of microorganisms, reducing the risk of cross-
contamination and improving hygiene.
 Kitchen and Bathroom Surfaces: Self-cleaning surfaces can be employed in kitchen
countertops, sinks, and bathroom fixtures to repel water, oils, and stains. This helps
keep the surfaces clean and reduces the effort required for cleaning and
maintenance.
 Outdoor Signage and Billboards: Self-cleaning coatings on outdoor signage and
billboards prevent the accumulation of dirt, grime, and pollutants. This helps
maintain the visibility and effectiveness of advertisements, reducing the need for
manual cleaning.
 Air Conditioning and Ventilation Systems: Self-cleaning coatings can be applied to
air conditioning and ventilation system components, such as filters and ducts. These
surfaces repel dust and particles, improving air quality and reducing the need for
frequent cleaning or filter replacements.
 Food and Beverage Industry: Self-cleaning surfaces can be used in food processing
equipment and containers to prevent the adhesion of food residues, oils, and
contaminants. This enhances food safety and facilitates easier cleaning and
sanitation.
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4.5 Plant Burrs and Velcro

Plant burrs, such as those found on burdock, inspired the invention of Velcro, a
popularhook-and-loop fastening system.
a) b)
Figure: a) The globular flower heads of burdock, b) indicating the hook shape
The burrs have small hooks that can latch onto clothing, fur, or feathers, allowing them
todisperse their seeds over a wider area.
a) b)
Figure: Image showing a) hook and loops normal view of Velcro, b) microscopic view of
hooksand loops of velcro
Velcro was invented by Swiss engineer George De Mestral in 1941, after he became
fascinated by the way burrs clung to his clothes and his dog's fur during a walk.
He examined the burrs under a microscope and found that they had small hooks
thatcould latch onto loops in fabric.
De Mestral spent years experimenting with different materials before finally developing
Velcro, which consists of two strips of nylon fabric, one with tiny hooks and the other with
small loops. When pressed together, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a strong bond that
can be easily detached by pulling the two strips apart. Velcro has a wide range of applications,
including in clothing, shoes, bags, and medical devices. It has become a popular alternative to
traditional fasteners, such as buttons and zippers, due to its ease of use and versatility.
The name "Velcro" is actually a combination of the words "velvet" and "crochet," as the fabric
strips resemble velvet and are hooked together like crochet. Velcro has since become a popular
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alternative to traditional fasteners, such as buttons and zippers, due to its ease of use and
versatility.
Materials Used in Velcro Technology
Velcro technology uses two main materials: nylon and polyester.
1. The nylon is extruded to create tiny hooks that are then cut and shaped into the
familiar hook shape. These hooks are designed to latch onto the loop side of the Velcro.
Figure: The hook of Velcro

The loop side of Velcro is made of polyester. Polyester is a synthetic fabric that is strong and
durable. The polyester is woven into a fabric that has many tiny loops. When the loops are
pressed against the hook side of the Velcro, the hooks latch onto the loops, creating a secure
attachment.
Figure: The loop of Velcro

In addition to nylon and polyester, the adhesive used to attach the Velcro to surfaces can also
vary. Some types of Velcro use a pressure-sensitive adhesive that can be easily removed
without leaving a residue, while others use a stronger adhesive that creates a more permanent
bond.
Engineering Applications of Velcro Technology
Clothing and footwear:
Velcro is commonly used in clothing and footwear for closures and adjustable straps. Itcan
be easily opened and closed, making it convenient for users with limited dexterity or
mobility.
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Medical devices:
Velcro is used in medical devices such as braces, splints, and compression garments forits
adjustable and secure fastening capabilities.
Aerospace equipment:
Velcro is used in aerospace equipment, such as satellites and spacecraft, to secure components
in place and prevent them from vibrating or shifting during launch or flight.
Automotive industry:
Velcro is used in the automotive industry for a range of applications, such as securing carpets
and headliners, and attaching door panels and seat cushions.
Packaging industry:
Velcro is used in the packaging industry for resealable closures on bags, pouches, and other
types of packaging.
Sports equipment:
Velcro is used in sports equipment, such as helmets and gloves, for its ability to provide a
secure and adjustable fit.
4.6 Shark Skin and Friction Reducing Swim Suits

The denticles on shark skin have evolved over millions of years to reduce drag and
increase swimming efficiency. These structures disrupt the flow of water around the shark's
body, reducing turbulence and minimizing the formation of vortices. As a result, sharks can
swim faster and with less effort compared to other fish.
The texture is rough since it has small scales similar to teeth, called Dermal Denticles.
Each species has a uniquely shaped denticle. They have a covering of dentine, a
central pulp canal containing blood vessels, and a single nerve.
The denticles play an important part in swimming efficiency. The water is channeled
by the „skin teeth' and flows across the fins and around the body. The teeth also break
up the interface between skin and water, reducing the friction between the two entities.
The teeth and skin also help protect the shark from injuries and several elements in the
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water. It's like a suit of armor for sharks.

Denticles on shark skin are like tiny bumps or ridges. They disrupt the flow of water around the
shark's body, making it smoother and reducing turbulence. This disruption reduces the
resistance the shark experiences as it swim, allowing it to move faster and with less effort.
 Turbulence in Water
Turbulence is when a fluid, like water or air, becomes chaotic and unpredictable. Insteadof
flowing smoothly, it swirls and forms irregular patterns. This turbulence creates resistance or
drag, which makes it harder for things to move through the fluid. In swimming, reducing
turbulence is important because it helps to minimize resistance, allowing swimmers to move
more easily and efficiently through the water.
 Reducing Drag
When a shark swims through the water, the water normally flows smoothly over its body.
However, the denticles on the shark's skin disrupt this smooth flow. They create small
disturbances in the water, which helps to break up turbulent currents that can slow the shark
down. By reducing turbulence, the denticles make the flow of water around the shark's body
smoother. This smoother flow reduces the resistance or drags the shark experiences as it moves
through the water, allowing it to swim more efficiently.
 Frictionless Swim Suits
Shark skin has inspired the development of friction-reducing swim suits, which are designed to
improve the performance of swimmers by reducing drag in the water.
Friction-reducing swim suits use a similar structure to that of shark skin to reduce drag and
improve swimmer performance. These suits are made from high-tech materials that mimic
the properties of shark skin, such as the shape and size of the denticles.
Materials Used
The materials used to create friction-reducing swim suits inspired by shark skin include:
 Polyurethane: A type of polymer that is commonly used in the production of swim
suits, asit is durable and can be molded into a variety of shapes.
 Lycra/Spandex: Lycra and spandex are made from the same synthetic fiber, which is
technically called elastane. Elastane fibers are typically composed of a polymer called
polyurethane which is then blended with other fibers like nylon, polyester, or cotton) that
is known for its stretch and flexibility.
 High-tech fabrics: A range of high-tech fabrics have been developed specifically for use in
swim suits. These fabrics are designed to be lightweight, water-repellent, and
hydrodynamic, and often incorporate materials such as silicone or Teflon to reduce drag.
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4.7 Kingfisher Beak and Bullet Train
Figure: Indicating the shape similarities of kingfisher beak and design of the front of the
bullet train
The kingfisher beak is an excellent example of nature's design for efficient diving and fishing.
Its unique shape and structure enable the kingfisher to minimize the impact of water resistance
and achieve a successful dive.
The Physics behind the Kingfisher
Beak Streamlining:
The beak of a kingfisher is long, slender, and sharply pointed, which helps reduce drag or air
resistance as the bird dives into the water. The streamlined shape allows the kingfisher to
smoothly cut through the air and minimize the energy required for the dive.
Surface Tension:
When the kingfisher hits the water, it encounters the resistance caused by surface tension.
Surface tension is the cohesive force between water molecules that creates a "skin" on the
water's surface. The sharp beak of the kingfisher helps to pierce through the water's surface,
breaking the surface tension and reducing the force required to enter the water.
Minimizing Splash:
As the kingfisher dives, it needs to enter the water with minimal disturbance to avoid scaring
away the fish it intends to catch. The shape of the beak helps to reduce the splash generated
upon entry. The beak's narrow and pointed design helps create a smooth entry by
minimizing the disturbance of the water surface, allowing the kingfisher to enter silently and
effectively.
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Figure: Image of a Shinkasen bullet train of Japan

Technological Importance
The use of the kingfisher beak as a design inspiration for the front of the bullet train is an
example of how nature-inspired engineering can lead to innovative solutions that improve the
performance and efficiency of machines. Shinkansen bullet train of Japan is the best example
which used the biomimicry of kingfisher‟s beak.
Aerodynamic Design:
The front of the Shinkansen is meticulously shaped to reduce air resistance and improve
aerodynamic performance. The streamlined design minimizes drag as the train travels at high
speeds, allowing it to maintain stability and efficiency. The smooth, tapered shape reduces the
pressure difference between the front and rear of the train, reducing noise and vibration.
Pressure Wave Reduction:
When a high-speed train moves through a tunnel, it creates pressure waves that can cause
noise and discomfort for passengers. The nose of the Shinkansen is designed to reduce these
pressure waves by effectively managing airflow and minimizing the compression and
expansion of air as the train enters and exits tunnels. This reduces the noise level and
enhances passenger comfort.
4.8 Human Blood Substitutes

Introduction
Human blood substitutes are synthetic products that are designed to act as a replacementfor
blood in the human body.
Shortages in blood supplies and concerns about the safety of donated blood have fueled the
development of so-called blood substitutes. The two major types of blood substitutes are
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volume expanders, which include solutions such as saline that are used to replace lost plasma
volume, andoxygen therapeutics, which are agents designed to replace oxygen normally carried
by the hemoglobin in red blood cells. Of these two types of blood substitutes, the development of
oxygentherapeutics has been the most challenging.
One of the first groups of agents developed and tested were perfluorocarbons, which
effectively transport and deliver oxygen to tissues but cause complex side effects,
including flulike reactions, and are not metabolized by the body.
Other oxygen therapeutics include agents called hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs),
which are made by genetically or chemically engineering hemoglobin isolated from the red
bloodcells of humans or bovines. HBOCs do not require refrigeration, are compatible with all
blood types, and efficiently distribute oxygen to tissues. A primary concern associated with
these agentsis their potential to cause severe immune reactions.
4.8.1 Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs)

Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) are a type of human blood substitute that is
designed to carry and deliver oxygen to the body's tissues. They are made by isolating
hemoglobin, the protein responsible for carrying oxygen in red blood cells, and formulating it
into a solution or suspension that can be infused into a patient's bloodstream.
Advantages of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers

Increased oxygen-carrying capacity:
HBOCs can potentially carry more oxygen per unit volume than whole blood. This can be
advantageous in situations where there is a need for rapid oxygen delivery or when there is
limited availability of blood for transfusion.
Universal compatibility:
Unlike blood transfusions, which require blood typing and cross-matching to ensure
compatibility, HBOCs can potentially be universally compatible with any blood type. This
canbe particularly useful in emergency situations or in areas where blood matching facilities are
limited.
Longer shelf life:
HBOCs have the potential for longer storage and shelf life compared to donated blood, which
has a limited lifespan. This can improve the availability of oxygen-carrying substitutes in
critical situations and reduce the need for frequent blood donations.
Reduced risk of infections:

Blood transfusions carry a small risk of transmitting infections, such as viruses or bacteria,
from the donor to the recipient. Since HBOCs are synthetic and do not rely on human donors,
the risk of infections associated with transfusion can be significantly reduced.
Availability in remote or challenging settings:
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In remote or underdeveloped areas where access to safe blood transfusions may be limited,
HBOCs can potentially provide a viable alternative for oxygen delivery. This can be
particularly beneficial in military settings, disaster relief efforts, or during transport of patients
where immediate access to blood is not feasible.
Limitations/Risks of using HBOCs
Limited oxygen release:

One of the challenges with HBOCs is ensuring efficient oxygen release to the tissues. The
oxygen dissociation curve of HBOCs may differ from that of natural red blood cells, potentially
leading to inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues in certain conditions.
Short half-life:
HBOCs tend to have a shorter half-life in the body compared to natural red blood cells. This
means that the HBOCs may be rapidly cleared from circulation, reducing their effectiveness and
requiring more frequent doses or infusions.
Nitric oxide scavenging:

HBOCs have a tendency to scavenge nitric oxide, a molecule important for regulating blood
vessel dilation and maintaining normal blood flow. Excessive nitric oxide scavenging by
HBOCs can lead to vasoconstriction, impairing blood flow to vital organs and potentially
causing adverse cardiovascular effects.
Renal toxicity:
Some HBOCs have shown a potential for renal toxicity, causing damage to the kidneys. This
can be a significant concern as the kidneys play a crucial role in filtering and excreting waste
products from the body.
Immunogenicity and adverse reactions:
HBOCs can trigger immune responses in the body, potentially leading to allergic reactions or
other adverse events. Immunogenicity can vary between different HBOC products and
individuals, and careful monitoring is necessary to identify and manage any potential adverse
reactions.
Regulatory challenges:
HBOCs are subject to rigorous regulatory scrutiny due to their potential risks and complex
nature. Obtaining regulatory approval for HBOCs can be a lengthy and costly process, and
several HBOC products have faced setbacks in their development due to safety concerns.
Interference with diagnostic tests:

HBOCs can interfere with certain laboratory tests, such as those measuring bilirubin or liver
enzymes. This interference can complicate the interpretation of results and potentially leadto
diagnostic errors.
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Examples of HBOCs
There are several examples of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) that have been
developed or are currently in development. Here are a few examples:
 Hemopure: Hemopure is an HBOC that is made from bovine hemoglobin. It has been
approved for use in South Africa, Russia, and some other countries.
 Oxyglobin: Oxyglobin is another HBOC that is made from bovine hemoglobin. It is
approved for veterinary use in the United States and has been used to treat anemia in
dogs.
 Hemospan: Hemospan is an HBOC that is being developed by Sangart Inc. It is currently
in clinical trials and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues.
 MP4OX: MP4OX is an HBOC that is being developed by Baxter Healthcare. It is
designed to increase oxygen delivery to tissues and also to scavenge harmful free radicals
in the bloodstream.
 Hemolink: Hemolink is an HBOC that is being developed by Hemosol Inc. It is
designed to be used in trauma and surgical settings and has shown promise in improving
oxygen delivery to tissues.
4.8.2 Perflourocarbons (PFCs)

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are a type of human blood substitute that are designed to deliver
oxygen to the body's tissues. Unlike hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs), which are
based on natural proteins, PFCs are synthetic chemicals that are similar in structure to some
types of industrial solvents.
Advantages of PFCs
High oxygen-carrying capacity:
PFCs have the ability to dissolve a significant amount of oxygen, much higher than that of
blood. This allows for efficient oxygen delivery to tissues, even in low-oxygen environments.
Improved oxygen solubility:
PFCs exhibit a high solubility for oxygen, meaning that oxygen molecules can readily dissolve
in PFC solutions. This enables PFCs to transport and deliver oxygen more effectively than
other alternatives.
Stability and long shelf life:

PFCs are chemically stable and have a long shelf life, making them suitable for storage and
use in emergency situations where the availability of fresh blood or other oxygen carriers may
be limited.
No blood typing or cross-matching required:

Unlike blood transfusions, which require compatibility testing and matching of blood types,
PFCs are not dependent on blood typing. This makes them potentially universal oxygen
34
carriers, suitable for use in individuals of any blood type.

Reduced risk of infection transmission:
PFCs are synthetic substances, eliminating the risk of transmitting infectious diseases associated
with blood transfusions. This advantage can be particularly significant in situations where the
availability of safe blood products is limited or in areas with a high prevalence of blood-borne
infections.
Compatibility with diagnostic tests:
PFCs do not interfere with laboratory diagnostic tests, allowing for accurate interpretation of
test results without potential complications from the presence of PFCs.
Limitations of PFCs
Limited oxygen offloading:
While PFCs have a high capacity to carry and dissolve oxygen, they tend to have a reduced
ability to release oxygen to tissues compared to red blood cells. This can result in inefficient
oxygen delivery, especially in situations where oxygen demand is high or oxygen tension in
tissues is low.
Need for specialized administration methods:

PFCs typically require specialized administration techniques, such as emulsification or
encapsulation, to enhance their stability and improve their oxygen-carrying capacity. These
techniques can add complexity and cost to the administration process.
Short half-life:
PFCs have a relatively short half-life in the body, leading to the need for frequent
administration to maintain adequate oxygen-carrying capacity. This can be impractical in
certain clinical scenarios or situations where prolonged oxygen delivery is required.
Clearance and elimination:

PFCs are primarily eliminated from the body through the lungs, and their elimination kinetics
can vary among individuals. This can impact their effectiveness and clearance rates, potentially
limiting their duration of action.
Side effects and toxicity:

PFCs have the potential for side effects and toxicity, particularly if used in excessive amounts
or for prolonged periods. Adverse effects can include respiratory distress, immune reactions,
and potential organ toxicity. The safety profile of PFCs needs to be thoroughly studied and
monitored.
Regulatory considerations:
PFCs are subject to regulatory approval and scrutiny, similar to other medical products.
Obtaining regulatory approval for PFC-based products can involve extensive testing and
35
evaluation to ensure their safety and efficacy.
Examples of PFCs
 Perftoran: Perftoran is a PFC that was developed in Russia and is used in several
countries, including Russia, Ukraine, and China. It has been used in the treatment of a
variety of conditions, including trauma, heart attack, and stroke.
 Oxycyte: Oxycyte is a PFC that is being developed by Oxygen Biotherapeutics. It is
currently in clinical trials and has shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues
in patients with traumatic brain injury.
 Oxycyte PFC Emulsion: This is another PFC-based blood substitute being developed by
Oxygen Biotherapeutics. It is designed to be used as an oxygen carrier during surgery and
other medical procedures.
 Hemopure-PFC: Hemopure-PFC is a hybrid blood substitute that combines a PFC with a
hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier. It is being developed by HbO2 Therapeutics and has
shown promise in increasing oxygen delivery to tissues in preclinical studies.
36

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SUB CODE: 21BE45 SUB: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE-4 FACULTY: D.

Figure: Representing echolocation in bats and dolphins

 Sound Emission: The echolocating organism, whether biological or technological,

Figure: Representing working principle of ultrasonography

 Real-time imaging: Ultrasonography provides real-time images that can be used to

Figure: Representing working principle of sonar

The Process of Photosynthesis in Plants and in Some Animals

In contrast, some animals, such as jellyfish, have a symbiotic relationship with

Light-dependent photosynthesis Light-independent photosynthesis

4.2.1 Photovoltaic Cells

Figure: solar cell

New Technology Photovoltaic Cells

4.2.2 Bionic Leaf

Applications of Bionic Leaf Technology

 Sustainable Chemical Production: Bionic leaf systems can be utilized for

 Environmental Remediation: Bionic leaf technology has the potential to aid in

4.3 Bird Flying:

Figure: Representing Bernoulli‟s Principle

4.3.1 GPS Technology

GPS AND BIRD FLIGHT:

Importance of GPS Technology in Aircrafts

4.3.2 Aircraft Technology

Figure: Comparing the wing design of bird and aircraft

The future of transportation through the air

4.4 Lotus Leaf Effect:

Figure: Representing the surface of lotus leaf

4.4.1 Super Hydrophobic Effect

Figure: Representing super hydrophobic and super hydrophilic effects

Engineering Applications of Super Hydrophobic Surfaces

components from corrosion caused by exposure to moisture, rain, or harsh

4.4.2 Self-Cleaning Surfaces

Principle of Self Cleaning Surfaces

Applications of self cleaning surfaces and coatings

4.5 Plant Burrs and Velcro

Figure: The hook of Velcro

Figure: The loop of Velcro

4.6 Shark Skin and Friction Reducing Swim Suits

water. It's like a suit of armor for sharks.

4.7 Kingfisher Beak and Bullet Train

Figure: Image of a Shinkasen bullet train of Japan

4.8 Human Blood Substitutes

4.8.1 Hemoglobin-Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs)

Advantages of hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers

Reduced risk of infections:

Limitations/Risks of using HBOCs

Limited oxygen release:

Nitric oxide scavenging:

Interference with diagnostic tests:

4.8.2 Perflourocarbons (PFCs)

Stability and long shelf life:

No blood typing or cross-matching required:

carriers, suitable for use in individuals of any blood type.

Need for specialized administration methods:

Clearance and elimination:

Side effects and toxicity:

evaluation to ensure their safety and efficacy.

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