PHYSICS 202:

Electromagnetism
Lecture 3: Gradient; cylindrical coordinates

Elke Pahl, elke.pahl@auckland.ac.nz, 303-713

Griffith: Vector Analysis, 4.1,4.2; Electrostatics 4.2 - 4.4

Electric Potential
• Same connection to electric field as energy to force
• Just a property of the source charges

Z r
0 0
V (r) ⌘ E(r ) · dl
O

• 𝒪 is standard reference point (often natural to set V to zero at infinity)

• Superposition principle applies to potentials as well, but easier as we add
scalar quantities instead of vectors.
• Unit: Volts: 1 V = 1 JC-1 = 1 NmC-1
 0 1
0
q 2 @hA
Enet =
4⇡✏0 (x2 + h2 )3/2
Continuous Charge Distribution Formula for two charges
0

Generalize result to an (infinitely long) line of charges with uniform charge

distribution 𝜆 to find electric field at point x
• Net electric field due to charges dq
0 1 dq
x
1 2 dq @0A
Edq = 2 2 3/2 y
4⇡✏0 (x + y )
0
x
• We only must calculate for half the line (0,0) x

• Note: d𝑞 = 𝜆 d𝑦

Z ??
dy 2x dq
Eline = 2 2 3/2
x̂
? 4⇡✏0 (x + y )
 0 1
0
q 2 @hA
Enet =
4⇡✏0 (x2 + h2 )3/2
Continuous Charge Distribution Formula for two charges
0

Generalize result to an (infinitely long) line of charges with uniform charge

distribution 𝜆 to find electric field at point x
• Net electric field due to charges dq
0 1
x
1 2 dq @0A
Edq = 2 2 3/2 0 1 0 1
4⇡✏0 (x + y )
0 x 1
• We only must calculate for half the line @ 0 A = x @0A = xx̂
• Note: d𝑞 = 𝜆 d𝑦
0 0
Z ??
dy 2x
Eline = 2 2 3/2
x̂
? 4⇡✏0 (x + y )
Electric Potential and Electric Field

• Goal: We want to find the electric field when potential is known

• The reason that this is possible is that electric field component are related to
each other (we will find that the curl is zero)

• Physical reason: electric force is a conservative force, ie. work done is

independent on path taken between two positions – the very reason that we
were able to define a potential at all
Change in a (Scalar) Field Value
• Solution: Use partial derivatives
• Do a small step away from point (x, y, z) to (x+dx, y+dy, z+dy). The total change dT is
the sum of changes in x, y, and z direction:

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@T @T @T
dT = dx + dy + dz
@x @y @z
Nabla Operator
• Also called del operator (Griffith) or gradient operator or “grad”
∇ nabla
Greek: harp
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0 @
1
@x
@ @ @
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B@C
r = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ r= @ @y A
@x @y @z @
@z

• “Multiplication with scalar”: gradient of T

@T @T @T
rT ⌘ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
@x @y @z Wikipedia
Gradient Using the Nabla Operator
@T @T @T
rT ⌘ x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
@x @y @z

• Calculate:

rT · dl with dl = dx x̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ
Gradient: Geometric Interpretation
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@T @T @T
dT = dx + dy + dz
@x @y @z
dT = rT · dl = |rT ||dl| cos ✓

• Fix step size |dl|: Maximum when 𝜃 = 0; i.e. maximum change in T if we step
in same direction as ∇𝑇

• The gradient ∇𝑇 points in direction of maximum increase of function T

• The magnitude |∇𝑇| gives slope along that direction of maximum increase
Examples

The marked point is at a maximum;

what statements can you make about
the partial derivatives?

(A) Positive in both directions

(B) Negative in both directions
(C) One positive and one negative
(D) Zero in both directions
(E) Zero in one direction
Maximum
Examples

And now?

(A) Positive in both directions

(B) Negative in both directions
(C) One positive and one negative
(D) Zero in both directions
(E) Zero in one direction

Saddle point
Examples
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 Find the gradient of the magnitude
of the position vector:
The gradient ∇𝑓 is: 𝑟 = 𝑥! + 𝑦! + 𝑧!

(A) (0, 0, 0)
(B) (x, y, z)
(C) (1, 1, 1)
(D) (2, 2, 2)
(E) Nothing of the above
Gradient of the Potential: Point charge
Compute ∇𝑉:
1 Q
V =
4⇡✏0 R
 Gradient of the Potential: Point charge
Compute ∇𝑉:
1 Q
1
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V =
V =C 2
(x + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 4⇡✏0 R
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✓ ◆
@V 1 2x x
=C 2 2 2 3/2
= C 3
@x 2 (x + y + z ) R
E= rV
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0 1
x
1 Q @ A 1 Q 1 Q
rV = 3
y = 3
R= 2
R̂ = E
4⇡✏0 R 4⇡✏0 R 4⇡✏0 R
z
Electric Potential and Electric Field Z r
V (r) ⌘ E(r0 ) · dl0
• In general: O
Z b
V (b) V (a) = E · dl
a

• And: Z b
Fundamental theorem
V (b) V (a) = (rV ) · dl for gradients
a

• True for any a, b, therefore: E= rV

Electric Potential and Electric Field
E= rV

• Electric field is given by the gradient of the potential

• So, we can get a vector quantity from a scalar one! – Because electric fields are
special and components not independent of each other (remember curl E is zero,
no rotational component)
• Remember: Superposition principle applies to potentials as well, but easier as we
now add scalar quantities instead of vectors.
• Thus, we can concentrate on finding the electric potential
 !
What is the gradient of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝑧 + 𝑦
(A) (2𝑥, 1, 0)
(B) (2𝑥𝑧, 1, 𝑥 ! )
(C) (2𝑥𝑧 + y, 1, 𝑥 ! )
(D) (2𝑥, 0, 0)
(E) Something else
Example
 F, E, U and V
Vector quantities Scalar quantities

! !
U12 = − ∫ F12 ⋅ dl
Dependent on charge
configuration

! !
F12 = q1E2 U12 = q1V2

Only dependent on source E= rV

charge distribution
! !
V2 = − ∫ E2 ⋅ dl
Electric Potential Energy
• Work = change in energy = force x distance
• Reverse: force = change in energy / distance
dU
In 1D F =
dx
U= W
Z b
W = F(r) · dl
a
In 3D
F= rU
Curvilinear Coordinates
• We used Cartesian coordinates until now

• Sometimes change in coordinates is beneficial if they match the

symmetry of the problem better
• We will be interested in cylindrical coordinates (long wires) and
spherical coordinates (point-like charges)

• Gradient vector is independent of choice of coordinates, but its

components will change
Coordinates: General Consideration
• Each coordinate system has basis vectors a< , b= , and c<
• Orthonormality:
â · b̂ = â · ĉ = b̂ · ĉ = 0 orthogonal onto each other
â · â = b̂ · b̂ = ĉ · ĉ = 1 normalized
• Right-handedness:
â ⇥ b̂ = ĉ; â ⇥ ĉ = b̂; b̂ ⇥ ĉ = â

• Orthonormality not needed, but good choice if possible (sometimes not, e.g. in
general relativity)
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Coordinates s, 𝜃, 𝑧
s

• Vector in Cartesian coordinates:

A = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ
• Vector in cylindrical coordinates:
A = As ŝ + A✓✓ˆ + Az ẑ

• We must find the new unit vectors

https://brilliant.org/wiki/cylindrical-coordinates/
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Coordinates s, 𝜃, 𝑧
s

Express radial distance 𝑠 and angle 𝜃 in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Cylindrical Coordinates
• Coordinates 𝑠, 𝜃, 𝑧
s
p
x = s cos ✓ s = x2 + y 2
⇣y⌘
y = s sin ✓ ✓ = tan 1
x

• Let’s find the new unit vectors

Cylindrical Coordinates
• Let’s find the new unit vectors s

s = xx̂ + yŷ = sŝ

p
s = x2 + y 2
s = s cos ✓ x̂ + s sin ✓ ŷ = s ŝ x = s cos ✓ ⇣y⌘
y = s sin ✓ ✓ = tan 1
x
ŝ = cos ✓ x̂ + sin ✓ ŷ
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Let’s find the new unit vectors s

✓ˆ = ↵x̂ + ŷ
p
• With ✓ˆ · ✓ˆ = 1 ) ↵2 + 2 = 1 s = x2 + y 2
x = s cos ✓ ⇣y⌘
• With ✓ˆ · ŝ = 0 ) ↵ cos ✓ + sin ✓ = 0
y = s sin ✓ ✓ = tan 1
↵ sin ✓ x
=
cos ✓
ŝ = cos ✓ x̂ + sin ✓ ŷ
• Solved with ↵ = sin ✓ ; = cos ✓
• Finally,
✓ˆ = sin ✓x̂ + cos ✓ŷ
Gradient in
Cylindrical Coordinates
We want to find a similar expression for s

the gradient as for Cartesian coordinates:

rf = fx x̂ + fy ŷ + fz ẑ p
@f @f @f s = x2 + y 2
x = s cos ✓ ⇣y⌘
= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
@x @y @z y = s sin ✓ ✓ = tan 1
x

ŝ = cos ✓ x̂ + sin ✓ ŷ

✓ˆ = sin ✓x̂ + cos ✓ŷ

Chain Rule for Multivariate Calculus
Chain Rule for Multivariate Calculus
Chain Rule for Multivariate Calculus
Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates:
The Hard Way
@f @f @f
Now look at f as a function of rf = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
@x @y @z
𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ; 𝜙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝑧(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates:
The Hard Way
@f @f @f
Now look at f as a function of rf = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
@x @y @z
𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ; 𝜙 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 𝑧(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑧

=1
Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates:
The Hard Way
@f @f @f
rf = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
@x @y @z

x = s cos
y = s sin

p
s = x2 + y 2
⇣y⌘
= tan 1
x
Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates:
The Hard Way rf =
@f
@x
x̂ +
@f
@y
ŷ +
@f
@z
ẑ

x = s cos
y = s sin

p
s = x2 + y 2
⇣y⌘
= tan 1
x
Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates:
The Hard Way rf =
@f
@x
x̂ +
@f
@y
ŷ +
@f
@z
ẑ

x = s cos
y = s sin

p
s = x2 + y 2
⇣y⌘
= tan 1
x
Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates:
The Hard Way rf =
@f
@x
x̂ +
@f
@y
ŷ +
@f
@z
ẑ

x = s cos
y = s sin

p
s = x2 + y 2
⇣y⌘
= tan 1
x
cos ✓ sin 1 1
sin cos
s s ŝ = cos x̂ + sin ŷ
ŝ
1ˆ ˆ= sin x̂ + cos ŷ
✓
s
Gradient in Cylindrical Coordinates
Quick Check
What is the gradient of 𝑓 = 𝑠 cos 𝜙?

(A) (1, 0, 0)
(B) (1, 𝑠 sin 𝜙)
(C) (cos 𝜙, 𝑠 sin 𝜙)
(D) (cos 𝜙, sin 𝜙)
(E) Something else
Summary
• Gradient allows to calculate electric field/force from electric potential/potential
energy
• Change of coordinate system can be helpful to use symmetry of problem
• In electrodynamics, we often encounter cylindrical (wires) or spherical symmetry
(point charges, spherical charge distributions)
• Cylindrical coordinates were introduced
• Derivation of gradient in cylindrical coordinates
Course Overview (first 6 weeks)
• Electrostatics Vector Analysis:
o Coulomb law
o Electric forces, fields, potential and potential energy • Gradient
o Continuous charge distributions, dipoles • Cylindrical and spherical
o Gauss Law; differential form coordinates
o Poisson and Laplace equations • Line, surface and volume
• Electric Fields in Matter integrals
o Polarization and displacement vector • Divergence
• Magnetostatics • Product rules
o Continuity equation • Divergence theorem
o Biot-Savart law • Dirac delta-function in 1
o Ampère’s law
and 3 D
o Curl and div of magnetic fields
• Curl
• Electrodynamics • Stokes theorem
o EM inductance
• Helmholtz theorem
o Lenz’s law
o Maxwell equations
Questions?
Next Time
• Spherical coordinates

• Some applications using curvilinear coordinates

• Gauss Law

• Reading: Griffith: Vector Analysis, ; Electrostatics