Fields and Waves

Basics of Vectors

1. Scalars are quantities which have only magnitude whereas vectors have direction along with the
magnitude
2. Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system
A point P is represented as (x, y, z) and a differential volume can be represented by sides dx, dy
and dz. A Vector r connecting the origin to P can be represented as r = x ax + y ay + z az. A
vector connecting two points P and Q can be represented as RPQ = rQ – rP
If the coordinates of points P and Q are (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) respectively then RPQ = (x2-
x1) ax + (y2 - y1)ay + (z2 - z1) az.
3. Any vector A can be written as Ax ax + Ay ay + Az az. A unit vector is a vector which has unit
magnitude and is in the direction of the given vector. A unit vector in the direction of A can be
written as uA = A/|A| where |A| = Ax 2  Ay 2  Az 2 . ax, ay and az are unit vectors in the
direction of x, y and z respectively. The vectors are perpendicular to each other.
4. The dot product two vectors is defined as A.B = |A|.|B|cosAB . Since the result is scalar dot
product is also known as scalar product. For vectors A and B A.B can be written as (Ax ax + Ay
ay + Az az).( Bx ax + By ay + Bz az) = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz. We have ax.ax = ay.ay = az.az =
1 and the dot product unlike vectors will result in 0 as they are perpendicular to each other. Dot
product helps us to find the scalar and vector component of one vector in the direction of the
second vector. To find the component of vector B in direction of A we find the dot product of B
with the unit vector in the direction of A and vice-versa. (B.uA) will give scalar component of B
in the direction of A, to find the vector component we find (B.uA)uA.
Also (A.B) = (B.A)
5. Cross Product A x B = aN|A||B| sinAB. aN is a unit vector normal to plane of A and B vectors.
Cross product is also known as vector product. Cross product in determinant form
ax ay az
AxB  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
ax x ay = -ay x ax = az

The sides of cuboid in Cartesian system will be dx, dy and dz. The volume will be (dx)(dy)(dz).
The sides will have area (dx)(dy), (dy)(dz) and (dz)(dx). The vectors normal to these will be az,
ax, ay respectively.
6. Cylindrical coordinates
Cartesian Cylindrical
X = cos  = x2  y 2
Y = sin  = tan-1(y/x)
Z=Z Z=z

Dot Product a a az
 ax. cos -sin 0
ay. sin cos 0
az. 0 0 1
By taking dot product of vector A which is in Cartesian system with each of the unit vector a a
and az it can be converted to cylindrical coordinates. Similarly a vector in cylindrical system can
be converted to Cartesian by taking dot product of the vector with ax ay and az vectors.
The sides of an elementary cuboid in cylindrical coordinates will be d, d and dz. The area of
the planes can be obtained by combining two of these sides. The vector normal to them will a a
and az.
7. Spherical coordinates
By taking dot product of vector A which is in Cartesian system with each of the unit vector ar a
a it can be converted to spherical coordinates

Cartesian Spherical
X = rsincos r= x2  y 2  z 2
Y = rsinsin  = cos-1(z/r)
Z = rcos  = tan-1(y/x)

Dot Product Ar a a
ax. sincos coscos -sin
ay. sinsin cossin cos
az. cos -sin 0

The sides of an elementary cuboid in spherical system will be dr, rd and rsind. Again the area of sides
and volume of the cuboid (sphere) can be found by multiply the lengths of the sides.
Unit 1

Q1Q2 QQ R
1. Coulomb’s Law F = a N= 1 2
4 0 r 2 r
4 0 | R |3
Q Q R
2. Electric field due to point charge E = F/Qtest = ar N/C or V/m =
4 0 r 2
4 0 | R |3
v dv R
3. Field due to volume charge distribution E   4 0 | R |3
L
4. Field due to line charge E  a
2 0 

5. Field due to sheet charge E  s aN
2 0

To find Field or force due to point charges always find the vector by subtracting the coordinates
of source from destination and retain the sign of charges along with the magnitude.
Eg. 1. A point charge Q1 = 10µC is located at P(1,2,3) and Q2 = -5µC at Q(1,2,10). Find force on
Q2 due to Q1. Also find coordinates of point R where Q3 experiences no force.
(10 )(5 )x9x109 0ax  0ay  7az
Force on Q2 due to Q1 F12 
73
For zero force, the third point will be in the same line and the total force at R which is due to both
charges Q1 and Q2 will have to be zero. Hence the coordinates of R will be of the form (1, 2, z).
If the coordinates of R are assumed to be (x, y, z) the solution would still result in x and y as 1
and 2. The total force or field at any point can be obtained by finding force/field due to individual
charges and adding the vectors
Hence F13 + F23 = 0 for this problem
Q1Q3 0ax  0ay  ( z  3)az Q2Q3 0ax  0ay  ( z  10)az
 = 0 which gives us z as 27 and 7.
4 0 ( z  3)3 4 0 ( z  10)3
(approx.)
If the desired field is in Spherical or Cylindrical system, the best way to do so is to have all the
points and vectors in Cartesian first then convert the final vector force or field to the required
system.
Eg 2 A charge QA 1 µC is placed at A(0,0,1) and QB -1µC at (0,0,-1). Find Er E and E at
P(1,2,3).
First we shall find the field in cartesian and the total field P will be vector addition of fields at P
resulting due to charges QA and QB individually.
QA RAP QB RBP
E  = 239.7ax + 479.4 ay + 292.4 az N/C
4 0 | RAP | 4 0 | RBP |3
3

Next the dot product of E has to be taken with ar a a. The values of r,  and  have to be found
only with respect to the point given which is P in this case.
This gives Er = Exsincos + Eysinsin + Ezcos = 554.7 and Er = 554.7ar. similarly E and
E can be found.

Charge can be distributed in many ways, point, line, surface and volume. The charge densities
have to be integrated to find the total charge present in the area of interest. Linear charge density
is integrated over length, surface charge density over area (of the plane) and volume charge
density over the entire volume of the space under consideration.
Q=   dL    ds    dv
L
L
s
s
v
v

E.g 3 v = 40xyz C/m3. Find total charge within the region (a) 0  x, y, z  2
2 2 2 2 2 2
Q=   
x 0 y 0 z 0
v dxdydz =    40 xyzdxdydz = 320C
x 0 y 0 z 0

L
The field due to line charge is given as E  a
2 0 
a vector is vector connecting the line to the point where field is to be found
s
And field due to sheet charge is given as E  aN
2 0
aN is a vector which is normal to the plane of the sheet. Note that the field due to sheet charge is
independent of the distance.
The field due to a positive sheet will always be away from it and due to a negative sheet will be
towards it.

Eg 4 A uniform line charge L = 50nC/m is located along x = 2, y = 5. Find E at P(1, 3, -4).

In the case of line charge always try to find out the coordinates which hold their value. Here x and
y have a fixed value. This makes us to believe that z coordinate should tend to . The coordinate
which tends to infinity will not be considered to find the vector connecting the line to the point
where the desired field is being found.
L (1  2)ax  (3  5)ay
E= a = 50nC x 18 x 109 x
2 0  5

Eg. 5 A sheet with charge density +s is placed at x = 0 and -s is placed at x = a. Find E at
different regions.
With 2 sheets we can consider 3 regions, with 3 sheets 4 regions and so on.
For this particular case we can divide regions as x<0, 0<x<a and x>a.
Region I the field due to positive sheet E+ = (s/2)(-ax) and E- = (s/2)(ax) (Find the normal
vector but do not retain the sign of the sheet charge, retain only the magnitude of charge density)
Adding we get E = E+ + E- = 0
Region II E = E+ + E- = (s/2)(ax) + (s/2)(ax) = (s/)(ax)
Region III E = E+ + E- = (s/2)(ax) + (s/2)(-ax) = 0;
 Q
Flux Density D = ar and D = and D = E.
4 r 2
Gauss Law states that the electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface
   D.ds  Q   v dv for spherical ds = r2sinddar.
s v

(D will be normal or tangential to the closed surface)

A Gaussian surface has to be considered which can enclosed the given charge distribution.
Known shapes like cube, cylinder, sphere etc are considered.
By divergence theorem  D.ds   (.D)dv = Q =   dv
s v v
v

ax ay az

   ; v  .D is Maxwell’s First Equation
x y z

The surface integral will be integrated 6 times for a cube, 3 times for cylinder and once for a
sphere.
E.g. 6 D = 10y2 ax + 10x2y ay + 15 az. Find charge within 0< xyz < 2. Verify divergence
theorem
If a component of vector is not varying in the respective direction then it will cancel out at the
end of an integral.
Dx = 0 and Dx = 2 have to be found.
Similary Dy = 0 which is 10x2(0) = 0 and Dy=2 = 10x2(2) = 20x2. Similarly Dz can be found
Q=  D.ds
s
ds will vary as (dydz(-ax)), (dydz(ax)), (dxdz(-ay)), (dxdz(ay)), (dydx(-az)),

(dydx(az)).
For volume integral .D has to be found and integrated over dx, dy and dz.

WorkDone dW = F.dl = - qE.dl . –ve sign indicates work is done against the field, if the work
done is positive then work is done by the field.
final

W = q 
initial
E.dl

W.D is independent of path taken. If the initial and final points are same, then work done is zero.
W.D. in moving a unit positive charge is known as potential difference.
final A
VAB =  
initial
E.dl =   E.dl ( observe the position of A and B in the integral)
B

Q 1 1
rA
Q
VAB for a point charge =   4 r
rB
2
.drar =   
4  rA rB 
a
L L b
VAB for a line =   2 a .d  a  2 ln  a 
b
 V V V
E = - V = - grad V = - ax  ay  az
x y z

Energy and Energy density

1 N 1 1
WE = 
2 m1
QmVm   v dv    E 2 dv
2v 2v
1 2
Energy density =  E = (D.E/2)
2
E.g 7 E = yax + xay + 2az V/m. What is work done in carrying 2C from B(1, 0, 1) to A(0.8, 0.6,
1) along arc of circle x2 + y2 = 1 and z = 1.
final A A (0.8,0.6,1)

W = q 
initial
E.dl  q  E.dl  2
B

B  (1,0,1)
( yax  xay  2az ).(dxax  dyay  dzaz )

 x 0.8 y  0.6 z 1   x 0.8 y  0.6 z 1 

= -2 x   ydx   xdy   2dz  = - 2 x   1  x dx   1  y dy   2dz 
2 2

 x 1 y 0 z 1   x 1 y 0 z 1 
Y and x are dependent on each other hence y has to be replaced in terms of x before integrating.
The same applies for the integral with dy. Independent variables can be integrated by treating
them as constants. The work done in moving from B to A will be same if Q is carried along a
straight line also.

E.g. 8 If V = 2x2y – 5z E can be found be - V and D can be found using E and v using .D

dq
  J .ds where J is current density given as (I/A) Amperes/m .
2
Current flow, I =
dt s

q x
I  J .S   v S  v Svx
t t
J  v v
v
Continuity of current, .J  
t
Drift velocity vd = -µeE.
J = -eµeE.
V = IR and R = L/A

Boundary between Conductor and free space

Dt = Et = 0, tangential fields
DN = EN = s. normal field
Static E inside a conductor is zero.
E at surface of conductor is normal to surface and conductor surface is equipotential
Boundary for perfect dielectric 1 and 2
Dt1 1 tan 1 1
Et1 = Et2 or  and DN1 = DN2 or 1EN1 = 2EN2 
Dt 2  2 tan  2  2

Capacitance C = Q/V = A/d Farad

1
S d
s 2
2 0 0  dv  1/ 2CV  Q / 2C
2 2
Energy stored in capacitor =

2 L
Capacitance of a coaxial cable =
ln(b / a)

4
C for concentric spherical shell = if b is  then C = 4πa
1 1
  
a b

E.g 9 J = - 105 V A/m2 and V = 10e-x siny V find current through 0 < xyz < 1
The current can be found by surface or volume integral and can be verified using divergence
theorem.
Gradient of V has to be found to find J. then J has to integrated over six sides to find I.
Alternatively .J can be found and integrated over dv to find I.

E.g 10 z = 0 separates two dielectrics, z < 0 r1 = 2.5 and z > 0 r2 = 4. E1 = -30ax + 50 ay +
70 az. Find EN1, Et1, Et2, DN2, Dt2, D2

EN1 = z component = 70ax

Et1 = E1- EN1 = -30ax + 50 ay = Et2
Dt2 = Et2 = 0r2Et2 = 40Et2
DN2 = DN1 = 2.50EN1.