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 Chapter 9
Business Income, Deductions, and Accounting Methods

Discussion Questions
1. [LO 1] What is an “ordinary and necessary” business expenditure?
“Ordinary” and “necessary” imply that an expense must be customary and
helpful, respectively. Because these terms are subjective, the tests are ambiguous.
However, ordinary is interpreted by the courts as including expenses which may be
unusual for a specific taxpayer (but not for that type of business) and necessary is
not interpreted as only essential expenses. These limits can be contrasted with the
reasonable limit on amounts and the bona fide requirement for profit motivation.
2. [LO 1] Explain how cost of goods sold is treated when a business sells inventory.
Under the return of capital principal, cost of goods sold represents a reduction in
gross income rather than a business expense. For example, if a taxpayer sells
inventory for $100,000 and reports a cost of goods sold of $40,000, the business’s
gross income is $60,000 ($100,000 – 40,000) not $100,000.
3. [LO 1] Tom is an attorney who often represents individuals injured on the job
(workers’ compensation claims). This year, Tom spent $50 on a book entitled
Plumbing For Dummies and paid $500 to take a course on plumbing residences and
rental housing. Can you imagine circumstances in which these expenditures would
be deductible as “ordinary and necessary” for an attorney. Explain.
“Ordinary” and “necessary” imply that an expense must be customary and
helpful, respectively. Because these terms are subjective, the tests are ambiguous.
However, ordinary is interpreted by the courts as including expenses which may be
unusual for a specific taxpayer (but not for that type of business) and necessary is
not interpreted as only essential expenses. Tom may represent a plumber and
incurred this expenditure so he can better understand and explain how his client
was injured on the job. In this case, the expenses would be both ordinary and
necessary to Tom’s practice as an attorney, and therefore deductible.
4. [LO 1] Jake is a professional dog trainer who purchases and trains dogs for use by
law enforcement agencies. Last year Jake purchased 500 bags of dog food from a
large pet food company at an average cost of $30 per bag. This year, however,
Jake purchased 500 bags of dog food from a local pet food company at an average
cost of $45 per bag. Under what circumstances would the IRS likely challenge the
cost Jake’s dog food as unreasonable?
Reasonableness is an issue of fact and circumstance, and extravagance is difficult
to determine definitely. However, a common test for reasonableness is whether the
 expenditure is comparable to an arm's length amount – a price charged by
objective (unrelated) individuals who do not receive any incidental personal
benefits. Reasonableness is most likely to be an issue when a payment is made to a
related individual or the taxpayer enjoys some personal benefit incidental to the
expenditure. Hence, the IRS is most likely to challenge the cost of the dog food if
Jake or his family controlled the local pet food company.
5. [LO 2] What kinds of deductions are prohibited as a matter of public policy? Why
might Congress deem it important to disallow deductions for expenditures that are
against public policy?
The IRC lists bribes, kickbacks, and “other” illegal payments as nondeductible.
Congress didn’t want the tax benefits associated with deductions to benefit or
subsidize wrongdoing. Of course, this rationale doesn’t really explain the
prohibition against deducting political contributions which is probably better
explained by the potential perception that political efforts are being subsidized by
taxpayers.
6. [LO 2] Provide an example of an expense associated with the production of tax-
exempt income, and explain what might happen if Congress repealed the
prohibition against deducting expenses incurred to produce tax-exempt income.
Two common examples are interest expense associated with debt used to purchase
municipal bonds and life insurance premiums paid on key man insurance. If this
prohibition were repealed, then taxpayers would have an incentive to borrow to
invest in municipal bonds or borrow to invest in employee life insurance. This
former practice would lead to higher demand for municipal bonds (less yield) and
less revenue for the government. The latter practice would lead to higher demand
for insurance (higher premiums?) and less revenue for the government. Both
practices could lead to a perception of inequity between those taxpayers able to
utilize the tax arbitrage to reduce taxes and those who could not use the practice.
7. [LO 2] {Research} Jerry is a self-employed rock star and this year he expended
$1,000 on special “flashy” clothes and outfits. Jerry would like to deduct the cost
of these clothes as work-related because the clothes are not acceptable to Jerry’s
sense of fashion. Under what circumstances can Jerry deduct the cost of these
work clothes?
Taxpayers may deduct the cost of uniforms or special clothing they use in their
business when the clothing is not appropriate to wear as ordinary clothing outside
the place of business. In Jerry’s case, the flashy rock outfits could be analogous to
special uniforms or protective garments and could be deductible. See D. Techner,
TC Memo 1997-498. Erhard Seminar Training, TC Memo 1986-526 provides an
example of clothes that were not deductible because they were appropriate for
normal wear. However, the cost of clothing would not likely be deductible if the
clothes were unacceptable solely because of the taxpayer’s sense of fashion.
8. [LO 2] Jimmy is a sole proprietor of a small dry-cleaning business. This month
Jimmy paid for his groceries by writing checks from the checking account
dedicated to the dry-cleaning business. Why do you suppose Jimmy is using his
business checking account rather than his personal checking account to pay for
personal expenditures?
Jimmy might be trying to reduce his bank charges by using one account for both
personal and business expenditures, but he could also be trying to disguise
personal expenditures as business expenses. By commingling business and
personal expenditures, Jimmy will need to separate personal and business
expenditures before claiming any business deductions.
9. [LO 2] Tim employs three sales representatives who often take clients to dinner
and provide entertainment in order to increase sales. This year Tim reimbursed the
representatives $2,500 for the cost of meals and $8,250 for the cost of entertaining
clients. Describe the conditions under which Tim can claim deductions for meals
and entertainment.
To deduct any portion of the cost of a meal as a business expense, the amount must
be reasonable under the circumstances, the taxpayer (or an employee) must be
present when the meal is furnished, and the meal must be directly associated with
the active conduct of the taxpayer’s business. Similar to business meals,
entertainment associated with business activities contains a significant element of
enjoyment. Hence, only 50% of allowable business entertainment may be deducted
as a business expense. Further, entertainment deductions are allowable only if
“business associates” are entertained, the amounts paid are reasonable in amount,
and the entertainment is either “directly related” or “associated with” the active
conduct of business
10. [LO 2] Jenny uses her car for both business and personal purposes. She purchased
the auto this year and drove 11,000 miles on business trips and 9,000 miles for
personal transportation. Describe how Jenny will determine the amount of
deductible expenses associated with the auto.
Because only the expense relating to business use is deductible, the taxpayer must
allocate the expenses between the business and personal use portions. A common
method of allocation is relative use. In this instance Jenny would calculate the
business portion based upon the ratio of business miles to total miles (11/20 or 55
percent). She would then deduct the costs of operating the vehicle for business
purposes plus depreciation on the business portion (55 percent) of the vehicle’s tax
basis. Alternatively, in lieu of deducting these costs, Jenny may simply deduct a
standard amount for each business mile she drives. The standard mileage rate
represents the per-mile cost of operating an automobile (including depreciation or
lease payments).
11. [LO 1, LO 2] What expenses are deductible when a taxpayer combines both
business and personal activities on a trip? How do the rules for international travel
differ from the rules for domestic travel?
If the taxpayer has both business and personal motives for a trip, but the primary
or dominant motive is business, the taxpayer may deduct the transportation costs to
get to the place of business, but she may deduct only meals (50%), lodging,
transportation on site, and incidental expenditures for the business portion of the
travel. If the taxpayer’s primary purpose for the trip is personal, the taxpayer may
not deduct transportation costs to travel to and from the location but the taxpayer
may deduct meals (50%), lodging, transportation, and incidental expenditures for
the business portion of the trip. For international travel in excess of one week, the
taxpayer must allocate the cost of the transportation between personal
(nondeductible) and business (deductible) activities. Taxpayers generally
determine the nondeductible portion of the transportation costs by multiplying the
travel costs by a ratio of personal activity days to total days travelling. Finally,
remember that travel days are considered business activity days for both domestic
and international travel.
12. [LO 2] Clyde lives and operates a sole proprietorship in Dallas, Texas. This year
Clyde found it necessary to travel to Fort Worth (about 25 miles away) for
legitimate business reasons. Is Clyde’s trip likely to qualify as “away from home,”
and why would this designation matter?
Besides the cost of transportation, the deduction for travel expenses includes meals
(50%), lodging, and incidental expenses. However, travel expenses are only
deductible if the taxpayer is away from home overnight while traveling. For this
purpose, a taxpayer is considered to be away from home overnight if the trip is of
sufficient duration to require sleep or rest. It’s likely that Clyde’s trip will not
satisfy this condition and that he will not be able to deduct half the cost of meals
and the entire cost of lodging.
13. [LO 2] Describe the record-keeping requirements for business deductions expenses
including mixed-motive expenditures.
Taxpayers must keep specific, written, contemporaneous records of time, amount of
the expenditure, and business purpose of the travel. No deductions are allowed
absent sufficient records to document business purpose. Records of the expenditure
amount, however, may not be necessary if the taxpayer claims per diem amounts.
14. [LO 3] Explain why the domestic production activities deduction is sometimes
described as an “artificial” expense and the apparent rationale for this deduction.
How might a business begin to determine the domestic portion of revenues and
expenses for products that are assembled in the United States from parts made
overseas?
 The DPAD is designed to reduce the tax burden on domestic manufacturers to
make investments in domestic manufacturing facilities more attractive. It is
artificial because it does not represent an expenditure per se, but merely serves to
reduce the income taxes the business must pay and thereby increase the after-tax
profitability of domestic manufacturing. The calculation of the income allocable to
domestic production can be exceedingly complex, especially in the case of large
multinational businesses, but it generally begins with determining the amount of
domestic revenue from sales of eligible property or services.
15. [LO 3] Describe the calculation of the domestic production activities deduction.
The domestic manufacturing deduction is calculated by first allocating net income
between the income produced in the US and the income produced abroad. The
amount allocated to the US is deemed qualified production activities income
(QPAI). The deduction is then calculated as 9 percent of the lesser of taxable
income before the deduction (AGI is used by individual taxpayers in lieu of taxable
income) or QPAI.
16. [LO 3] Describe the limits placed on the domestic production activities deduction,
and explain the apparent reason for each limitation.
Qualified production activities income (QPAI)taxable income before the deduction
(AGI is used by individual taxpayers in lieu of taxable income). The deduction
itself cannot exceed 50 percent of the wages the business paid to employees for
working in qualifying production activities during the year. QPAI is limited to
prevent subsidizing unprofitable activities, and the wage limitation eliminates the
deduction for products that do not involve substantial amounts of domestic labor.
17. [LO 3] Explain the difference between calculating a loss deduction for a business
asset that was partially damaged in an accident and a loss deduction for a business
asset that was stolen or completely destroyed in an accident.
When a business asset is completely destroyed or stolen, the amount of the
business’s loss is calculated as though the business sold the asset for the insurance
proceeds, if any (i.e., insurance proceeds minus adjusted basis). If the asset is
damaged but not completely destroyed, the amount of the loss is the amount of the
insurance proceeds minus the lesser of (1) the asset’s tax basis or (2) the decline in
the value of the asset due to the casualty.
18. [LO 3] How do casualty loss deductions differ when a business asset, as opposed
to a personal-use asset, is completely destroyed?
In a casualty that results in the complete destruction of a business asset the
adjusted basis of the asset (less any insurance proceeds) is deducted for AGI. In
contrast, a personal casualty loss is calculated by taking the lesser of (1) the
asset’s tax basis or (2) the value of the asset prior to the casualty. The resulting
loss (reduced by any insurance proceeds) can only be claimed as an itemized
 deduction after subjecting it to two additional floor limits: $100 per casualty floor
and 10 percent of AGI floor imposed on the aggregate of all personal casualties.
19. [LO 4] What is the difference between a full tax year and a short tax year?
Describe circumstances in which a business may have a short tax year.
A full tax year consists of 12 months while short years are less than 12 months. A
business may report income on a short year in its first year of existence (for
example, it reports income on a calendar year end and starts business after
January 1) or in its final year of existence (for example, a calendar year business
ends its business before December 31).
20. [LO 4] Explain why a taxpayer might choose one tax year-end over another if
given a choice.
A business might use a calendar year (ends on December 31), a fiscal year (ends
on the last day of a month other than December) or a 52/53 week fiscal year end
(ends on the same day of the week every year). Not all types of tax years are
available to all types of businesses. The rules for determining the tax years
available to the business depends on whether the business is a sole proprietorship,
a flow-through entity, or C corporation. If allowed an unfettered choice, taxpayers
with a flow-through business might choose a tax year other than a calendar year to
postpone the recognition of business income into the next calendar year (based
upon when income flows through the business to its owners). Also, a retail business
might choose a 52/53 week fiscal year to avoid inventory counts on busy day sales.
Further, a business might choose a fiscal year end that coincides with the end of
the season.
21. [LO 4] Compare and contrast the different year ends available to sole
proprietorships, flow-through entities, and C corporations.
C corporations are generally allowed to select a calendar, fiscal, or 52/53 week
year-end whereas other business entities generally must adopt tax years consistent
with the owners’ tax years.
22. [LO 4] Why does the law generally require partnerships to adopt a tax year
consistent with the year used by the partners?
The tax laws impose the tax year consistency requirement to minimize income tax
deferral opportunities for the owners. To illustrate the deferral, suppose that a
partner’s tax year-end is December 31, year 1 and her partnership’s tax year-end
is January 31, year 2. In year 2, the partner is treated as though she earned the
entire amount of her share of the partnership’s income on January 31, year 2.
Thus, even though 11/12ths of the partnership’s income was actually earned in
year 1 (February through December of year 1), for purposes of paying taxes on the
income, the partner gets to defer this income until year 2.
23. [LO 4] How does an entity choose its tax year? Is it the same process no matter
the type of tax year-end the taxpayer adopts?
A business adopts its calendar year end or fiscal year end by filing its initial tax
return. In contrast, a business adopts a 52/53 week year end by filing a special
election with the IRS. Once a business establishes its tax year, it generally must
receive permission from the IRS to change.
24. [LO 5] Explain when an expenditure should be “capitalized” based upon
accounting principles. From time to time, it is suggested that all business
expenditures should be deducted when incurred for tax purposes. Do you agree
with this proposition, and if so, why?
Under accounting principles an expenditure should be “capitalized” when the
benefits from the expenditure occur in two different periods. The cost is spread
across the applicable periods through a periodic charge such as depreciation or
amortization. The tax law differs from accounting principles, but the rationale for
the tax rules is based upon the same matching principle, expenditures should be
recognized in the period that revenues are generated. The proposition to deduct all
business expenditures is usually defended on the grounds of simplification,
encouraging capital investment, and lack of bias (at least over the long run) and
criticized on the grounds of potential economic bias (at least in the short run) and
revenue loss by the government.
25. [LO 5] Describe the 12-month rule for determining whether and to what extent
businesses should capitalize or immediately deduct prepaid expenses such as
insurance or security contracts. Explain the apparent rationale for this rule.
A business expenditure or business liability may be immediately deducted (rather
than capitalized) if the expenditure or liability relates to a business expense where
the contract period (1) does not last more than a year and (2) does not extend
beyond the end of the taxable year following the tax year in which the taxpayer
makes the payment. The rule could be rationalized as an attempt to simplify the
deduction for expenditures that merely span tax years and would not likely result in
material differences in taxable income should the expenditure be capitalized across
both periods.
26. [LO 5] Explain why Congress sometimes mandates that businesses use particular
accounting methods while other times Congress is content to require businesses to
use the same accounting methods for tax purposes that they use for financial
accounting purposes.
The natural tension between financial reporting incentives and tax reporting
incentives may be the reason the tax laws indicate that as a general rule businesses
must use the same accounting methods for tax purposes that they use for financial
accounting purposes. That is, businesses want to accelerate book income (or delay
taxable income) are also required to accelerate taxable income (or delay financial
 income ). Thus, using the same method for both tends to neutralize incentives to
stretch numbers in one direction or the other. Congress specifies that businesses
are required to use other, presumably more appropriate, accounting methods for
tax purposes when financial accounting methods do not “clearly reflect income”
for tax purposes or when dictated by policy or administrative concerns.
27. [LO 5] Why is it not surprising that specific rules differ between tax accounting
and financial accounting?
Tax policy objectives often differ from the objectives motivating financial
accounting rules. Tax accounting attempts to maximize revenue for the government
while financial accounting attempts to minimize overstatements that might mislead
investors and creditors. Hence, for policy and administrative reasons, the tax laws
identify several circumstances when businesses must use specific tax accounting
methods to determine taxable income no matter what accounting method they use
for financial reporting purposes.
28. [LO 5] Fred is considering using the accrual method for his next business venture.
Explain to Fred the conditions for recognizing income for tax purposes under the
accrual method.
A taxpayer must recognize income if (1) all the events have occurred that are
necessary to fix the right to receive a payment and (2) the amount of the payment
can be determined with reasonable accuracy.
29. [LO 5] Describe the all-events test for determining income and describe how to
determine the date on which the all-events test has been met.
The all events test requires a taxpayer to recognize income if the taxpayer has a
fixed right to receive a payment and the amount of the payment can be determined
with reasonable accuracy. The all events test is typically met on the earliest of the
following three dates: (1) the date the business provides the service or transfers
goods, (2) the date payment is due, or (3) the date payment is received.
30. [LO 5] Compare and contrast the tax treatment for rental income received in
advance and advance payments for services.
For tax purposes, businesses must immediately recognize prepaid rental or interest
income (it is recognized before it is earned). The all-events test generally requires
businesses receiving advance payments for services to recognize the income when
they receive the payment rather than when they perform the services. The IRS
provides that businesses receiving advance payments for services may defer
recognizing the prepayment as income until the tax year following the year they
receive the payment. This one-year deferral does not apply if (or the extent to
which) the income is actually earned by the end of the year of receipt, if the
prepayment was included in financial reporting income, or if the prepayment was
for rent (unless rental receipts are bundled with goods or services, prepayments
are taxed on receipt).
31. [LO 5] Compare and contrast the rules for determining the tax treatment of advance
payments for services versus advance payments for goods.
For tax purposes, the all-events test generally requires businesses receiving
advance payments for services to recognize the income when they receive the
payment, rather than when they perform the services. Rev. Proc 2004-34 provides
that businesses receiving advance payments for services may defer recognizing the
prepayment as income until the tax year following the year they receive the
payment. This one-year deferral does not apply if (or the extent to which) the
income is actually earned by the end of the year of receipt, if the prepayment was
included in financial reporting income, or if the prepayment was for interest or rent
(taxpayers must recognize prepaid interest and rental income on receipt). When an
accrual basis business receives an advance payment for goods it will provide to
customers in the future, the business may account for the prepayment for tax
purposes under the full-inclusion method or the deferral method. Businesses
electing the full-inclusion method immediately recognize the advance payment as
income. Businesses using the deferral method recognize advance payments for
goods by the earlier of (1) when the business would recognize the income for tax
purposes if it had not received the advance payment or (2) when it recognizes the
income for financial reporting purposes. Thus, the deferral method is comparable
to the deferral allowed for advance payments received for future services.
However, unlike the treatment of advance payments for services, advance payments
for goods could be deferred for more than a year, if the business defers the income
for financial reporting purposes for more than a year.
32. [LO 5] {Research} Jack operates a plumbing business as a sole proprietorship and
uses the cash method. Besides providing plumbing services, Jack also sells
plumbing supplies to homeowners and other plumbers. The sales of plumbing
supplies constitute less than $20,000 per year, and this is such a small portion of
Jack’s income that he does not keep physical inventories for the supplies. Describe
the conditions in which Jack must account for sales and purchases of plumbing
supplies on the accrual method.
Under §471(a) the Secretary is empowered to determine when a business must
account for inventories. Under Reg §1.471-1 a business must account for
inventories when sales of “merchandise” are a material “income-producing
factor.” The determination of what is “merchandise” and what amount of
inventory sales constitute a “material” income-producing factor is determined by
facts and circumstances on a case-by-case basis. One likely characteristic is the
level of sales and another is the income generated by sales of inventory relative to
the overall income of the business. There is an exception under Reg.§1.162-3 and
Rev. Proc. 2001-10, 2001-1 CB 272, for cash-method businesses that also provide
services. If the business has average annual gross receipts of less than $1 million
over a three-year period, then it can elect to treat inventories as incidental
materials and supplies. Thus, Jack is not required to use the accrual method for
 sales and purchases of plumbing supplies if he satisfies the average annual gross
receipts test. In addition, Prop. Reg. §1.162-3(a) allows taxpayers to deduct the
costs of buying incidental materials and supplies in the year of purchase if no
physical inventory is taken at the beginning and end of the tax year (assuming
taxable income is clearly reflected).
33. [LO 5] Explain why Congress enacted the UNICAP rules and describe the burdens
these rules place on taxpayers.
Congress enacted these rules primarily for two reasons. First, the rules accelerate
tax revenues for the government by deferring deductions for the capitalized costs
until the business sells the associated inventory. Second, Congress enacted these
“uniform” rules to reduce variation in the costs businesses include in inventory.
34. [LO 5] Compare and contrast financial accounting rules with the tax rules under
UNICAP (§263A). Explain whether the UNICAP rules tend to accelerate or defer
income relative to the financial accounting rules.
Under GAAP, businesses generally include in inventory only those costs incurred
within their production facility. In contrast, the UNICAP rules require businesses
to allocate to inventory the costs they incur not only inside the production facility
but also the costs they incur outside the facility to support production (or inventory
acquisition) activities. Uniform capitalization requires that both direct and certain
indirect costs be capitalized into inventories (full absorption costing). Hence,
businesses generally capitalize more costs to inventory for tax purposes than they
capitalize under financial accounting rules.
35. [LO 5] Compare and contrast the tests for accruing income and those for accruing
deductions for tax purposes.
To record an expense and the corresponding deduction for tax purposes, the
business must meet (1) an all-events test for the liability and (2) an economic
performance test with respect to the liability. While the all-events test for
recognizing deductions is similar to the all-events test for recognizing income, the
additional economic performance requirement makes the deduction recognition
rules more stringent than the income recognition rules. The deduction rules
generally preclude businesses from deducting estimated expenses or reserves.
36. [LO 5] Compare and contrast when taxpayers are allowed to deduct the cost of
warranties provided by others to the taxpayer (i.e., purchased by the taxpayer) and
when taxpayers are allowed to deduct the costs associated with warranties they
provide (sell) to others.
Insurance, warranties, and service contracts provided to the taxpayer are payment
liabilities and accrual method taxpayers that prepay business expenses for payment
liabilities (insurance contracts, warranties, and product service contracts provided
to the taxpayer) are allowed to immediately deduct the prepayments subject to the
 12-month rule for prepaid expenses. A warranty provided by the taxpayer to others
is deductible as the taxpayer incurs costs associated with these liabilities.
37. [LO 5] Describe when economic performance occurs for the following expenses:
Worker’s compensation,
Rebates and refunds
Insurance, warranties, and service contracts provided to the business
Taxes
Worker’s compensation, rebates, refunds, and service contracts are payment
liabilities and economic performance occurs upon payment regardless of actual
performance. Taxes are also payment liabilities, but under Section 461 accrual-
method taxpayers that pay certain real estate taxes are allowed to elect to deduct
tax payments ratably over the tax accrual period.
38. [LO 5] On December 31 of the current year, a taxpayer prepays an advertising
company to provide advertising services for the next 10 months. Using the 12-
month rule and the economic performance rules, contrast when the taxpayer would
be able to deduct the expenditure if the taxpayer uses the cash method of
accounting versus if the taxpayer uses the accrual method of accounting.
Under economic performance an accrual-method taxpayer can deduct the cost of
advertising as the services are provided to the taxpayer or with payment if the
taxpayer reasonably expects actual performance within 3 ½ months. A cash-
method business that prepays businesses expenses may immediately deduct the
prepayment if the contract period (1) does not last more than a year and (2) does
not extend beyond the end of the taxable year following the tax year in which the
taxpayer makes the payment.
39. [LO 5] Compare and contrast how bad debt expense is determined for financial
accounting purposes and how the deduction for bad debts is determined for accrual-
method taxpayers. How do cash-method taxpayer’s determine their bad debt
expense for accounts receivable?
For financial reporting purposes, the business estimates the amount of the bad
debt, debits bad debt expense, and credits an allowance for doubtful accounts.
However, for tax purposes, accrual-method taxpayers are only allowed to deduct
bad debt expense in the tax year when an account receivable or debt becomes
worthless. Cash-method taxpayers do not create accounts receivable for sales on
credit so no bad debt deductions are ever claimed.
40. [LO 5] Describe the related-party limitation on accrued deductions. What tax
savings strategy is this limitation designed to thwart?
An accrual-method business is not allowed to deduct amounts they accrue for
expenses payable to related parties until the related party includes the payment in
income. When a business accrues an expense payable to a related party at year
end, and the related party is a cash-method taxpayer, the business is not allowed to
 deduct the expense until the next year when the related party receives the payment
and includes it in income. This limit prevents businesses and related parties from
working to accelerate a tax deduction into the earlier year and the related party
deferring the income until the later year.
41. [LO 5] What are the relative advantages of the cash and accrual methods of
accounting?
The two primary advantages of the cash method over the accrual method are that
(1) the cash method provides the business with more flexibility to time income and
deductions by accelerating or deferring payments and (2) the ease of bookkeeping.
The primary advantage of the accrual method over the cash method is that it better
matches revenues and expenses.
42. [LO 5] Describe how a business adopts a permissible accounting method. Explain
whether a taxpayer can adopt an impermissible accounting method.
A business adopts a permissible accounting method by using and reporting the
results of the method for at least one year. A business adopts an impermissible
method by using and reporting the results of the method for two consecutive years.
43. [LO 5] Describe why the IRS might be skeptical of permitting requests for changes
in accounting method without a good business purpose?
The reluctance of the IRS probably stems from the possibility that taxpayers will
manipulate accounting methods to defer taxable income. For example, a taxpayer
might use LIFO in a period of rising costs, but want to switch to FIFO in a period
of stable or declining costs.
44. [LO 5] What is a §481 adjustment, and what is the purpose of this adjustment?
When a business changes an accounting method, the business is required to make a
§481 adjustment that represents the cumulative difference between the accounting
method the business was using and the accounting method the taxpayer is changing
to. The adjustment prevents the duplication or omission of items of income or
deduction due to a change in accounting method. If the adjustment increases
income, the taxpayer includes 25 percent of the adjustment (beginning in the year
of adjustment) in income for four years. If the adjustment reduces taxable income,
the taxpayer recognizes the entire adjustment in the year of change.

Problems

45. [LO 1] Manny hired his brother’s firm to provide accounting services to his
business. During the current year, Manny paid his brother’s firm $82,000 for
services even though other firms were willing to provide the same services for
 $40,000. How much of this expenditure, if any, is deductible as an ordinary and
necessary business expenditure?
Only reasonable amounts of compensation are deductible ($40,000), and the
remainder would be reclassified probably as a gift to his brother.

46. [LO 1, LO 2] Indicate the amount (if any) that Michael can deduct as an ordinary
and necessary business deductions in each of the following situations and explain
your solution.
a. From time to time, Michael rents a dump truck for his business. While
hauling gravel to a job site, Michael was stopped for speeding. He paid a fine
of $125 for speeding and a fine of $80 for carrying an overweight load.
b. Michael paid a part-time employee $750 to drive his rented dump truck.
Michael reimbursed the employee $35 for gasoline for the truck.
c. Michael gave a member of the city council a new watch, which cost $200.
He hopes that the city councilman will “throw” some contracts to his
business.
a. No deduction for fines.
b. $785 deduction.
c. No deduction for bribes (against public policy).
47. [LO 1, LO 2] Indicate the amount (if any) that Josh can deduct as an ordinary and
necessary business deductions in each of the following expenditures and explain
your solution.
a. Josh borrowed $50,000 from the First State Bank using his business assets as
collateral. He used the money to buy City of Blanksville bonds. Over the
course of a year, Josh paid interest of $4,200 on the borrowed funds, but he
received $3,500 of interest on the bonds.
b. Josh purchased a piece of land for $45,000 in order to get a location to
expand his business. He also paid $3,200 to construct a new driveway for
access to the property.
c. This year Josh paid $15,000 to employ the mayor’s son in the business. Josh
would typically pay an employee with these responsibilities about $10,000
but the mayor assured Josh that after his son was hired, some city business
would be coming his way.
d. Josh paid his brother, a mechanic, $3,000 to install a robotic machine for
Josh’s business. The amount he paid to his brother is comparable to what he
would have paid to an unrelated party to do the same work. Once the
installation was completed by his brother, Josh began calibrating the machine
 for operation. However, by the end of the year, he had not started using the
machine in his business.
a. $0. The interest expense is not deductible (expense associated with tax-
exempt income).
b. $0. Capital expenditures are not deductible.
c. Only $10,000 is deductible and the remaining $5,000 is either unreasonable
in amount or against public policy (as a bribe).
d. $0. The amount paid to install a machine is capitalized because the cost
benefits the useful life of the machine.

48. [LO 2] Ralph invited a potential client to dinner and the theatre. Ralph paid $250
for the dinner and $220 for the theatre tickets in advance. They first went to dinner
and then they went to the theatre.
a. What amount can Ralph deduct if, prior to the dinner, he met with the
potential client to discuss future business prospects?
b. What amount can Ralph deduct if he and the client only discussed business
during the course of the dinner?
c. What amount can Ralph deduct if he and the potential client tried to discuss
business during the course of the theatre performance but did not discuss
business at any other time?
d. What amount can Ralph deduct if the potential client declined Ralph’s
invitation, so Ralph took his accountant to dinner and the theatre to reward
his accountant for a hard day at work? At dinner, they discussed the
accountant’s workload and upcoming assignments.
a. $235 (50% of the cost of the dinner and theatre) is deductible.
b. $235 is deductible. Entertainment is directly related to business if there is an
active discussion aimed at generating revenue or fees or the discussion
occurs in a clear business setting (in this case, this took place at the dinner
table).
c. $0 is deductible. The cost of entertainment that occurs in a setting with little
possibility of conducting a business discussion, such as a theater or sports
venue, will only be deductible if the entertainment directly precedes or
follows a substantive business discussion. In this situation, they did not have
any business discussions so Ralph is not allowed to deduct any of the costs.
d. $235 is deductible (50% of dinner and theatre). Business associates are
individuals who the taxpayer reasonably expects to do business with such as
customers, suppliers, employees, or advisors.
49. [LO 2] Melissa recently paid $400 for round-trip airfare to San Francisco to attend
a business conference for three days. Melissa also paid the following expenses:
$250 fee to register for the conference, $300 per night for three nights lodging,
$200 for meals, and $150 for cab fare.
a. What amount of the travel costs can Melissa deduct as business expenses?
b. Suppose that while Melissa was on the coast, she also spent two days
sightseeing the national parks in the area. To do the sightseeing, she paid
$1,000 for transportation, $800 for lodging, and $450 for meals during this
part of her trip, which she considers personal in nature. What amount of the
travel costs can Melissa deduct as business expenses?
c. Suppose that Melissa made the trip to San Francisco primarily to visit the
national parks and only attended the business conference as an incidental
benefit of being present on the coast at that time. What amount of the airfare
can Melissa deduct as a business expense?
d. Suppose that Melissa’s permanent residence and business was located in San
Francisco. She attended the conference in San Francisco and paid $250 for
the registration fee. She drove 100 miles over the course of three days and
paid $90 for parking at the conference hotel. In addition, she spent $150 for
breakfast and dinner over the three days of the conference. She bought
breakfast on the way to the conference hotel and she bought dinner on her
way home each night from the conference. What amount of these costs can
Melissa deduct as business expenses?
a. Since business was the primary reason for the trip, Melissa can deduct
$1,800 of travel costs [$250 registration + $400 airfare + $900 lodging +
(50%*$200) meals + $150 cab fare]
b. None of the costs of sightseeing is deductible. However, because her primary
purpose for the trip appears to be business (3 days business vs. 2 days
personal) she is allowed to deduct her airfare to San Francisco and her other
expenses in part a. relating to the business portion of the trip.
c. If the purpose of the trip is primarily personal, then none of the air fare is
deductible and only those direct costs associated with the conference
($1,400) can be deducted (the registration, lodging, 50 percent of the meals,
and cab fare).
d. Melissa would be allowed to deduct the registration fee for the conference of
$250 and she could deduct $53.5 for the 100 miles she drove to and from the
conference (53.5 cents per mile x 100 miles) and the parking fee of $90.
However, because her travel did not require her to be away from home
 overnight, she is not allowed to deduct the cost of her meals going to and
coming from the conference each day.

50. [LO 2] Kimberly is a self-employed taxpayer. She recently spent $1,000 for
airfare to travel to Italy. What amount of the airfare is deductible in each of the
following alternative scenarios?
a. Her trip was entirely for personal purposes.
b. On the trip, she spent eight days on personal activities and two days on
business activities.
c. On the trip, she spent seven days on business activities and three days on
personal activities.
d. Her trip was entirely for business purposes.
a. $0 since the sole purpose of the trip was for personal purposes.
b. $0 since the primary purpose of the trip appears to be personal.
c. $700 ($1,000 x 7/10). Since the primary purpose of the trip appears to be
business, she may deduct the portion of the airfare allocated to the business
trip (prorated because this is foreign travel). Using the number of days of
business activities to total days of travel, she may deduct 70 percent (7/10ths)
of the cost (conversely, she may not deduct 30 percent (3/10ths) of the cost.
d. $1,000 since the sole purpose of the trip is business, she may deduct the
entire airfare.
51. [LO 2] Ryan is self-employed. This year Ryan used his personal auto for several
long business trips. Ryan paid $1,500 for gasoline on these trips. His depreciation
on the car if he was using it fully for business purposes would be $3,000. During
the year, he drove his car a total of 12,000 miles (combination of business and
personal travel).
a. Ryan can provide written documentation of the business purpose for trips
totaling 3,000 miles. What business expense amount can Ryan deduct (if
any) for these trips?
b. Ryan estimates that he drove approximately 1,300 miles on business trips, but
he can only provide written documentation of the business purpose for trips
totaling 820 miles. What business expense amount can Ryan deduct (if any)
for these trips?
a. Ryan can claim the direct cost of these trips, including gas ($1,500) and
depreciation on the auto. However, the deduction for auto use is limited to
direct costs (such as gas and oil) and the pro-rata portion of indirect costs
(such as depreciation). The pro rata portion would be calculated as the
 business percentage of total mileage ($3,000 x [3,000/12,000]) or $750.
Hence, Ryan could deduct $2,250. Alternatively, Ryan can claim a standard
mileage rate, and based on the standard mileage rate of 53.5¢ per mile, he
can deduct $1,605 (i.e., 3,000 x 53.5¢).
b. Ryan is allowed to deduct the cost of using his personal auto in his business
activities only if he can substantiate the business use. If he has records to
substantiate the business use, Ryan can claim the direct cost of these trips
including depreciation on the auto (for the business portion of the total
mileage). Ryan’s total expense deduction would consist of depreciation and
expenses calculated as follows: [(820/12,000)* $3,000] +
[(820/1300)*$1,500] = $205 + $946 = $1,151. Alternatively, Ryan can
claim a standard mileage rate. Ryan can only substantiate 820 miles, and
based on the standard mileage rate of 53.5¢ per mile, he can deduct $439
(i.e., 820 x 53.5¢).

52. [LO 1, LO 2] Christopher is a cash-method, calendar-year taxpayer, and he made

the following cash payments related to his business this year. Calculate the after-
tax cost of each payment assuming he has a 30 percent marginal tax rate.
a. $500 fine for speeding while traveling to a client meeting.
b. $240 of interest on a short-term loan incurred in September and repaid in
November. Half of the loan proceeds were used immediately to pay salaries
and the other half was invested in municipal bonds until November.
c. $600 for office supplies in May of this year. He used half of the supplies this
year and he will use the remaining half by February of next year.
d. $450 for several pair of work boots. Christopher expects to use the boots
about 80 percent of the time in his business and the remainder of the time for
hiking. Consider the boots to be a form of clothing.
a. $500 – not deductible.
b. $204 =$240*[1-(.5*.3)] – half of the interest is not deductible.
c. $420 = $600*(1-.3) – all deductible since used within the next year.
d. $450 – not deductible.

53. [LO 2] {Research} Heather paid $15,000 to join a country club in order to meet
potential clients. This year she paid $4,300 in greens fees when golfing with
clients. Under what circumstances, if any, can Heather deduct the $15,000 cost of
country club dues and the costs of the golf played with clients?
 §274(a)(3) denies the deduction for amounts paid or incurred for membership in
any club organized for business, pleasure, recreation, or other social purpose.
Hence, the country club dues are nondeductible. However, the cost of a round of
golf falls under §274(a)(1)(A) and is allowed if Heather can substantiate a bona
fide substantial business discussion associated with the entertainment.

54. [LO 1, LO 2] Assume Sarah is a cash-method calendar-year taxpayer, and she is

considering making the following cash payments related to her business. Calculate
the after-tax cost of each payment assuming she has a 25 percent marginal tax rate.
a. $2,000 payment for next year’s property taxes on her place of business.
b. $800 to reimburse the cost of meals incurred by employees while traveling
for the business.
c. $1,200 for football tickets to entertain out-of-town clients during contract
negotiations.
d. $500 contribution to the mayor’s re-election campaign.
a. $1,500 = $2,000*(1-.25) – all allowable under the 12-month rule. Note that
property taxes are generally deductible as paid (subject to 12-month rule)
unless an election is made under Sec. 461(c) to deduct them as accrued.
b. $700 = $800*[1-(.5*.25)] – only half of the cost of meals is deductible
c. $1,050 = $1,200*[1-(.5*.25)] – only half of the cost of entertainment is
deductible
d. $500 – not deductible

55. [LO 3] Renee manufactured and sold a “gadget,” a specialized asset used by auto
manufacturers that qualifies for the domestic production activities deduction.
Renee incurred $15,000 in direct expenses in the project, which includes $2,000 of
wages Renee paid to employees in the manufacturing of the gadget. What is
Renee’s domestic production activities deduction for the gadget in each of the
following alternative scenarios?
a. Renee sold the gadget for $25,000 and she reported AGI of $75,000 before
considering the manufacturing deduction.
b. Renee sold the gadget for $25,000 and she reported AGI of $5,000 before
considering the manufacturing deduction.
c. Renee sold the gadget for $40,000 and she reported AGI of $50,000 before
considering the manufacturing deduction.
 a. Description Amount
Qualified domestic gross receipts $ 25,000
Allocable costs and expenses - 15,000
Qualified production activity income $ 10,000
Statutory percentage x 9%
DPAD $ 900

Renee’s modified AGI of $75,000 exceeds QPAI and the $900 deduction is
less than 50% of wages paid in the activity (1/2 of $2,000 = $1,000).
b. Renee’s modified AGI of $5,000 does not exceed QPAI so QPAI is limited to
modified AGI.
Description
Amount
Qualified domestic gross receipts $ 25,000
Allocable costs and expenses - 15,000
Qualified production activity income $ 10,000
Modified AGI $ 5,000
Statutory percentage x 9%
DPAD $ 450

Renee’s $450 deduction is less than 50% of wages paid in the activity (1/2 of
$2,000 = $1,000).
c. Renee’s tentative $2,250 deduction is more than 50% of wages paid in the
activity so the DPAD is limited to $1,000.
. Description
Amount
Qualified domestic gross receipts $ 40,000
Allocable costs and expenses - 15,000
Qualified production activity income $ 25,000
Statutory percentage x 9%
Tentative DPAD $ 2,250
50% of wage limitation DPAD $ 1,000

56. [LO 3] {Planning} Andrew is considering starting a business of constructing and

selling prefabricated greenhouses. There are three very different methods to
constructing these greenhouses, and each method results in different revenue and
cost projections. Below, Andrew has projected the qualifying revenue and costs for
each method. The selling price includes qualifying receipts. The allocable
expenses include wages and allocable expenses are included in total costs.
 Selling Qualifying Total Allocable Allocable
Method Price Receipts Cost Expenses Wages
#1 $13,000 $ 9,000 $ 6,500 $ 2,500 $ 2,000
#2 14,000 9,000 7,400 5,500 1,500
#3 15,000 14,000 8,600 2,000 1,000

a. Estimate the tax benefit from the domestic production activities deduction for
each construction technique. You may assume that Andrew has sufficient
AGI to utilize the deduction and that his marginal tax rate is 30 percent.
b. Which construction technique should Andrew use if his marginal tax rate is
30 percent?
a. Method 1 Method 2 Method 3
Qualified domestic receipts $ 9,000 $ 9,000 $ 14,000
Allocable expenses - 2,500 - 5,500 - 2,000
QPAI $ 6,500 $ 3,500 $ 12,000
Statutory percentage x 9% x 9% x 9%
Initial DPAD $ 585 $ 315 $ 1,080
50% wage limit $ 1,000 $ 750 $ 500
DPAD limit $ 585 $ 315 $ 500
MTR x 30% x 30% x 30%
Tax benefit of DPAD $ 176 $ 95 $ 150

b. Method 1 Method 2 Method 3

Selling price $ 13,000 $ 14,000 $ 15,000
Total costs - 6,500 - 7,400 - 8,600
Pretax income $ 6,500 $ 6,600 $ 6,400
1-MTR x 70% x 70% x 70%
After-tax income $ 4,550 $ 4,620 $ 4,480
DPAD tax benefit (MTR=30%) + 176 + 95 + 150
Income after tax and DPAD benefit $ 4,726 $ 4,715 $ 4,630
Andrew should choose method #1 but barely.

57. [LO 3] This year Amy purchased $2,000 of equipment for use in her business.
However, the machine was damaged in a traffic accident while Amy was
transporting the equipment to her business. Note that because Amy did not place
the equipment into service during the year, she does not claim any depreciation
expense for the equipment.
 a. After the accident, Amy had the choice of repairing the equipment for $1,800
or selling the equipment to a junk shop for $300. Amy sold the equipment.
What amount can Amy deduct for the loss of the equipment?
b. After the accident, Amy repaired the equipment for $800. What amount can
Amy deduct for the loss of the equipment?
c. After the accident, Amy could not replace the equipment so she had the
equipment repaired for $2,300. What amount can Amy deduct for the loss of
the equipment?
Note: Since the machine was not placed in service, Amy cannot claim any
cost recovery.
a. For the complete destruction of a business asset, Amy can claim a casualty
loss deduction for the tax basis of the machine less any recovery. Hence,
Amy can claim a casualty deduction for $1,700 ($2,000-$300)
b. For partial destruction of a business asset, Amy can claim a casualty loss
deduction for the lesser of the economic loss (the cost of repair) or the tax
basis of the machine. In this case, Amy can deduct $800.
c. For partial destruction of a business asset, Amy can claim a casualty loss
deduction for the lesser of the economic loss (the cost of repair) or the tax
basis of the machine. In this case Amy can deduct $2,000.

58. [LO 3] [Tax Forms] In July of this year Stephen started a proprietorship called
ECR (which stands for electric car repair). ECR uses the cash method of
accounting and Stephen has produced the following financial information for this
year. Fill out a draft of the front page of Stephen’s Schedule C.
ECR collected $81,000 in cash for repairs completed during the year and an
additional $3,200 in cash for repairs that will commence after year end. Customers
owe ECR $14,300 for repairs completed this year, and while Stephen isn’t sure
which bills will eventually be paid, he expects to collect all but about $1,900 of
these revenues next year.
ECR has made the following expenditures:
Interest expense $ 1,250
Shop rent ($1,500 per month) 27,000
Utilities 1,075
Contract labor 8,250
Compensation 21,100
Liability insurance premiums ($350 per month) 4,200
Term life insurance premiums ($150 per month) 1,800
The interest paid relates to interest accrued on a $54,000 loan made to Stephen in
July of this year. Stephen used half of the loan to pay for 18 months of shop rent
and the remainder he used to upgrade his personal wardrobe. In July Stephen
purchased 12 months of liability insurance to protect against liability should anyone
be injured in the shop. ECR has only one employee (the remaining workers are
contract labor), and this employee thoroughly understands how to repair an electric
propulsion system. On November 1 of this year Stephen purchased a 12-month
term-life policy that insures the life of this “key” employee. Stephen paid Gecko
Insurance Company $1,800, and in return Gecko promises to pay Stephen a
$40,000 death benefit if this employee dies any time during the next 12 months.
Under the cash method, revenues are recorded as value is received whether the
revenues are earned or not. Revenues are not, however, recorded for accounts
receivable. Hence, ECR will only recognize $84,200 of revenue in the first six
months of this year.

Regarding deductions, ECR can only deduct $625 of the interest expense (the
portion of the loan proceeds used for business purposes). Likewise, ECR can only
deduct $9,000 of the shop rent relating to this year because the lease extends over
24 months (it does not qualify for the 12-month rule). There are no apparent
problems with deducting the payments for contract labor, utilities, or
compensation. The liability insurance payment relates to the last 6 months of this
year and the first 6 months of next year. However, this entire payment is deductible
under the 12-month rule. The premiums paid on the life insurance policy of the key
employee are not deductible. Deductions are not allowed for premiums on policies
that cover the lives of officers or other key employees and compensate the business
for the disruption and lost income they may experience due to the death of a key
employee.
59. [LO 5] {Planning} Nicole is a calendar-year taxpayer who accounts for her
business using the cash method. On average, Nicole sends out bills for about
$12,000 of her services at the first of each month. The bills are due by the end of
the month, and typically 70 percent of the bills are paid on time and 98 percent are
paid within 60 days.
a. Suppose that Nicole is expecting a 2 percent reduction in her marginal tax
rate next year. Ignoring the time value of money, estimate the tax savings for
Nicole if she postpones mailing of bills for December until January 1 of next
year.
b. Describe how the time value of money affects your calculations.
c. Would this tax savings strategy create any additional business risks?
Explain.
 a. On average Nicole would delay $8,400 (70 percent of the average monthly
billings of $12,000) of collections thereby shifting this income into the next
year (assuming that the accounts remained collectible and that clients didn’t
pay in advance). Hence, if her business is profitable, Nicole’s tax savings
would be $168 ($8,400 * .02).
b. The time value of money impacts the calculation in two opposite ways. First,
Nicole would be saving the time value on the estimated taxes on the
December income because they would be postponed until January. Second,
Nicole would lose the time value of the December collections because the
clients would not pay until January. On the whole, the effect of the time
value of money would be negative because the tax savings are a fraction of
the total collections.
c. There are two business risks created with this strategy. First, the strategy
assumes that clients will be equally willing (and able) to pay if Nicole delays
sending bills. If this is not true, then Nicole’s uncollectible accounts could
rise. Second, if the tax reduction applies to the clients as well as to Nicole
and if the payments are deductible for the clients (two big “ifs”) , it’s
possible that clients might be more willing to pay in December in order to
deduct the payments under the higher tax rate this year. Hence, delaying the
collections could risk alienating clients and perhaps losing an opportunity to
reduce uncollectible accounts this year.

60. [LO 5] Jeremy is a calendar-year taxpayer who sometimes leases his business
equipment to local organizations. He recorded the following receipts this year.
Indicate the extent to which these payments are taxable income to Jeremy this year
if Jeremy is (1) a cash-method taxpayer and (2) he is an accrual-method taxpayer.
a. $1,000 deposit from the Ladies’ Club who want to lease a trailer. The club
will receive the entire deposit back when the trailer is returned undamaged.
b. $800 from the Ladies’ Club for leasing the trailer from December of this year
through March of next year ($200 per month).
c. $300 lease payment received from the Men’s Club this year for renting
Jeremy’s trailer last year. Jeremy billed them last year but recently he
determined that the Men’s Club would never pay him so he was surprised
when he received the check.
a. $0 income under both cash method and accrual method. A deposit is not
taxable income unless it can be applied toward rent).
b. $800 of income under both the cash method and the accrual method (advance
payments of rent and interest are always taxable when received).
 c. $300 of income under the cash method. Under the accrual basis, the income
would have been recognized in the prior year. The write-off of the apparent
bad debt this year would be offset by the subsequent recovery. Hence, no
change in taxable income.

61. [LO 5] Brown Thumb Landscaping is a calendar-year, accrual-method taxpayer. In

September, Brown Thumb negotiated a $14,000 contract for services it would
provide to the city in November of the current year. The contract specifies that
Brown Thumb will receive $4,000 in October as a down payment for these services
and it will receive the remaining $10,000 in January of next year.
a. How much income from this $14,000 contract will Brown Thumb recognize
in the current year? Explain.
b. How much income from this $14,000 contract will Brown Thumb recognize
in the current year if it uses the cash method of accounting?
c. Suppose that the total amount to be paid under the contract with the city is
estimated at $14,000 but may be adjusted to $12,000 next year during the
review of the city budget. What amount from the contract, if any, should
Brown Thumb recognize as income this year? Explain.
d. Suppose that in addition to the basic contract, Brown Thumb will be paid an
additional $3,000 if its city landscape design wins the annual designer
competition next year. Should Brown Thumb accrue $3,000 revenue this
year? Why or why not?
a. Accrual-method taxpayers must recognize income when the all-events test is
met and the amount can be estimated with reasonable accuracy. Under the
all-events test income is realized upon the earliest of three dates: (1) when
the required performance takes place, (2) when payment is due, or (3) when
payment is received. Hence, Brown Thumb will recognize $14,000 this
calendar year because it provided the services this year.
b. Under the cash method, Brown Thumb would recognize only the $4,000
received this year.
c. Accrual-method taxpayers must recognize income when the all-events test is
met and the amount can be estimated with reasonable accuracy. Because
$14,000 appears to be a reasonable estimate (at most it could be off by
$2,000), Brown Thumb should accrue $14,000 of income this year. If the
estimate differs from the actual amounts received next year, Brown Thumb
would make an adjustment next year to reconcile to the actual amount of
income.
 Income estimates are sometimes confused with a condition precedent or
condition subsequent. A condition precedent means that no liability (or right
to income) exists until the precedent is met. A condition subsequent means
the liability or right to income may be extinguished by subsequent events. In
the first instance, no liability (or income) is realized until the condition is
met. In the latter instance, a liability (or income) exists, but the amount is
subsequently adjusted. The facts in this problem suggest that the amount of
the income is uncertain, but another interpretation could be that review by
the city council is either a condition precedent or subsequent. The
determination of whether this review is a condition would be done by looking
at the contract. For example, suppose that Brown Thumb billed $14,000 but
the contract stipulates that no payments are made over $12,000 without
council approval (and approval is uncertain). This would likely be a
condition precedent. On the other hand, suppose that Brown Thumb billed
$14,000 but the council retains the right to review the work and reduce the
payment for substandard results. This would likely be a condition
subsequent.
d. No income, under the all-events test, accrual method taxpayers are not
required to recognize income if their right to the income is not fixed (it is
contingent upon future events).

62. [LO 5] In January of year 0, Justin paid $4,800 for an insurance policy that covers
his business property for accidents and casualties. Justin is a calendar-year
taxpayer who uses the cash method of accounting. What amount of the insurance
premium may Justin deduct in year 0 in each of the following alternative scenarios?
a. The policy covers the business property from April 1 of year 0 through
March 31 of year 1.
b. The policy begins on February 1 of year 1 and extends through January 31 of
year 2.
c. Justin pays $6,000 for a 24-month policy that covers the business from April
1, year 0 through March 31, year 2.
d. Instead of paying an insurance premium, Justin pays $4,800 to rent his
business property from April 1 of year 0 through March 31 of year 1.
a. The entire premium of $4,800 is deductible under the 12-month rule because
the insurance coverage does not exceed 12 months and does not extend
beyond the end of next year.
b. No deduction this year. Even though the contract period is 12 months or
fewer, Justin is required to capitalize the cost of the prepayment for the
 insurance policy because the contract period extends beyond the end of next
year.
c. Because the length of the insurance coverage lasts longer than 12 months,
Justin may only deduct the portion of the premium pertaining to this year.
Justin can deduct $2,250 of the $6,000 insurance premium payment (9
months / 24 months times $6,000).
d. Deduct $4,800 rent. The 12-month rule for capitalizing expenditures applies
to rent (but not interest) payments for a cash method taxpayer. In contrast,
for an accrual method taxpayer both rent and interest are deducted over the
period relating to the lease or loan term because of economic performance.

63. [LO 5] {Tax Forms} Ben teaches golf lessons at a country club under a business
called Ben’s Pure Swings (BPS). He operates this business as a sole proprietorship
on the accrual basis of accounting. Ben’s trusty accountant, Brian, has produced
the following accounting information for BPS:
This year BPS billed clients for $86,700 and collected $61,000 in cash for golf
lessons completed during the year. In addition, BPS collected an additional
$14,500 in cash for lessons that will commence after year-end. Ben hopes to
collect about half of the outstanding billings next year but the rest will likely be
written off.
Besides providing private golf lessons, BPS also contracted with the country club
to staff the driving range. This year BPS billed the country club $27,200 for the
service. The club paid $17,000 of the amount but disputed the remainder. By year
end the dispute had not been resolved, and while Ben believes he is entitled to the
money, he has still not collected the remaining $10,200.
BPS has accrued the following expenses (explained below):
Advertising (in the clubhouse) $ 13,150
Pro Golf Teachers Membership Fees 860
Supplies (golf tees, balls, etc.) 4,720
Club Rental 6,800
Malpractice Insurance 2,400
Accounting Fees 8,820
The expenditures were all paid for this calendar year with several exceptions. First,
Ben initiated his golfer’s malpractice insurance on June 1st of this year. The $2,400
insurance bill covers the last six months of this calendar year and the first six
months of next year. At year end Ben had only paid $600, but he has assured the
insurance agent he would pay the remaining $1,800 early next year. Second, the
amount paid for club rental ($100 per week) represents rental charges for the last
six weeks of the previous year, for the 52 weeks in this calendar year, and the first
10 weeks of next year. Ben has also mentioned that BPS only pays for supplies
that are used at the club. Although BPS could buy the supplies for half the cost
elsewhere, Ben likes to “throw some business” to the golf pro shop because it is
operated by his brother.
Fill out a draft of Parts I and II on the front page of a Schedule C for BPS.
Under the accrual method, revenues are generally recorded under the all-events
test as earned or received. Hence, unless the deferral method election has been
made, BPS will recognize $101,200 of lesson revenue ($86,700 plus $14,500) this
year. BPS will only recognize $17,000 of driving range revenue because the
remaining amount of the income is not “fixed and determinable.”
Regarding deductions, BPS cannot claim a deduction for estimated uncollectible
accounts because direct write-off is the method dictated by the IRC. BPS paid
$600 of insurance premiums and is liable for $600 of the remaining premiums.
However, insurance is a payment liability and only payment satisfies economic
performance. Unless BPS has elected to account for the insurance as a recurring
item, the deduction is limited to $600 (the insurance would only qualify for the 12-
month rule if economic performance has been met). Under the accrual method and
economic performance rent is deducted over the term of the lease. Hence, BPS can
only deduct the club rents relating to the current year ($100 x 52). Finally, it
would appear that half of the cost of supplies is not deductible because it is
unreasonable in amount. There are no apparent problems with deducting the
payments for advertising, membership fees, or accounting fees.
Schedule C for 2017 would be filled in as follows:
64. [LO 5] On April 1 of year 0 Stephanie received a $9,000 payment for full payment
on a three-year service contract (under the contract Stephanie is obligated to
provide advisory services for the next three years).
a. What amount of income should Stephanie recognize in year 0 if she uses the
accrual method of accounting (she recognized $2,250 for financial
accounting purposes)?
b. What amount of income will Stephanie recognize in year 1 if she uses the
accrual method of accounting?
c. What amount of income will Stephanie recognize in year 2, if she uses the
accrual method of accounting?
d. What amount of income will Stephanie recognize in year 0 if she recognizes
$5,000 of income from the contract for financial statement purposes?
a. Stephanie will recognize $2,250 in year 0. This is the amount of the income
she earned in year 0 ($9,000 ÷ 3 years = $3,000 x 9/12).
 b. Stephanie will recognize the remaining $6,750 in year 1 because under Rev.
Proc. 2004-34—she may only defer the unearned portion for one year.
c. Stephanie won’t recognize any income in the final year because she would
have recognized it all for tax purposes in years 0 and 1.
d. If she recognizes $5,000 of income for financial statement purposes this year,
Stephanie must also recognize $5,000 for tax purposes even though she
would otherwise be required to recognize only $2,250.

65. [LO 5] In October of year 0, Janine received a $6,000 payment from a client for 25
months of security services she will provide starting on November 1 of year 0.
This amounts to $240 per month.
a. When must Janine recognize the income from the $6,000 advance payment
for services if she uses the cash method of accounting?
b. When must Janine recognize the income from the $6,000 advance payment
for services if she uses the accrual method of accounting?
c. Suppose that instead of services, Janine received the payment for a security
system (inventory) that she will deliver and install in year 2. When would
Janine recognize the income from the advance payment for inventory sale if
she uses the accrual method of accounting and she uses the deferral method
for reporting income from advance payments? For financial accounting
purposes, she reports the income when the inventory is delivered.
d. Suppose that instead of services, Janine received the payment for the delivery
of inventory to be delivered next year. When would Janine recognize the
income from the advance payment for sale of goods if she uses the accrual
method of accounting and she uses the full-inclusion method for advance
payments?
a. Janine must recognize the entire $6,000 as income this year because she
received it this year.
b. Janine must recognize the $480 she earns in year 0 (2 months x $240) and
she must recognize the remaining $5,520 in year 1 (she is allowed to defer
the prepaid income for only one year).
c. If Janine uses the deferral method, then she would recognize the entire
prepayment of $6,000 in year 2 when she delivers the goods.
d. If Janine uses the full inclusion method, she would recognize the entire
prepayment of $6,000 as income in year 0.
66. [LO 5] Nicole’s business uses the accrual method of accounting and accounts for
inventory with specific identification. In year 0, Nicole received a $4,500 payment
with an order for inventory to be delivered to the client early next year. Nicole has
the inventory ready for delivery at the end of year 0 (she purchased the inventory in
year 0 for $2,300).
a. When does Nicole recognize the $2,200 of gross profit ($4,500 revenue
minus $2,300 cost of the inventory) if she uses the full-inclusion method?
b. When does Nicole recognize the $2,200 of gross profit from the inventory
sale if she uses the deferral method?
c. How would Nicole account for the inventory-related transactions if she uses
the cash method of accounting and her annual sales are usually less than
$100,000?
d. How would Nicole account for the inventory-related transactions if she uses
the cash method of accounting and her annual sales are usually over
$2,000,000 per year?
a. If Nicole is an accrual method taxpayer using specific identification for the
goods, she can elect either the full inclusion or deferral method to account
for prepayment for goods. Under the full inclusion method, Nicole would
recognize the entire $2,200 of gross profit in year 0.
b. Nicole can elect to use the deferral method which allows her to wait until
spring of year 1 when she delivers the inventory to recognize the $2,200
income from advance payment because that is when she would have
recognized the income if she had not received a prepayment.
c. Because Nicole’s average annual gross receipts are less than $1 million, she
may deduct the cost of the inventory when she purchases it (as supplies).
Consequently, she would report the $4,500 as income when she received it
and she would deduct the $2,300 cost of inventory (as supplies) in year 0
when she paid for it. This $2,200 net increase to income is the same effect on
income as if she was using the accrual method.
d. In this case, even though she uses the cash method for non-inventory-related
items, Nicole must use the accrual method for accounting for her inventory
because her average annual gross receipts exceed $1,000,000. In this case,
Nicole is on the hybrid method of accounting. She will recognize the $2,200
of gross profit in year 0.

67. [LO 5] This year Amber opened a factory to process and package landscape mulch.
At the end of the year, Amber’s accountant prepared the following schedule for
allocating manufacturing costs to the mulch inventory, but her accountant is unsure
of what costs need to be allocated to the inventory under UNICAP. Approximately
20 percent of management time, space, and expenses are spent on this
manufacturing process.
Costs Tax Inventory
Material: Mulch and packaging $ 5,000 ?
Administrative supplies 250 ?
Salaries: Factory labor 12,000 ?
Sales & advertising 3,500 ?
Administration 5,200 ?
Property taxes: Factory 4,600 ?
Offices 2,700 ?
Depreciation: Factory 8,000 ?
Offices 1,500 ?
a. At the end of the year, Amber’s accountant indicated that the business had
processed 10,000 bags of mulch but only 1,000 bags remained in the ending
inventory. What is Amber’s tax basis in her ending inventory after applying
the UNICAP rules to allocate indirect costs to inventory? (Assume direct
costs are allocated to inventory according to the level of ending inventory. In
contrast, indirect costs are first allocated by time spent and then according to
level of ending inventory.)
b. Under what conditions could Amber’s business avoid having to apply
UNICAP to allocate indirect costs to inventory for tax purposes?
a. The costs of selling, advertising, and research are not required to be
allocated to inventory. Direct costs (material, labor, taxes, and depreciation)
are allocated to inventory according to the level of ending inventory (10%) .
In contrast, indirect costs (administration) are first allocated by time spent
(20%) and then according to the level of ending inventory.
Costs Tax Inventory
Material: Mulch and packaging $ 5,000 $ 500
Administrative supplies 250 5
Salaries: Factory labor $12,000 1,200
Sales & advertising 3,500 0
Administration 5,200 104
Property taxes: Factory $ 4,600 460
Offices 2,700 54
Depreciation: Factory $ 8,000 800
Offices 1,500 30
b. Amber can avoid UNICAP if she qualifies to account for merchandise for
sale as materials and supplies under Rev. Proc. 2001-10 (average annual
gross receipts not over $1 million).
68. [LO 5] Suppose that David adopted the last-in, first-out (LIFO) inventory-flow
method for his business inventory of widgets (purchase prices below).
Widget Purchase Date Direct Cost Other Costs Total Cost
#1 August 15 $ 2,100 $ 100 $ 2,200
#2 October 30 $ 2,200 $ 150 $ 2,350
#3 November 10 $ 2,300 $ 100 $ 2,400
In late December, David sold widget #2 and next year David expects to purchase
three more widgets at the following estimated prices:
Widget Purchase Date Estimated Cost
#4 Early spring $ 2,600
#5 Summer $ 2,260
#6 Fall $ 2,400
a. What cost of goods sold and ending inventory would David record if he
elects to use the LIFO method this year?
b. If David sells two widgets next year, what will be his cost of goods sold and
ending inventory next year under the LIFO method?
c. How would you answer (a) and (b) if David had initially selected the first-in,
first-out (FIFO) method instead of LIFO?
d. Suppose that David initially adopted the LIFO method, but wants to apply for
a change to FIFO next year. What would be his §481 adjustment for this
change, and in what year(s) would he make the adjustment?
a. Under the LIFO method, this year David should record a cost of goods sold
of $ 2,400 and an ending inventory of $4,550.
b. Under LIFO, David would be deemed to sell widgets # 5 and #6 so his cost of
goods sold next year would be $4,660 and his ending inventory would consist
of widgets # 1, #2, and #4 for a total ending inventory of $7,150.
c. Under the FIFO method, for part a, David’s cost of goods sold this year
would be $2,200 and his ending inventory would be $4,750. Under FIFO for
part b, David would be deemed to sell widgets # 2 and #3 so his cost of goods
sold next year would be $4,750 and his ending inventory would consist of
widgets # 4, #5, and #6 for a total ending inventory of $7,260.
d. The §481 adjustment will require David to recognize income or expense as
though he initially had adopted the FIFO method. Under the FIFO method,
his cost of goods sold in the first year would have been $2,200 instead of
$2,400. Hence, David’s §481 adjustment will be +$200, effectively
increasing his beginning inventory for the next year from $4,550 under LIFO
to $4,750 under FIFO. The adjustment would be spread over four years.
69. [LO 5] On November 1 of year 0, Jaxon borrowed $50,000 from Bucksnort
Savings and Loan for use in his business. In December, Jaxon paid interest of
$4,500 relating to the 12-month period from November of year 0 through October
of year 1.
a. How much interest, if any, can Jaxon deduct in year 0 if his business uses the
cash method of accounting for tax purposes?
b. How much interest, if any, can Jaxon deduct in year 0 if his business uses the
accrual method of accounting for tax purposes?
a. and b. $750 under either cash or accrual method of accounting. Jaxon can
only deduct two months of interest ([$4,500/12] × 2) because prepaid
interest is not deductible under either method of accounting.

70. [LO 5] Matt hired Apex Services to repair his business equipment. On November
1, of year 0, Matt paid $2,000 for the repairs that he expects to begin in early March
of year 1.
a. What amount of the cost of the repairs can Matt deduct in year 0 if he uses
the cash method of accounting for his business?
b. What amount of the cost of the repairs can Matt deduct in year 0 if he uses
the accrual method of accounting for his business?
c. What amount of the cost of the repairs can Matt deduct in year 0 if he uses
the accrual method and he expects the repairs to be done by early February?
d. What amount of the cost of the repairs can Matt deduct in year 0 if he uses
the cash method of accounting and he expects the repairs to be done by early
February?
a. The $2,000 cost of repairs is deductible in year 0 because Matt is a cash-
method taxpayer and this is a routine repair that meets the 12-month rule.
b. The $2,000 cost of the repairs is not deductible in year 0 but rather in year 1
because economic performance occurs when the services are performed.
c. $2,000 deductible in year 0 (the year of payment). Because Matt paid for the
service in year 0 and he can reasonably expect that the work will be done
within 3 and ½ months of payment he is allowed to deduct the payment in
year 0 under the accrual method..
d. The $2,000 cost of repairs is deductible in year 0 because he meets the 12-
month rule.
71. [LO 5] Circuit Corporation (CC) is a calendar-year, accrual-method taxpayer. CC
manufactures and sells electronic circuitry. On November 15, year 0, CC enters
into a contract with Equip Corp (EC) that provides CC with exclusive use of EC’s
specialized manufacturing equipment for the five-year period beginning on January
1 of year 1. Pursuant to the contract, CC pays EC $100,000 on December 30, year
0. How much of this expenditure is CC allowed to deduct in year 0 and in year 1?
$0 in year 0 and $20,000 in year 1. Because CC is leasing property from EC,
economic performance on the contract occurs ratably over the five-year period
from January 1 of year 1 through December 31 of year 5. Consequently, CC is not
allowed to deduct any of the expenditure in year 0 and is allowed to deduct one-
fifth of the contract price in year 1 (and in each of the four succeeding years).

72. [LO 5] This year (year 0) Elizabeth agreed to a three-year service contract with an
engineering consulting firm to improve efficiency in her factory. The contract
requires Elizabeth to pay the consulting firm $1,500 for each instance that
Elizabeth requests its assistance. The contract also provides that Elizabeth only
pays the consultants if their advice increases efficiency as measured 12 months
from the date of service. This year Elizabeth requested advice on three occasions
and she has not yet made any payments to the consultants.
a. How much should Elizabeth deduct in year 0 under this service contract if
she uses the accrual method of accounting?
b. How much should Elizabeth deduct in year 0 under this service contract if
she uses the cash method of accounting?
a. Because the liability is contingent on a future event (increase in efficiency)
occurring after the end of the year, the liability is not fixed. Therefore, as an
accrual-method business, Elizabeth is not allowed to recognize any deduction
for this contract in year 0 even though the consultants have provided services
on three different occasions by the end of the year.
b. Under the cash-method, Elizabeth would only deduct payments made to the
consultants by the end of the year. In this situation, she had not paid the
consultants anything by year end, so she would not deduct any expense
associated with the contract.

73. [LO 5] Travis is a professional landscaper. He provides his clients with a one-year
(12-month) warranty for retaining walls he installs. In June of year 1, Travis
installed a wall for an important client, Sheila. In early November, Sheila informed
Travis that the retaining wall had failed. To repair the wall, Travis paid $700 cash
for additional stone that he delivered to Sheila’s location on November 20 of year
 1. Travis also offered to pay a mason $800 to repair the wall. Due to some bad
weather and the mason’s work backlog, the mason agreed to begin the work by the
end of January of year 2. Even though Travis expected the mason to finish the
project by end of February, Travis informed the mason that he would only pay the
mason the $800 when he completed the job.
a. Assuming Travis is an accrual-method taxpayer, how much can he deduct in
year 1 from these activities?
b. Assuming Travis is a cash-method taxpayer, how much can he deduct in year
1 from these activities?
a. Under the accrual method, economic performance occurs as Travis incurs
costs associated with providing goods and services to another party. Hence,
Travis can deduct the $700 cost of the stone this year. However, because
Travis is hiring another (the mason) to provide a service that Travis is liable
to perform, economic performance occurs as the mason performs the
services. Consequently, Travis will not be allowed to deduct the cost for the
mason until year 2 when the mason performs the services.
b. The timing and amount of the deductions under the cash method is the same
as it is under the accrual method.

74. [LO 5] {Research} Adam elects the accrual method of accounting for his business.
What amount of deductions does Adam recognize in year 0 for the following
transactions?
a. Adam guarantees that he will refund the cost of any goods sold to a client if
the goods fail within a year of delivery. In December of year 0, Adam agreed
to refund $2,400 to clients, and he expects to make payment in January of
year 1.
b. On December 1 of year 0, Adam paid $480 for a one-year contract with
CleanUP Services to clean his store. The agreement calls for services to be
provided on a weekly basis.
c. Adam was billed $240 for annual personal property taxes on his delivery van.
Because this was the first time Adam was billed for these taxes, he did not
make payment until January. However, he considers the amounts immaterial.
a. No deduction in year 0 - economic performance only occurs for refunds upon
payment.
b. Deduct $40 for portion of services provided to Adam (one month) in year 0.
Note the economic performance rules (deductible as receives services from
other party)
 c. Deduct $240 if recurring item exception is elected. Otherwise, taxes can only
be deducted upon payment. The amount is immaterial, this is the first time
encountered, and payment is expected within the date for filing a return or
8.5 months, thus, Reg. §1.461-5 provides a “recurring items” exception to
the economic performance rules.

75. [LO 5] Rebecca is a calendar year taxpayer who operates a business. She made the
following business-related expenditures in December of year 0. Indicate the
amount of these payments that she may deduct in year 0 under both the cash
method of accounting and the accrual method of accounting.
a. $2,000 for an accountant to evaluate the accounting system of Rebecca’s
business. The accountant spent three weeks in January of year 1 working on
the evaluation.
b. $2,500 for new office furniture. The furniture was delivered on January 15,
year 1.
c. $3,000 for property taxes on her factory.
d. $1,500 for interest on a short-term bank loan relating to the period from
November 1, year 0 through March 31, year 1.
a. $2,000 under the cash method. Likely $2,000 under the accrual method.
Rebecca paid for the accounting services in advance and as long as she
reasonably expected that the accountant would finish the services within 3 ½
months after the payment, she may treat payment as economic performance.
Here, since she made the payment in December and the accountant provided
the services a month later, it is likely that she would qualify for the deduction
in year 0. Otherwise she would need to deduct the $2,000 in year 1 when the
accountant provided the services .
b. $0 under both the cash and accrual method. In this case, economic
performance takes place as when the goods are provided to her. However,
because the asset will provide a benefit for more than 12 months, she must
capitalize the expenditure and she will begin depreciating it in year 1 when
she places the asset in service.
c. $3,000 under both the cash method and accrual method. Taxes are a payment
liability and are therefore, absent a special election, deductible only when
paid.
d. $600 (the interest allocable to November and December) under both the cash
method and the accrual method. Even under the cash method taxpayers may
not deduct interest expense in excess of the amount of accrued interest.
76. [LO 5] BCS Corporation is a calendar-year, accrual-method taxpayer. BCS was
formed and started its business activities on January 1, year 0. It reported the
following information for year 0. Indicate BCS’s deductible amount for year 0 in
each of the following alternative scenarios.
a. BCS provides two-year warranties on products it sells to customers. For its
year 0 sales, BCS estimated and accrued $200,000 in warranty expense for
financial accounting purposes. During year 0, BCS actually spent $30,000
repairing its product under the warranty.
b. BCS accrued an expense for $50,000 for amounts it anticipated it would be
required to pay under the workers’ compensation act. During year 0, BCS
actually paid $10,000 for workers’ compensation-related liabilities.
c. In June of year 0, a display of BCS’s product located in its showroom fell on
and injured a customer. The customer sued BCS for $500,000. The case is
scheduled to go to trial next year. BCS anticipates that it will lose the case
and accrued a $500,000 expense on its financial statements.
d. Assume the same facts as in (c) except that BCS was required to pay
$500,000 to a court-appointed escrow fund in year 0. If BCS loses the case
in year 1, the money from the escrow fund will be transferred to the customer
suing BCS.
e. On December 1 of year 0, BCS acquired equipment from Equip Company.
As part of the purchase, BCS signed a warranty agreement with Equip so that
Equip would warranty the equipment for two years (from December 1 of year
0 through November 30 of year 2). The cost of the warranty was $12,000.
BCS paid Equip for the warranty in January of year 1.
a. Because the accrued $200,000 warranty expense is an estimate (it is not a
fixed and determinable liability) BCS is not allowed to deduct any of the
$200,000 accrual in year 0. However, BCS is allowed to deduct the $30,000
it actually spent in year 0 repairing its product under the warranty.
b. Because employer liabilities under the workers compensation act are
payment liabilities, BCS is allowed to deduct only the $10,000 it actually
paid in year 0 for workers compensation-related liabilities.
c. Because tort liabilities such as this are payment liabilities, BCS is not
allowed to deduct any of the $500,000 expense it accrued in year 0 for the
expected lawsuit loss.
d. Same answer as c. BCS is not allowed to deduct the $500,000 until it is
actually paid to the customer. Payment to the escrow account is not payment
to the customer because BCS will get the money back if it wins the case next
year.
 e. Warranties provided to the taxpayer are payment liabilities. However, this
prepaid expense is also subject to the 12-month rule. BCS cannot deduct any
amounts until it has made payment and it meets the requirements of the 12-
month rule. In this situation, BCS would not be allowed to deduct anything
in year 0 because it had not paid anything by year end. Further, even though
it paid Equip on January 1 of year 1, it is subject to the 12-month rule
because the contract period is longer than 12 months. Consequently, BCS
may deduct $6,500 in year 1 (for December of year 0 and all of year 1). It
can deduct $5,500 in year 2 (for January through November of year 2).

77. [LO 5] This year William provided $4,200 of services to a large client on credit.
Unfortunately, this client has recently encountered financial difficulties and has
been unable to pay William for the services. Moreover, William does not expect to
collect for his services. William has “written off” the account and would like to
claim a deduction for tax purposes.
a. What amount of deduction for bad debt expense can William claim this year
if he uses the accrual method?
b. What amount of deduction for bad debt expense can William claim this year
if he uses the cash method?
a. Under the accrual method, §166 provides that William can claim a bad debt
deduction for the account receivable if it is partially or completely
uncollectible. Because William does not expect to collect for his services and
he has written off the receivable, he is allowed to deduct the full $4,200 of
services that he has included in income under the accrual method.
b. Under the cash method, William would not be able to claim a bad debt
expense deduction because, under this method he has not yet recognized the
income for his services.

78. [LO 5] Dustin has a contract to provide services to Dado Enterprises. In November
of year 0, Dustin billed Dado $10,000 for the services he rendered during the year.
Dado is an accrual-method proprietorship that is owned and operated by Dustin’s
father.
a. What amount of revenue must Dustin recognize in year 0 if Dustin uses the
cash method and Dado remits payment and Dustin receives payment for the
services in December of year 0? What amount can Dado deduct in year 0?
b. What amount of revenue must Dustin recognize in year 0 if Dustin uses the
accrual method, and Dado remits payment for the services in December of
year 0? What amount can Dado deduct in year 0?
 c. What amount of revenue must Dustin recognize in year 0 if Dustin uses the
cash method and Dado remits payment for the services in January of year 1?
What amount can Dado deduct in year 0?
d. What amount of revenue must Dustin recognize in year 0 if Dustin uses the
accrual method and Dado remits payment for the services in January of year
1? What amount can Dado deduct in year 0?
a. Dustin recognizes the $10,000 payment as revenue in year 0 when he
receives it, and Dado accrues and deducts a $10,000 expense in year 0.
b. Dustin accrues $10,000 revenue in year 0 and Dado accrues the $10,000
expense in year 0.
c. Because Dustin and Dado are related parties, Dado may only deduct the
accrual when Dustin recognizes the associated income. Since, under the
cash method of accounting, Dustin recognizes the payment as revenue in year
1 when he receives it, Dado cannot deduct the $10,000 expense until year 1.
d. As an accrual-method taxpayer, Dustin accrues the $10,000 of revenue in
year 0. Consequently, under the related-party rule, Dado may deduct the
$10,000 of accrued expense in year 0 (the same year that Dustin recognizes
the revenue for tax purposes).

79. [LO 5] Nancy operates a business that uses the accrual method of accounting. In
December, Nancy asked her brother, Hank, to provide her business with consulting
advice. Hank billed Nancy for $5,000 of consulting services in year 0 (a reasonable
amount), but Nancy was only able to pay $3,000 of the bill by the end of year 0.
However, Nancy paid the remainder of the bill in year 1.
a. How much of the $5,000 consulting services will Hank include in his income
in year 0 if he uses the cash method of accounting? What amount can Nancy
deduct in year 0 for the consulting services?
b. How much of the $5,000 consulting services will Hank include in his income
in year 0 if he uses the accrual method of accounting? What amount can
Nancy deduct in year 0 for the consulting services?
a. Under the cash method of accounting, Hank includes the $3,000 payment he
received in his income. Hank is Nancy’s brother, so Nancy and Hank are
“related” parties for tax purposes. Under the related party rules, because
Nancy uses the accrual method and Hank the cash method, Nancy will only
be able to deduct in year 0 the $3,000 she actually pays to Hank in year 0.
Consequently, Nancy will deduct the remaining $2,000 expense in year 1
when Hank includes it in income.
 b. Under the accrual method of accounting, Hank includes the $5,000 of
services in income in year 0 because that is when he earned it. Also, because
she uses the accrual method of accounting, Nancy is allowed to accrue and
deduct the entire $5,000 of consulting services in year 0.

80. [LO 5] Erin is considering switching her business from the cash method to the
accrual method at the beginning of next year (year 1). How will the Sec. 481
adjustment affect Erin’s year 1 taxable income in the following alternative
scenarios?
a. At the end of end of year 0/beginning of year 1, Erin’s business has $15,000
of accounts receivables and $18,000 of accounts payables that have not been
recorded for tax purposes.
b. At the end of year 0/beginning of year 1, Erin’s business reports $25,000 of
accounts receivables and $9,000 of accounts payables that have not been
recorded for tax purposes.
a. Erin would be required to make a §481 adjustment to ensure that she does
not omit receivables and payables from taxable income under the accrual
method of accounting that she is switching to. Her net §481 adjustment is to
decrease net income by $3,000 ($15,000 receivables minus the $18,000
payables). Because this is an income decreasing adjustment, Erin would
deduct the full adjustment amount in year 1.
b. Erin’s net §481 adjustment is to increase net income by $16,000 ($25,000
receivables minus the $9,000 payables). Because this is a income increasing
adjustment, Erin would include 25 percent of the net adjustment ($4,000) in
taxable income in each of the next four years beginning with year 1.

Comprehensive Problems

81. Joe operates a business that locates and purchases specialized assets for clients,
among other activities. Joe uses the accrual method of accounting but he doesn’t
keep any significant inventories of the specialized assets that he sells. Joe reported
the following financial information for his business activities during year 0.
Determine the effect of each of the following transactions on the taxable business
income.
a. Joe has signed a contract to sell gadgets to the city. The contract provides
that sales of gadgets are dependent upon a test sample of gadgets operating
successfully. In December, Joe delivers $12,000 worth of gadgets to the city
 that will be tested in March. Joe purchased the gadgets especially for this
contract and paid $8,500.
b. Joe paid $180 for entertaining a visiting out-of-town client. The client didn’t
discuss business with Joe during this visit, but Joe wants to maintain good
relations to encourage additional business next year.
c. On November 1, Joe paid $600 for premiums providing for $40,000 of “key
man” insurance on the life of Joe’s accountant over the next 12 months.
d. At the end of year 0, Joe’s business reports $9,000 of accounts receivable.
Based upon past experience, Joe believes that at least $2,000 of his new
receivables will be uncollectible.
e. In December of year 0, Joe rented equipment to complete a large job. Joe
paid $3,000 in December because the rental agency required a minimum
rental of three months ($1,000 per month). Joe completed the job before
year-end, but he returned the equipment at the end of the lease.
f. Joe hired a new sales representative as an employee and sent her to Dallas for
a week to contact prospective out-of-state clients. Joe ended up reimbursing
his employee $300 for airfare, $350 for lodging, $250 for meals, and $150 for
entertainment (Joe provided adequate documentation to substantiate the
business purpose for the meals and entertainment). Joe requires the
employee to account for all expenditures in order to be reimbursed.
g. Joe uses his BMW (a personal auto) to travel to and from his residence to his
factory. However, he switches to a business vehicle if he needs to travel after
he reaches the factory. Last month, the business vehicle broke down and he
was forced to use the BMW both to travel to and from the factory and to visit
work sites. He drove 120 miles visiting work sites and 46 miles driving to
and from the factory from his home. Joe uses the standard mileage rate to
determine his auto-related business expenses.
h. Joe paid a visit to his parents in Dallas over the Christmas holidays. While
he was in the city, Joe spent $50 to attend a half-day business symposium.
Joe paid $200 for airfare, $50 for meals during the symposium, and $20 on
cab fare to the symposium.
a. $0 income. Joe does not include any income in year 0 from his contract with
the city because the sale is contingent upon a future event. Consequently, Joe
does not have a fixed right to the income.
b. $0 deduction. Entertainment is not a deductible business expense unless
there is a substantial business discussion on the day of the entertainment.
This payment is not deductible.
c. $0 deduction. The insurance premiums on a key-man policy are not
deductible because any life insurance proceeds paid to Joe would be tax
 exempt. Hence, key-man life insurance premiums are an expense associated
with the production of tax exempt income.
d. $9,000 increase in income. The receivables will be reflected in sales thereby
increasing income by $9,000. However, no bad debt expense can be
deducted this year because Joe only “expects” that that some will be
uncollectible. Those that are identified as partially or completely
uncollectible can be deducted next year.
e. Under the economic performance rules, Joe will deduct the cost of the lease
over the lease term. Thus, he will deduct $1,000 in year 0 and the remaining
$2,000 in year 1.
f. Joe is allowed to deduct the full cost of the airfare ($300) and lodging ($350)
as an ordinary and necessary business expense. However, Joe is allowed to
deduct only one-half of the $250 cost of meals and one-half of the $150 cost
of the entertainment (assuming Joe’s employee provides proper
substantiation for the meals and entertainment.).
g. While the 46 miles from his home to the factory is personal and not
deductible, Joe can either deduct the business portion of the operating costs
of his car, or a standard amount (53.5 cents) for each mile driven. If he elects
the standard usage rate, Joe is entitled to a $64 (53.5¢ x 120) deduction.
h. The primary purpose of Joe’s trip was to visit relatives, so only the expenses
directly related to business are deductible. Hence, Joe can deduct $25 for
meals (the trip is away from home overnight), $20 for cab fare, and $50 for
the cost of the symposium.

82. Jack, a geologist, had been debating for years whether or not to venture out on his
own and operate his own business. He had developed a lot of solid relationships
with clients and he believed that many of them would follow him if he were to
leave his current employer. As part of a New Year’s resolution, Jack decided he
would finally do it. Jack put his business plan together and, on January 1 of this
year, Jack opened his doors for business as a C corporation called Geo-Jack (GJ).
Jack is the sole shareholder. Jack reported the following financial information for
the year (assume GJ reports on a calendar year and uses the accrual method of
accounting).
a. In January GJ rented a small business office about 12 miles from Jack’s
home. GJ paid $10,000 which represented a damage deposit of $4,000 and
rent for two years ($3,000 annually).
b. GJ earned and collected $290,000 performing geological-related services and
selling its specialized digging tool [see part (i)].
c. GJ received $50 interest from municipal bonds and $2,100 interest from other
investments.
d. GJ purchased some new equipment in February for $42,500. It claimed
depreciation on these assets during the year in the amount of $6,540.
e. GJ paid $7,000 to buy luxury season tickets for Jack’s parents for State U.
football games.
f. GJ paid Jack’s father $10,000 for services that would have cost no more than
$6,000 if Jack had hired any other local business to perform the services.
While Jack’s dad was competent, he does not command such a premium from
his other clients.
g. In an attempt to get his name and new business recognized, GJ paid $7,000
for a one-page ad in the Geologic Survey. It also paid $15,000 in radio ads to
be run through the end of December.
h. GJ leased additional office space in a building downtown. GJ paid rent of
$27,000 for the year.
i. In August, GJ began manufacturing a special geological digging tool that it
sells to wholesalers. GJ’s QPAI from the activity for the year is $100,000
[included in revenues reported in part (b)]. Assume QPAI includes $10,000
of wages paid to employees working on the tool.
j. In November, Jack’s office was broken into and equipment valued at $5,000
was stolen. The tax basis of the equipment was $5,500. Jack received
$2,000 of insurance proceeds from the theft.
k. GJ incurred a $4,000 fine from the state government for digging in an
unauthorized digging zone.
l. GJ contributed $3,000 to help lobbyists for their help in persuading the state
government to authorize certain unauthorized digging zones.
m. On July 1, GJ paid $1,800 for an 18-month insurance policy for its business
equipment. The policy covers the period July 1of this year through
December 31 of next year.
n. GJ borrowed $20,000 to help with the company’s initial funding needs. GJ
used $2,000 of funds to invest in municipal bonds. At the end of the year, GJ
paid the $1,200 of interest expense that accrued on the loan during the year.
o. Jack lives 12 miles from the office. He carefully tracked his mileage and
drove his truck 6,280 miles between the office and his home. He also drove
an additional 7,200 miles between the office and traveling to client sites.
Jack did not use the truck for any other purposes. He did not keep track of
the specific expenses associated with the truck. However, while traveling to
 a client site, Jack received a $150 speeding ticket. GJ reimbursed Jack for
business mileage and for the speeding ticket.
p. GJ purchased two season tickets (20 games) to attend State U baseball games
for a total of $1,100. Jack took existing and prospective clients to the games
to maintain contact and find further work. This was very successful for Jack
as GJ gained many new projects through substantial discussions with the
clients following the games.
q. GJ reimbursed employee-salespersons $3,500 for meals involving substantial
business discussion.
r. GJ had a client who needed Jack to perform work in Florida. Because Jack
had never been to Florida before, he booked an extra day and night for
sightseeing. Jack spent $400 for airfare and booked a hotel for 3 nights
($120/night). (Jack stayed two days for business purposes and one day for
personal purposes.) He also rented a car for $45 per day. The client arranged
for Jack’s meals while Jack was doing business. GJ reimbursed Jack for all
expenses.
s. GJ paid a total of $10,000 of wages to employees during the year and cost of
goods sold was $15,000.
Required:
A. What is GJ’s net business income for tax purposes for the year?
B. As a C corporation, does GJ have a required tax year? If so, what would it be?
C. If GJ were a sole proprietorship, would it have a required tax year-end? If so,
what would it be?
D. If GJ were an S corporation, would it have a required tax year-end? If so, what
would it be?
A. Geo-Jack’s taxable income for the year is $185,498 computed as gross income
of $277,100 less deductible business expenses of $91,602 as follows:
Description Amount Explanation
b. Sales and service revenue $290,000
s. Cost of goods sold (15,000)
c. Interest income 2,100 $50 of municipal bond interest is excluded
from income.
Gross income $277,100
a. Rent (3,000) $4,000 is a deposit and nondeductible.
Only the rent for the current year ($3,000)
is deductible because rent is deducted
ratably under economic performance.
d. Depreciation expense (6,540)
e. Season tickets 0 Not an ordinary and necessary business
expense for GJ
f. Compensation paid to (6,000) Paid $10,000 but amounts above $6,000
 Jack’s father likely not reasonable given the
circumstances.
g. Advertising expense (22,000) Ordinary and necessary business expense
h. Office rent expense (27,000) Ordinary and necessary business expense
s. Employee compensation (10,000) Ordinary and necessary business expense
i. DPAD (5,000) $100,000 x 9% = $9,000, but deduction
limited $5,000 (50% of wages paid to those
working on project)
j. Theft loss (3,500) $2,000 insurance proceeds minus 5,500
adjusted basis
k. Fine for unauthorized 0 Fines not deductible
digging
l. Lobbying costs 0 Lobbying costs generally not deductible
m. Insurance policy (600) Under 12-month rule, may only deduct
portion of cost attributable to current year
(6 months)
n. Deductible interest (1,080) $1,200 total interest - $120 interest related
to generation of nontaxable income that is
not deductible.
o. Automobile expense (3,852) 7,200 business miles x 53.5¢ = $3,852. The
fine is not deductible.
p. Baseball tickets (550) $1,100 x 50% (entertainment)
q. Business meals (1,750) $3,500 x 50% (meals)
r. Overnight travel expenses (730) Primary purpose of trip was business so
may deduct airfare, two nights’ lodging,
rental car for two days ($400 + 240 lodging
+ 90 for rental car).
Total deductions $91,602
Taxable income $185,498

B. As a C corporation, Geo-Jack could choose the last day of any month

including December 31 (even though it didn’t start its business until February)
or it could select a 52/53 week year.
C. As a sole proprietorship Geo-Jack would have a calendar year end, December
31, the same as its proprietor, Jack.
D. As an S corporation Geo-Jack would have a calendar yearend, December 31,
unless it can show a business purpose for adopting a different year end.

83. Rex loves to work with his hands and is very good at making small figurines. Rex
opened Bronze Age Miniatures (BAM) for business several years ago as a sole
proprietorship. BAM produces miniature characters ranging from sci-fi characters
(his favorite) to historical characters like George Washington (the most popular).
Business has been going very well for him, and he has provided the following
information relating to his business. Calculate the business taxable income for
BAM.
a. Rex received approval from the IRS to switch from the cash method of
accounting to the accrual method of accounting effective January 1 of this
year. At the end of last year, BAM reported accounts receivable that had not
been included in income under the accrual method of $14,000 and accounts
payable that had not been deducted under the accrual method of $5,000.
b. In March, BAM sold 5,000 miniature historical figures to History R Us, Inc.
(HRU), a retailer of historical artifacts and figurines, for $75,000.
c. HRU was so impressed with the figurines that it purchased in March that it
wanted to contract with BAM to continue to produce the figurines for them
for the next three years. HRU paid BAM $216,000 ($12 per figurine) on
October 30 of this year, to produce 500 figurines per month for 36 months
beginning on November 1 of this year. BAM delivered 500 figurines on
November 30 and again on December 30. Rex elects to use the deferral
method to account for the transaction.
d. Though the sci-fi figurines were not quite as popular, BAM sold 400
figurines at a sci-fi convention in April. Rex accepted cash only and received
$11,000 for these sales.
e. In January BAM determined that it would not be able to collect on $2,000 of
its beginning-of-the-year receivables, so it wrote off $2,000 of specific
receivables. This year BAM sold 100,000 other figurines on credit for
$120,000. BAM estimates that it will be unable to collect 5 percent of the
sales revenue from these sales but it has not been able to specifically identify
any accounts to write off.
f. Assume that BAM correctly determined that its cost of goods sold this year is
$54,000.
g. The sci-fi convention in April was held in Chicago, Illinois. Rex attended the
convention because he felt it was a good opportunity to gain new customers
and to get new ideas for figurines. He paid $350 round-trip airfare, $100 for
entrance to the convention, $210 for lodging, $65 for cab fare, and $110 for
meals during the trip. He was busy with business activities the entire trip.
h. On August 1, BAM purchased a 12-month insurance policy that covers its
business property for accidents and casualties through July 31 of next year.
The policy cost BAM $3,600.
i. BAM reported depreciation expense of $8,200 for this year.
j. Rex had previously operated his business out of his garage, but in January he
decided to rent a larger space. He entered into a lease agreement on February
1 and paid $14,400 ($1,200 per month) to possess the space for the next 12
months (February of this year through January of next year).
k. Before he opened his doors for business, Rex spent $30,000 investigating and
otherwise getting ready to do business. He expensed $5,000 immediately and
is amortizing the remainder using the straight-line method over 180-months.
l. In December, BAM agreed to a 12-month $8,000 contract with Advertise-
With-Us (AWU) to produce a radio ad campaign. BAM paid $3,000 up front
(in December of this year) and AWU agreed that BAM would owe the
remaining $5,000 only if BAM’s sales increased by 15 percent over the nine-
month period after the contract was signed.
m. In November of this year, BAM paid $2,500 in business property taxes
(based on asset values) covering the period December 1, through November
30 of next year. In November of last year, BAM paid $1,500 for business
property taxes (based on asset values) covering the period December 1 of last
year, through November 30 of this year.
 BAM’s business income is $134,053 computed as gross income of $166,250
less deductible business expenses of $32,197 as follows:
Description Accrual Explanation
(b) Sale to HRU 75,000
(c) Prepayment of 12,000 Using the deferral method for accrual, only
goods from HRU amount earned is recognized (2 mos. x $12 per
unit x 500 units).
(d) Sale at sci-fi 11,000
convention
(e) Sale of figurines $120,000 Under the accrual method included income at
on credit time of sale Note: Gross receipts for schedule C
is $218,000 [(b) + (c) + (d) + (e)]
(f) Cost of goods sold (54,000)
Gross Profit $164,000
(a) 481 adjustment 2,250 14,000 AR – 5,000 AP = 9,000; 9,000 x 25% =
cash to accrual $2,250 A positive adjustment is included over 4
method years (25% a year).
Gross Income $166,250
(e) and (a) Bad debt 2,000 Can only deduct amounts actually written off as
expense uncollectible.
(g) Travel costs 780 $350 airfare + $100 convention fee + $210
lodging + $65 cab fare + $55 meals [1/2 of
$110]
(h) Insurance 3,600 This prepayment qualifies under the 12-month
expense rule and it is a payment liability so it meets the
economic performance test when it pays to the
insurance company in August.
(i) Depreciation 8,200
(j) Rent expense 13,200 Economic performance for rent expense occurs
over the rental period. Because no expenditure
is accrued, the 12 month rule is inapplicable.
Rex may only deduct rent for 11 months it was
renting the property (11 mos. x $1,200).
(k) Amortization— 1,667 30,000 – 5,000 expensed immediately = 25,000;
start-up costs 25,000 / 180 mos. = 138.89;138.89 x 12 mos. =
$1,667
(l) Advertising 250 $5,000 is not deductible because the liability is
not fixed. Economic performance for the $3,000
occurs as AWU provides services. Thus, BAM
may only deduct the portion of this expense that
relates to December (3,000 x 1/12)
(m) Property taxes 2,500 Taxes are payment liabilities so economic
performance and the deduction occurs when
BAM pays the taxes.
Total Deductions 32,197
Business income $134,053 Schedule C income

84. Bryan followed in his father’s footsteps and entered into the carpet business. He
owns and operates I Do Carpet (IDC). Bryan prefers to install carpet only, but in
order to earn additional revenue, he also cleans carpets and sells carpet cleaning
supplies. Compute his taxable income for the current year considering the
following items:
a. IDC contracted with a homebuilder in December of last year to install carpet
in 10 new homes being built. The contract price of $80,000 includes $50,000
for materials (carpet). The remaining $30,000 is for IDC’s service of
installing the carpet. The contract also stated that all money was to be paid
up front. The homebuilder paid IDC in full on December 28 of last year.
The contract required IDC to complete the work by January 31 of this year.
Bryan purchased the necessary carpet on January 2 and began working on the
first home January 4. He completed the last home on January 27 of this year.
b. IDC entered into several other contracts this year and completed the work
before year-end. The work cost $130,000 in materials. Bryan billed out
$240,000 but only collected $220,000 by year-end. Of the $20,000 still owed
to him, Bryan wrote off $3,000 he didn’t expect to collect as a bad debt from
a customer experiencing extreme financial difficulties.
c. IDC entered into a three-year contract to clean the carpets of an office
building. The contract specified that IDC would clean the carpets monthly
from July 1 of this year through June 30 three years hence. IDC received
payment in full of $8,640 ($240 a month for 36 months) on June 30 of this
year.
d. IDC sold 100 bottles of carpet stain remover this year for $5 per bottle (it
collected $500). IDC sold 40 bottles on June 1 and 60 bottles on November
2. IDC had the following carpet cleaning supplies on hand for this year and it
uses the LIFO method of accounting for inventory under a perpetual
inventory system:

Purchase Date Bottles Total Cost

November last year 40 $120
February this year 35 $112
July this year 25 $85
August this year 40 $140
Totals 140 $457

e. On August 1 of this year, IDC needed more room for storage and paid $900
to rent a garage for 12 months.
f. On November 30 of this year, Bryan decided it was time to get his logo on
the sides of his work van. IDC hired We Paint Anything, Inc. (WPA), to do
the job. It paid $500 down and agreed to pay the remaining $1,500 upon
 completion of the job. WPA indicated it wouldn’t be able to begin the job
until January 15 of next year, but the job would only take one week to
complete. Due to circumstances beyond its control, WPA wasn’t able to
complete the job until April 1of next year, at which time IDC paid the
remaining $1,500.
g. In December, Bryan’s son, Aiden, helped him finish some carpeting jobs.
IDC owed Aiden $600 (reasonable) compensation for his work. However,
Aiden did not receive the payment until January of next year.
h. IDC also paid $1,000 for interest on a short-term bank loan relating to the
period from November 1 of this year through March 31 of next year.
Bryan’s taxable income is $47,003 under the cash method of accounting and
$137,330 under the accrual method of accounting computed as follows:

Description Cash Accrual Explanation

a. Prepaid carpeting $0 $80,000 The $80,000 was received in the
services prior year and would have been
included in gross income when it
was received.
b. Carpeting services 220,000 240,000 Income not recognized until
received for cash method.
c. Cleaning services 8,640 1,440 For accrual, only amount earned is
recognized (6 mos. x $240).
Sale of Inventory:
d. Stain remover sales 500 500
Gross Income $229,140 $321,940
a. Carpet supplies 50,000 50,000 Economic performance under the
accrual method requires that IDC
provide the goods (carpet) to the
homebuilder in order to deduct the
cost. The home was finished in the
current year.
b. materials needed 130,000 130,000
for contracts
d. Stain remover 337 335 Cash method may deduct cost in
year paid. Accrual method: $127
for first sale (35 bottles from
February + 5 bottles from
November last year) and $208 from
second sale (40 bottles from August
+ 20 bottles from July).
Cost of 180,337 180,335
Goods/Services
Gross Profit $48,803 $141,605

b. Bad debt 0 3,000 Cash method not deductible

because bad debt was never
 included in income.
e. Prepaid rent $900 $375 For accrual, economic
performance occurs over lease
period (5 months this year). 12-
month rule applies for cash method.
f. Prepaid paint job 500 500 Because IDC expects completion
within 3½ months of payment, they
may deduct amount paid this year
under the accrual method.
g. Compensation to 0 0 Not deductible until paid to the
Aiden related cash-method recipient
(Aiden)
h. Prepaid interest 400 400 Not deductible until interest
accrues (2 months this year).
Total Deductions 1,800 4,275
Taxable Income $47,003 $137,330

85. Hank started a new business in June of last year, Hank’s Donut World (HW for
short). He has requested your advice on the following specific tax matters
associated with HW’s first year of operations. Hank has estimated HW’s income
for the first year as follows:
Revenue:
Donut sales $ 252,000
Catering revenues 71,550 $ 323,550
Expenditures:
Donut supplies $ 124,240
Catering expense 27,910
Salaries to shop employees 52,500
Rent expense 40,050
Accident insurance premiums 8,400
Other business expenditures 6,850 - 259,950
Net Income $ 63,600

HW operates as a sole proprietorship and Hank reports on a calendar-year. Hank

uses the cash method of accounting and plans to do the same with HW (HW has no
inventory of donuts because unsold donuts are not salable). HW does not purchase
donut supplies on credit nor do they generally make sales on credit. Hank has
provided the following details for specific first-year transactions.

 A small minority of HW clients complained about the catering service. To

mitigate these complaints, Hank’s policy is to refund dissatisfied clients 50
percent of the catering fee. By the end of the first year, only two HW clients
had complained but had not yet been paid refunds. The expected refunds
amount to $1,700, and Hank reduced the reported catering fees for the first
year to reflect the expected refund.
 In the first year, HW received a $6,750 payment from a client for catering a
monthly breakfast for 30 consecutive months beginning in December.
Because the payment didn’t relate to last year Hank excluded the entire
amount when he calculated catering revenues.
 In July, HW paid $1,500 to ADMAN Co for an advertising campaign to
distribute fliers advertising HW catering service. Unfortunately, this
campaign violated a city code restricting advertising by fliers, and the city
fined HW $250 for the violation. HW paid the fine, and Hank included the
fine and the cost of the campaign in “other business” expenditures.
 In July, HW also paid $8,400 for a 24-month insurance policy that covers
HW for accidents and casualties beginning on August 1 of the first year.
Hank deducted the entire $8,400 as accident insurance premiums.
 On May of the first year, Hank signed a contract to lease the HW donut shop
for 10 months. In conjunction with the contract, Hank paid $2,000 as a
damage deposit and $8,050 for rent ($805 per month). Hank explained that
the damage deposit was refundable at the end of the lease. At this time Hank
also paid $30,000 to lease kitchen equipment for 24 months ($1,250 per
month). Both leases began on June 1 of the first year. In his estimate, Hank
deducted these amounts ($40,050 in total) as rent expense.
 Hank signed a contract hiring WEGO Catering to help cater breakfasts. At
year-end, WEGO asked Hank to hold the last catering payment for the year,
$9,250, until after January 1 (apparently because WEGO didn’t want to
report the income on its tax return). The last check was delivered to WEGO
in January after the end of the first year. However, because the payment
related to the first year of operations, Hank included the $9,250 in last year’s
catering expense.
 Hank believes that the key to the success of HW has been hiring Jimbo Jones
to supervise the donut production and manage the shop. Because Jimbo is
such an important employee, HW purchased a “key-employee” term-life
insurance policy on his life. HW paid a $5,100 premium for this policy and it
will pay HW a $40,000 death benefit if Jimbo passes away any time during
the next 12 months. The term of the policy began on September 1 of last year
and this payment was included in “other business” expenditures.
 In the first year HW catered a large breakfast event to celebrate the city’s
anniversary. The city agreed to pay $7,100 for the event, but Hank forgot to
notify the city of the outstanding bill until January of this year. When he
mailed the bill in January, Hank decided to discount the charge to $5,500.
On the bill, Hank thanked the mayor and the city council for their patronage
and asked them to “send a little more business our way.” This bill is not
reflected in Hank’s estimate of HW’s income for the first year of operations.
Required:
A. Hank files his personal tax return on a calendar year, but he has not yet filed
last year’s personal tax return nor has he filed a tax return reporting HW’s
results for the first year of operations. Explain when Hank should file the
tax return for HW and calculate the amount of taxable income generated by
HW last year.

B. Determine the taxable income that HW will generate if Hank chooses to

account for the business under the accrual method.

C. Describe how your solution might change if Hank incorporated HW before

he commenced business last year.
A. Hank should report HW’s results on a Schedule C filed with his personal
tax return which is due by the 15th day of April. HW’s taxable income is
$116,550 calculated as follows:

Revenue: Balance Adjust Correct

Donut sales 252,000 252,000
Catering revenues 71,550 1,700 80,000
6,750
Total Revenue 323,550 332,000
Expenditures:
Donut supplies 124,240 124,240
Catering expense 27,910 -9,250 18,660
Salaries to shop employees 52,500 52,500
Rent expense 40,050 -2,000 16,800
-21,250

Accident insurance premiums 8,400 -6,650 1,750

Other business expenditures 6,850 -250 1,500
-5,100

Total Expenses 259,950 215,450

Net Income 63,600 52,950 116,550

Adjustments under the cash method

refunds cannot be deducted from revenue until 1,700
paid
prepaid income is recognized in the period 6,750
received
a fine is nondeductible 250
only 5 months are deductible 8,400-(8,400 x 5/24) 6,650
deposits are not deductible 2,000
deduct 7 months of equip lease 30,000-(1,250x7) 21,250
last month cater expense unpaid at year end 9,250
key person insurance premium is not deductible 5,100
no change under the cash method
Total adjustments under cash method 52,950
Net income under cash method 116,550
 B. Taxable income for HW under the accrual method is $110,290- computed
as follows:

Revenue: Balance Adjust Correct

Donut sales 252,000 252,000
Catering revenues 71,550 1,700 80,575
225
7,100
Total Revenue 323,550 332,575
Expenditures:
Donut supplies 124,240 124,240
Catering expense 27,910 27,910
Salaries to shop employees 52,500 52,500
Rent expense 40,050 -2,000 14,385
-21,250
-2,415
Accident insurance premiums 8,400 -6,650 1,750
Other business expenditures 6,850 -250 1,500
-5,100
Total Expenses 259,950 222,285
Net Income 63,600 46,690 110,290

Adjustments under the accrual method

refunds are a payment liability so no deduction 1,700
prepaid income ($6,750/30x1) is deferred one year 225
a fine is nondeductible 250
only 5 months are deductible 8,400-(8,400x5/24) 6,650
deposits are not deductible 2,000
Deduct 7 months of shop lease 8,050-(805x7) 2,415
Deduct 7 months of equip lease 30,000-(1,250x7) 21,250
catering expense is accrued properly
key person insurance premium is not deductible 5,100
no change under the cash method 7,100
Total adjustments under cash method 46,690
Net income under cash method $110,290

C. If HW was incorporated at the time business commences, then last year’s

results would be reported on a form 1120 which is due by the 15th day of the
third month following year end. HW would have the opportunity to treat
legal fees associated with incorporation as organizational expenditures.
Otherwise, if HW was incorporated, Hank would have the option of electing
(on the first return) to use a fiscal year for reporting HW’s results. This
election would, obviously, influence the calculation of taxable income as
well as the due date of HW’s tax return.

86. {Research memo} R.E.M., a calendar-year corporation and Athens, Georgia band,
recently sold tickets ($20,000,000) for concerts scheduled in the United States for
next year and the following year. For financial statement purposes, R.E.M. will
recognize the income from the ticket sales when it performs the concerts. For tax
purposes, it uses the accrual method and would prefer to defer the income from the
ticket sales until after the concerts are performed. This is the first time that it has
sold tickets one or two years in advance. Michael Stipe has asked your advice.
Write a memo to Michael explaining your findings.
MEMO
Key Facts:
R.E.M., a calendar year corporation and Athens, Georgia, band, recently sold
tickets ($20,000,000) for concerts scheduled in the United States for next year and
the following year. For financial statement purposes, R.E.M. will recognize the
income from the ticket sales when it performs the concerts. For tax purposes, it
uses the accrual method and would prefer to defer the income from the ticket
sales until after the concerts are performed.
This is the first time that it has sold tickets one or two years in advance. Michael
Stipe has asked your advice. Write a memo to Michael explaining your findings.
Question:
Should R.E.M. include in current income advance sales of tickets for concerts
scheduled in future years?
Relevant Authorities:
IRC Sections 451 and 446
Rev. Proc. 2004-34, 2004-1 CB 991.
Artnell Co. v. Comm. (7 Cir., 1968), 68-2 USTC par. 9593, rev’g and rem’g 48
TC 411 (1967).
Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Ltd., 84 TCM 394 (2002).
Schlude v. Comm. (S. Ct., 1963), 63-1 USTC par. 9284, aff’g, rev’g and rem’g (8
Cir., 1962), 62-1 USTC par. 9137, aff’g 32 TC 1271 (1959).
American Automobile Association v. U.S. (367 US 687), 61-2 USTC par. 9517,
aff’g (Ct. Cl., 1960), 60-1 USTC par. 9301.
Auto. Club of Michigan v. Comm. (353 US 180), 57-1 USTC par. 9593, aff’g (6
Cir., 1956), 56-1 USTC par. 9296, aff’g 20 TC 1033 (1953).
Conclusion:
There is ample authority to support R.E.M.’s deferred recognition of the ticket
sales income until the amounts are earned (i.e., until the concerts are performed).
Thus, the ticket sale income for the concerts will be recognized in the year of the
performance.
Synopsis: The general rule for prepaid service income is to recognize it in the
year of receipt. However, Rev. Proc. 2004-34 allows a one-year deferral for
prepaid services. Nonetheless, there is judicial authority (Artnell Co. and Tampa
Bay Devil Rays, Ltd.) that indicates that deferring the income until actual
performance more clearly reflects income in this particular setting. The key fact
here is that the taxpayer knows exactly when the performance will take place. If,
for example, the prepaid services were for "services on demand" like dance
lessons, consulting services, etc., the most advantageous tax treatment would be a
one-year deferral under Rev. Proc. 2004-34.